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BRI in Central Asia: Overview of Chinese Projects

Authors:
Roman Vakulchuk at Norwegian Institute of International Affairs
Roman Vakulchuk
Farkhod Aminjonov at National Defence College
Farkhod Aminjonov
  • National Defence College
Indra Overland at Norwegian Institute of International Affairs
Indra Overland
Bahtiyor Eshchanov at New Uzbekistan University
Bahtiyor Eshchanov
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Abstract and Figures

This data article summarises the analysis of 261 Chinese projects in Central Asia. The findings indicate that trade promotion and industrial development are the sectors where there is most BRI-related activity in Central Asia. The total number of projects in these areas approximates the number of projects in all other areas combined. These sectors also receive most investment. In terms of the number of implemented projects, roads is the second key sector, followed by energy. However, due to larger project sizes, energy receives more funds than roads. The majority of Chinese projects in Central Asia are bilateral.
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Central!Asia!Regional!Data!Review!20!(2019)!1–5.!
!
!
!
!
!
!
BRI!in!Central!Asia:!Overview!of!Chinese!Projects!
!
Farkhod!Aminjonov,a,b,*!Alina!Abylkasymova,b!Anna!Aimée,b!Bahtiyor!Eshchanov,b,c!Daniyar!
Moldokanov,b!Indra!Overland,b,d!Roman!Vakulchuk!b,d!
!!
a!College!of!Humanities!and!Social!Sciences,!Zayed!University!
b!Central!Asia!Data-Gathering!and!Analysis!Team!(CADGAT)!
c!Westminster!International!University!in!Tashkent!
d!Norwegian!Institute!of!International!Affairs!(NUPI)!
*!Corresponding!author:!F.!Aminjonov;!Email!address: farkhod.aminjonov@zu.ac.ae;!a_farkhod@yahoo.com!
!
!
A!B!S!T!R!A!C!T!
!
This!data!article!summarises!the!analysis!of!261!Chinese!projects!in!Central!Asia.!The!findings!indicate!that!trade!
promotion!and!industrial!development!are!the!sectors!where!there!is!most!BRI-related!activity!in!Central!Asia.!The!
total!number!of!projects!in!these!areas!approximates!the! number! of! projects! in! all! other!areas!combined.!These!
sectors!also!receive! most! investment.!In! terms! of!the! number! of! implemented!projects,! roads! is! the! second! key!
sector,! followed! by! energy.! However,! due! to! larger! project! sizes,!energy! receives!more! funds! than! roads.! The!
majority!of!Chinese!projects!in!Central!Asia!are!bilateral.!
!
Keywords:!BRI,!China,!Central!Asia,!Kazakhstan,!Kyrgyzstan,!Tajikistan,!Turkmenistan,!Uzbekistan!
!
Background+
China’s!main!strategic!document!devoted!to!BRI!is!
“Vision! and! Actions! on! Jointly! Building! the! Silk!
Road! Economic! Belt! and! the! 21st-Century!
Maritime!Silk!Road,”!published! in! March!2015.!As!
highlighted! in! that! document,! BRI! “is! aimed! at!
promoting!the! orderly! and! free! flow! of! economic!
factors,!highly!efficient!allocation!of!resources!and!
deep! integration! of! markets;! encouraging! the!
countries! along! the! Belt! and! Road! to! achieve!
economic! policy! coordination! and! carry! out!
broader!and!more!in-depth!regional!cooperation!of!
higher! standards;! and! jointly! creating! an! open,!
inclusive! and! balanced! regional! economic!
cooperation! architecture! that! benefits! all.”
1
!The!
definition! of! BRI!outlined! in! the! document!is! all-
encompassing!in!nature!and!it!can!be!applied!with!
equal!success! to! different! contexts.! Therefore,! the!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
1
For!more!detail,!see:!
http://www.beltandroadforum.org/english/n100/2017/0410/c22-
45.html!!
2
!Vakulchuk,! Roman! and! Indra! Overland! (2019)! “China’s! Belt! and!
Road!Initiative!through!the!Lens!of!Central!Asia”,!in!Fanny!M.!Cheung!
term!BRI! itself!is! broad!and! general!and! it!opens!
the! room! for! a! diversify! of! meanings! and!
interpretations.!
!
What+is+a+BRI+project?!
China! has! actively! promoted! Belt! and! Road!
Initiative! (BRI)! projects! in! Central! Asia! since!
2013.
2
!However,!there! are!no!commonly!accepted!
definitions! or! key! determinants! of! what! makes!
project!part!of!BRI.!We!regard!Chinese!projects!in!
Central! Asia! as! part! of! BRI! if! they! satisfy! the!
following!criteria:!!
!
• publicly!reported!as!a!BRI!project;!
• fully!or!partially!financed! by! the! BRI!financial!
institutions:! Asian! Infrastructure! Investment!
Bank!(AIIB),!China!Development!Bank,!Export–
Import!Bank!of!China!or!New!Silk!Road!Fund;!!
and!Ying-yi! Hong!(eds)!Regional! Connection!under!the! Belt!and! Road!
Initiative.! The! Prospects! for! Economic! and! Financial! Cooperation.
London:!Routledge,!pp.!115–133.!Available!at:!!
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329310641!
Central!Asia!Data-Gathering!and!Analysis!Team!
CADGAT
Central!Asia!Regional!Data!Review!19!(2019)!1–5.!
!
2!
!
• launched!after!the!first!announcement!of!BRI!in!
2013;!!
• implemented!and!financed!in!either!a!bilateral!
format!(between!China!and!one!of!the!Central!
Asian!states)! or!a! multilateral! format! (among!
three!or!more!parties).!!
In!this!and!other!data!articles!on!BRI!(see!CADGAT!
data!articles!no.!21-27),!Chinese!projects!that!meet!
all!or!some!of!these!criteria!are!considered!part!of!
BRI.! Other!projects!are! simply! Chinese! bilateral!
projects! implemented! in! Central! Asian! countries;!
they!are!also! presented!in! this!article.!This!article!
provides! a! detailed! description! of! projects! that!
have! been!implemented,! have! been! cancelled,!or!
are!still!in!the!planning!stage.!
Data!on!the!261!projects!were!gathered!by!
one! researcher! from! each! Central! Asian! country!
and! were! drawn!from! official!statistics,! local! and!
international! media!news,! government!press!
releases,! interviews!and! reports.! Data! collection!
was!carried!out!between!August!2018!and!January!
2019.!
! We! divide! projects! into! four! major!
categories!that! correspond! to!the! four! BRI!
priorities:!(a)!rail!and!road!connectivity,!(b)!energy!
connectivity,! (c)! trade! promotion! and! industrial!
development!and!(d)!people-to-people!projects.!In!
addition,!we!have!divided!the!trade!promotion!and!
industrial! development! category! into! four! sub-
categories:!(a)!mineral!and!petroleum!exploration,!
development! and! processing! (b)! industry,! (c)!
finance! and! IT,! and! (d)! agriculture! and! food.!
Because! trade! promotion! and! industrial!
development!are!one!of!the!four!official!categories!
of!BRI! projects,! we!present! numbers!for! both! the!
main!category!!and!its!sub-categories.!
This!publication! is!part! of!a! series!of! data!
articles! on! Chinese! projects! in! Central! Asia!(see!
CADGAT! data! articles! no.! 21-27).! It!summarises!
some! key! numbers! across! sectors,! whereas! the!
other!articles! in! the! series!contain! more! detailed!
overviews!of!BRI!projects!in!specific!sectors.!All!the!
data! are! also! available! in! a! unified! database! in!
Excel!format!at:!!
http://osce-academy.net/en/research/cadgat/!
!
Definitions+
Financing+–!Sources!of!funding!for!each!project!are!
identified!and!presented.!
Commercial! interests! –! A! project! is! classified! as!
“commercial”,!if!the!parties!promoting!it!primarily!
pursue!commercial!goals.!
Strategic! interests!–!A! project! is! classified! as!
“strategic”,!if!it! fits! one!of!the! broader! categories,!
particularly!strengthening!connectivity.!
Connection! to! BRI! –! If! a! project! is! announced!
publicly!as!part!of!BRI,!then!it!is!classified!as!a!“BRI!
project”.!
Local! project!–!A! project! is! classified! as! “local”,! if!
the! infrastructure! or! facility! constructed! and!
services!provided,!are!limited!to!a!specific!country.!
Regional! project! –! A! project! is! classified! as!
“regional”,! if! it! is! part! of! the! bigger! regional!
initiative,!which!includes!more!than!one!country.!
Bilateral+–!A!project!is!classified!as!“bilateral”,!if!an!
agreement!for!project!implementation!is!signed!by!
the!Chinese!government!or!a!Chinese!company,!as!
one! party,!and! one! of! the! Central! Asian!
governments!or!companies!as!the!other.!
Multilateral+–! A! project! is! classified! as!
“multilateral”,! if! an! agreement! for! project!
implementation!is!signed!by!three!or!more!parties,!
including! the! Chinese! or! Central! Asian!
governments,! multilateral! financial! institutions!
(AIIB,! China! Development! Bank,! Export–Import!
Bank!of!China!or!New!Silk!Road!Fund)!and!private!
enterprises.!
!
!
Central!Asia!Regional!Data!Review!20!(2019)!1–5.!
! !
3!
!
Table!1.!Number!of!China’s!BRI!and!bilateral!projects!in!Central!Asia!
!
Sectors!
Total+
number++
by+sector+
Kazakhstan+
Tajikistan+
Uzbekistan+
Turkmenistan+
Total+by+country+
261+
102!
44!
43!
26!
Trade!and!industrial!
development!
131+
61!
17!
24!
12!
Rail!and!road!connectivity!
51+
14!
16!
5!
5!
Energy!connectivity!
48+
20!
7!
12!
4!
People-to-people!projects!
31+
7!
4!
2!
5!
!
+
+
+
+
+
!
!
!
!
Table!2.!Breakdown!of!China’s!BRI!and!bilateral!trade!and!industrial!development!projects!
!
Sectors!
Total+
number++
by+sector+
Kazakhstan+
Tajikistan+
Kyrgyzstan+
!
Trade!and!industrial!
development!
131+
61!
17!
17!
Mineral!and!petroleum!exploration,!
extraction!and!processing!projects!
47+
23!
3!
9!
Industry!
44+
17!
6!
3!
Agriculture!and!food!
26+
17!
6!
2!
Finance!and!IT!
14+
4!
2!
3!
!
!
!
!
!
Table!3.!Total!investment!of!Chinese!projects!in!Central!Asia!(USD!mln)!
+
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
3
!Here!and!throughout:!“NA”!means!“no!information!has!been!found/is!available”.!
+
Total!
by!country+
Rail+and+
road+
connectivity+
Energy+
connecti
vity+
Industry++
Agricultu
re+and+
food+
Mineral+and+
petroleum+
exploration+
and+
processing+
Finance+
and+IT+
People-to-
people+
projects+
Total+by+sector+
136+251.06+
23+499.74!
35+693.8!
12+299.55!
1+451.88!
55+159.65!
8+100!
46.44!
Kazakhstan!
90!862.43!
14!539.3!
18!849.5!
10!545.5!
1!049.63!
37!778.5!
8!100!
NA!
Turkmenistan!
24!842.5!
1!402.5!
9!410!
NA!
NA!
14!03!
NA!
NA!
Tajikistan!
10!518.7!
4!515.9!
4!516!
679,8!
342!
465!
NA!
NA!
Kyrgyzstan!
5!391.68!
1!773.04!
2!713!
150.8!
31.55!
676.85!
NA!
46.44!
Uzbekistan!
4!635.75!
1!269!
205.3!
923.45!
28.7!
2!209.3!
NA!
NA!
!
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Central!Asia!Regional!Data!Review!20!(2019)!1–5.!
! !
4!
!
!
Table!4.!Number!of!bilateral!vs.!multilateral!Chinese!projects!in!Central!Asia!
!
!
!
Table!5.!Number!of!commercial!vs.!strategic!Chinese!projects!in!Central!Asia!
!
+
Total!by!country!
Road+
infrastructure+
Energy+connectivity+
Trade+and+industrial+
development+
People-to-people+
projects+
!
Commerc.!
Strateg.!
Commerc.!
Strateg.!
Commerc.!
Strateg.!
Commerc.!
Strateg.!
Commerc.!
Strateg.!
Total+by+sector+
135+
126+
6+
45+
25+
23+
102+
28+
2+
29+
Kazakhstan!
70!
32!
3!
11!
10!
10!
57!
4!
0!
7!
Kyrgyzstan!
12!
34!
0!
11!
1!
4!
9!
8!
2!
11!
Tajikistan!
22!
22!
2!
14!
4!
3!
16!
1!
0!
4!
Uzbekistan!
28!
15!
0!
5!
10!
2!
18!
6!
0!
2!
Turkmenistan!
3!
23!
1!
4!
0!
4!
2!
10!
0!
5!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Table!6.!Number!of!local!vs.!regional!Chinese!projects!in!Central!Asia!
!
+
Total!by!country!
Road+infrastructure+
Energy+connectivity+
Trade+and+industrial+
development+
People-to-people+
projects+
!
Local!
Regional!
Local!
Regional!
Local!
Regional!
Local!
Regional!
Local!
Regional!
Total+by+sector+
209+
52+
27+
24+
37+
11+
123+
7+
21+
10+
Kazakhstan!
96!
6!
13!
1!
16!
4!
60!
1!
7!
0!
Kyrgyzstan!
29!
17!
5!
6!
4!
1!
13!
4!
7!
6!
Tajikistan!
28!
16!
4!
12!
6!
1!
16!
1!
2!
2!
Uzbekistan!
39!
4!
3!
2!
11!
1!
23!
1!
2!
0!
Turkmenistan!
17!
9!
2!
3!
0!
4!
12!
0!
3!
2!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
+
Total!by!country!
Road+
infrastructu
re+
Energy+
connectivity+
Trade+and+
industrial+
development+
People-to-people+
projects+
!
Bilateral!
Multil.!
Bilateral!
Multil.!
Bilateral!
Multil.!
Bilateral!!
Multil.!
Bilateral!
Multil.!
Total+by+sector+
237+
24+
33!
18!
46!
2!
127!
3!
30!
1!
Kazakhstan!
100!
2!
13!
1!
20!
0!
60!
1!
7!
0!
Kyrgyzstan!
41!
5!
8!
3!
5!
0!
16!
1!
12!
1!
Tajikistan!
35!
9!
8!
8!
6!
1!
17!
0!
4!
0!
Uzbekistan!
38!
5!
2!
3!
11!
1!
23!
1!
2!
0!
Turkmenistan!
23!
3!
2!
3!
4!
0!
12!
0!
5!
0!
!
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Central!Asia!Regional!Data!Review!20!(2019)!1–5.!
! !
5!
!
!
+
About+CADGAT+and+Central+Asia+Regional+Data+Review+
+
The!Norwegian!Institute!of!International!Affairs!(NUPI)!and!the!OSCE!Academy!established!the!Central!Asia!Data-
Gathering!and!Analysis!Team!(CADGAT)!in!2009.!The!purpose!of!CADGAT!is!to!produce!new!cross-regional!data!on!
Central!Asia!that!can!be!used!free!of!charge!by!researchers,!journalists,!NGOs,!government!employees,!and!students,!
both!inside!and!outside!the!region.!The!data!articles!can!be!found!at!http://osce-academy.net/en/research/cadgat/!
!
The!following!CADGAT!data!articles!have!been!published:!
!
1.!Hydroelectric!dams!and!conflict!in!Central!Asia!
2.!The!narcotics!trade!and!related!issues!in!Central!Asia!
3.!Language!use!and!language!policy!in!Central!Asia!
4.!The!transportation!sector!in!Central!Asia!
5.!Road!transportation!in!Central!Asia!
6.!Gender!and!politics!in!Central!Asia!
7.!Political!relations!in!Central!Asia!
8.!Trade!policies!and!major!export!items!in!Central!Asia!
9.!Intra-regional!trade!in!Central!Asia!
10.!Trade!barriers!and!tariffs!in!Central!Asia!
11.!Holidays!in!Central!Asia.!Part!I:!Laws!and!official!holidays!
12.!Holidays!in!Central!Asia.!Part!II:!Professional!and!working!holidays!
13.!Media!in!Central!Asia:!Print!Media!
14.!Media!in!Central!Asia:!TV!
15.!Media!in!Central!Asia:!Radio!
16.!Renewable!energy!policies!of!the!Central!Asian!countries!
17.!Wind!power!potential!of!the!Central!Asian!countries!
18.!Solar!power!potential!of!the!Central!Asian!countries!
19.!Hydropower!potential!of!the!Central!Asian!countries!
20.!BRI!in!Central!Asia:!Overview!of!Chinese!projects!
!
!
CADGAT! has! also! produced! a! database! on! Elites! in! Central! Asia,! which! can! be! found! at! http://osce-
academy.net/_dbelite/!
!
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©!2019!by!the!authors.!This!is!an!open!access!publication!under!the!terms!
and! conditions! of! the! Creative! Commons! Attribution! (CC! BY)! license!
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).!The!material!can!be! used!
freely,!as!long!as!a!reference!to!this!article!is!included.!

Supplementary resources (2)

2019 - Unified database - BRI in Central Asia
Data
January 2019
Farkhod Aminjonov · Alina Abylkasymova · Anne Aime · Bahtiyor Eshchanov · Roman Vakulchuk
BRI in Central Asia: Unified Database for CADGAT Data Articles No 20-27
Data
June 2019
Roman Vakulchuk · Farkhod Aminjonov · Indra Overland · Alina Abylkasymova · Bahtiyor Eshchanov
... These funds have broadened investment and financing opportunities for participating nations. Aminjonov et al., (2019) mentioned that the financing mechanisms for Chinese projects in Central Asia include funding from various sources such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), Chinese Development Bank, Export-Import Bank of China, and the New Silk Road Fund. These financial institutions play a significant role in providing the necessary funding for implementing BRI projects in the region. ...
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... It was joined by the representatives of more than 130 states and 70 international organizations. The forum revealed that the initiative will work on five regions of development i.e., policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity (Vakulchuk et al., 2019). ...
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Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
Following the historical events of 1980s and 1990s, the former fifteen Soviet republics have embarked on the process of transition from a centrally planned economy to a capitalist one. An important part of this process entailed considerable liberalization and decentralization of external economic activities, which were now conducted not by the state, but rather by a growing number of private agents and firms. The newly created independent states have, at various degrees, undertaken numerous reforms aimed at the privatization of international commerce and further development of economic (re-)integration with their neighbours. Due to administrative and policy considerations, the newly established governments have begun regular collection and publishing of data related to capital movements, equity ownership, and cross-border trade. As a result, the economic literature has seen an expanding body of predominantly empirical research devoted to the study of foreign direct investment (FDI) and trade in the context of newly established markets. Because the former Soviet economies have been capital-deprived in comparison to their neighbours in Western Europe and across the Atlantic. The existing body of work that studies the investment activity of multinational firms (MNEs) in the aforementioned economies has focused on issues related to regional allocation, technological spillovers, market entry barriers, and more recently - profit shifting. The featured research in this thesis pays significant attention to macroeconomic determinants of incoming foreign equity (e.g. integration treaties, sanctions, human capital levels). On the other hand, the newly formed states were challenged with the re-establishment of trade relations between each other. Hence, the featured analysis of trade data in this thesis (both ex-ante and ex-post) explores the ongoing restoration of economic links between some of the former republics. The scrutiny of which, with the exception of very few studies, has remained largely untouched throughout the last decade. The principal goal of this thesis is directly related to the study of causal relationships between various macroeconomic variables (factor endowments, integration treaties, sanctions, external barriers to market entry, etc.) vis-a-vis the investment activity of MNEs and international trade. Related objectives include a detailed study of factor endowments, identification of FDI motives, analysis of trade patterns, review of economic policies, and quantification of political background. The findings of this thesis are severalfold. First, we find widespread empirical evidence that supports the existence of an efficiency-seeking (or vertical) motive for inward FDI across the Baltics and Ukraine; and a mixed (horizontal and vertical) motive for inward FDI in Russia. The vertical motive is driven by the existing cost differences in either skilled labor or physical capital. Because of the ongoing round-tripping and profit shifting with destinations such as Cyprus, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands some of our findings argue that differences in physical capital levels are a more reliable indicator when it comes to the identification of aggregate vertical FDI activity. Related findings include the observation of “tariff-jumping” FDI in the Baltics, the absence of political stability effects in Ukrainian data, the importance of market size and economic links in Russia, taxation policies, and the negative impact of 2014 sanctions. Further, the presented ex-post analysis of the bilateral trade data from Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan highlights the importance of intra-industry trade in low-processing sectors such as agri-food, mineral products, and metals between the Eurasian Economic Union members. We find that the recently signed (2010 – 2017) preferential trade agreements have been primarily beneficial for imports, where the treaty with Vietnam had the most significant and persistent economic effect. Further, the featured ex-ante analysis of trade data from Tajikistan and Uzbekistan indicates the existence of considerable gains if the aforementioned economies ascend to the Eurasian Economic Union in comparison to integration with China or Iran. Besides, we also document the presence of shared trade links between Tajikistan, Turkey, and the rest of Central Asia.
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Participation of Central Asian countries in China's Belt and Road Initiative: the leading role of the Republic of Kazakhstan
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2024
China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has changed the global economic and geopolitical landscape, drawing attention to the strategic importance of Central Asia and its resources. The authors of the article set out to comparatively analyse the participation of Central Asian countries in the BRI in order to identify Kazakhstan's leading position. By assessing geographical, economic, investment performance and transit potential, this study highlights the important role of Kazakhstan in the successful implementation of the BRI in the region. The theoretical framework of the study is a set of different Chinese approaches, including China's peripheral diplomacy, the theory of large and small states, the Community of Common Destiny, and the "March to the West". The article also draws on Western theories like realism, neoliberalism and interdependence. Methodologically, the authors use comparative analysis complemented by quantitative methods to assess the extent of each country's participation in the BRI. The authors use comparative analysis complemented by quantitative methods. Historical and logical methods are applied to create a comprehensive perspective of the issue.The article provides insight into the participation of Central Asian countries in the Belt and Road Initiative. It may be of interest to Kazakhstan's foreign policy structures, researchers, and the general public who are interested in the implementation of the Belt and Road Initiative in Central Asia.
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China's Belt and Road Initiative: An Analysis
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2023
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a signature foreign policy initiative by China’s President Xi Jinping, is the largest global infrastructure undertaking, surpassing the Marshall Plan. Chinese banks and companies have invested billions in funding and building infrastructure in numerous countries. Two significant initiatives are related to and referred to the BRI. One is the Silk Road Economic Belt (SREB) and the 21st-century Maritime Silk Road (MSR). However, with the commencement, the initiative has attracted enormous global attention. Background information about SREB and the MSR and its implementation have been discussed in this article. This article highlights China’s strategic considerations for the BRI and its significance to the country. This article additionally concentrates on the progress of BRI and how the West and China’s neighbours view it and offers insight into the recently unfolding criticisms. Keywords Belt and Road Initiative, Silk Road Economic Belt, Maritime Silk Road, Xi Jinping
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China, Ethiopia and the Significance of the Belt and Road Initiative
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2023
The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) mobilizes Chinese construction and investment in developing countries. Ethiopia is Africa's “model” BRI country, due to China's elaborate infrastructure financing and building and its many manufacturing enterprises. Based on field and documentary research, we examine the BRI's meaning, as understood from the perspective of Ethiopia, in comparison to many China-oriented studies. We find that it is an informal Chinese state promise that even when capital flows from China to non-BRI states are curbed, flows to BRI states will be encouraged, and that Ethiopia exercises agency in leveraging the BRI for its development agenda. Using a comprehensive data set, we show that Chinese investment has become even more important in Ethiopia with the BRI and that neither COVID-19 nor Ethiopia's civil war has reversed that trend. We also discuss local criticisms of Chinese activities, which challenge the wholly positive view of the BRI, but do not affirm the US-generated negative narrative.
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Cybersecurity as the Invisible Sovereign Space: An Analysis of the Cybersecurity Challenges Taiwan Faces and Taiwan’s Policy Responses
Research
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  • Aug 2022
This paper explores the research questions “What types of cyber-attacks do Taiwan face the most?” and “What reforms did Taiwan take to counter these cyber-security attacks?” This paper argues that the top three attacks are denial-of-service attacks (DDoS), SQL injections, and phishing. The scope of these three attacks exceeds beyond attacking governments, as these attacks happened across political parties, telecommunication firms, television broadcasts, postal offices, small and medium enterprises, e-commerce, and plain website surfing. In terms of policy responses, this paper introduces two main reforms Taiwan made to counter the aforementioned cyber-security attacks. The first reform is the integration of the Republic of China (ROC) Ministry of Defense (MND) Army, Navy, and Air Force’s three Information and Electronic Force Commands (IEFCOMs) into one Information, Communications, and Electronic Force Command (ICEFCOM). This integration is important because Taiwan’s command, control, communication, computer, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR) capacity was scattered across the three military services, including having independent headquarters, different telecommunications, and strategy development rooms, and distinct military culture. The second reform is the Taiwan Computer Emergency Response Team / Coordination Center (TWCERT/CC). The TWCERT/CC is important for two reasons. First, it offers a phishing reporting website for Taiwanese enterprises and the public to report. Second, the TWCERT/CC establishes channels among Taiwanese civilians, the Taiwanese private sector, the Taiwanese government, foreign cyber-security organizations, and foreign countries’ Computer Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) for real-time emergency response purposes.
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Opportunities and co-benefits of transitioning to a net-zero economy in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan
Technical Report
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  • Dec 2022
This report explores the opportunities and co-benefits of transitioning to a net-zero economy in the three countries, with a specific focus on the energy sector and non-conventional renewable energy sources, particularly solar, small hydropower and wind power. The report builds on available studies, evidence and secondary data on the energy sector, including renewables. The study has benefited from several rounds of consultations with international and national experts and government officials in the respective countries.
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Belt and Road Initiative’s Economic Impact on Central Asia. The Cases of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
This chapter analyzes the cooperation of China with two Central Asian countries—Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan—within the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), its positive and negative impacts on the economies of the two countries. The chapter discusses the projects implemented within the economic spheres of the BRI including FDI and infrastructure projects. The chapter questions what role the BRI plays for the countries of Central Asia in the globalization process. Specifically, it questions what infrastructure projects have been implemented between the two countries and their economic impacts on the Kyrgyz Republic and the Republic of Kazakhstan.KeywordsBRIChinaCentral AsiaKazakhstanKyrgyzstaneconomics
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