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Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
1
The impact of representation media on customer engagement in tourism marketing
among Millennials
--- Author’s Manuscript, d.d. 15 November 2018 ---
Abstract
Purpose: As online travel marketing is evermore gaining importance, in particular regarding
the pre-purchase presentation of travel destinations, it is imperative to examine how various
media can engage consumers. The aim of this study is to identify how three prominent
virtual representation media in tourism marketing differ regarding their potential in
engaging customers. In particular, we examine whether they differ in the levels of
interactivity, vividness and telepresence they elicit; and the impact of these dimensions on
flow, enjoyment and online purchase intentions. We hereby focus specifically on
Millennials, which represent an important target market for the travel industry and are hard
to reach via traditional media.
Methodology: This study presents a between-subjects experimental design comparing three
virtual representation media portraying New York City, namely photographs, 360° video
and Virtual Reality. The findings are analysed with ANCOVA analysis and PLS path
modelling.
Findings: The findings reveal that various media indeed generate different levels of customer
engagement. In particular, VR scores highest on all dimensions, with interactivity having
the largest effect on consumers’ perception of telepresence. Such higher levels of
telepresence in turn positively affect purchase intentions via mediation through flow and
enjoyment.
Research limitations: Future research should examine whether these findings are impacted by
moderators, like consumer characteristics (e.g., socio-demographics, personality traits) and
destination types.
Practical implications: This study provides guidelines for tourism providers seeking to
promote their sites in innovative and effective ways, in the anticipatory stage of the
customer journey.
Originality/value: This study identifies interactivity as the most important driver for
consumers’ perception of telepresence in the context of pre-travel tourism information.
Moreover, the findings also reveal the mechanisms behind enhanced customer engagement
via various media.
Keywords: Virtual Reality (VR), Customer Engagement (CE), telepresence, flow, enjoyment,
online travel purchase
Article classification: research paper
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
2
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
3
1. Introduction
The tourism sector is one where the experience is truly important (Williams, 2006). Due to this
experiential nature, consumers not only wish to gather information on the physical destination
characteristics and inspiration for their next travels, but they wish to get a preview of the look
and feel of the destination (Cho et al., 2002) and as such engage more strongly with a particular
destination. The inability to discover the ‘experience attributes’ (Nelson, 1970) of travel due to
the intangibility of tourism as a service makes evaluation of a destination before consumption
without an actual visit rather difficult (Gartner, 1994; Ye et al., 2011). Moreover, it is important
to generate strong customer engagement (i.e., the psychological state of the consumer as a result
of interacting with a service; Brodie et al., 2011), as customer engagement (CE) is key to
creating a good customer experience. Consequently, consumers may experience uncertainties
regarding their travel purchase decisions and seek as much information as possible about the
destination to reduce their perceived risk (Cho et al., 2002).
Before online travel shopping became available, consumers resorted to travel agencies,
brochures or travel suppliers that were contacted by phone or fax (Amaro and Duarte, 2015),
but nowadays, consumers primarily resort to the internet for travel information (Guttentag,
2010). The internet provides consumers with written and visual information, such as pictures
and at times even a 360° picture. However, given the development of technology, for instance,
Augmented and Virtual Reality, there is a call for the provision and examination of technologies
that can add value for consumers by offering more dynamic, interactive and entertaining
interfaces (Garcia-Crespo et al., 2009; Kounavis et al., 2012) that are moreover more suited to
aid consumers in the organization of their holidays by supplying them with vivid information
(Pantano and Servidio, 2011) and enhancing their level of engagement (Wei et al., 2013).
Recent studies have, for instance, described possible applications of Augmented Reality (AR)
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
4
for the tourism sector (e.g., personalised content and the adding of layers to reality by providing
images or information to historical artefacts or buildings; Kounavis et al., 2012), Huang et al.
(2016) studied the technology acceptance of a virtual worlds (VW) representation of a travel
destination and Yeh et al. (2017) examined emotional consumer responses as a result of a
photographic versus a three-dimensional destination representation. While such VR-related
representations (i.e., AR, VW, 3D photographic media) can be classified as virtual
environments, the full potential of the newest generation Virtual Reality representations in a
strict sense is still to be uncovered.
Various scholars have acknowledged the potential and power of VR particularly as a marketing
tool (Van Kerrebroeck et al., 2017; Guttentag, 2010; Pantano and Servidio, 2012). VR can offer
more compelling experiences of tourism destinations, and has the potential to elicit perceptions
of telepresence. The feeling of ‘being there’ (Steuer, 1992) can allow consumers to ‘try before
they buy’. Previous research has found that particularly vividness and interactivity of the
representation medium are essential drivers in creating such compelling experiences for
consumers. Depending on the medium, levels of vividness and interactivity can differ (Klein,
2003).
Virtual Reality (VR) technology also offers considerable advantages for the travel sector, as it
allows consumers to experience and engage with the destination (Hyun and O’Keefe, 2012),
thus influencing the destination image in tourists’ minds and captivating their interest (Pantano
and Servidio, 2011). Some travel agencies and hotels have embraced Virtual Reality as a
potential path to provide innovative experiences to consumers. For instance, Marriott
International, Thomas Cook and Neckermann are using Virtual Reality to showcase
destinations and hotels by allowing consumers to virtually visit them, thus decreasing the level
of uncertainty regarding booking decisions (Jung et al., 2016; Mandelbaum, 2015). The present
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
5
study focuses on the role of destination representation media in creating an engaging experience
and persuading consumers to book a trip online. The focus will in particular be on Millennials
as they travel a lot and represent an important target market for the travel sector which is hard
to be reached via traditional media (Li et al., 2013). Moreover, these ‘travellers of the future’
tend to be most ‘online’ and least technology-averse, and as such most prone to use technologies
like VR.
This paper is structured as follows: first, we provide information on the concept of Virtual
Reality and particularly distinguish between various types of virtual environments that are used
in tourism marketing. Next, we describe the relevance of Virtual Reality for travel specifically,
and further detail our research objectives and hypotheses. Our method is described, and our
results are presented, followed by a discussion, limitations of the study, suggestions for further
research and the implications of the research findings.
2. Theoretical background
2.1. Virtual Reality in travel
Virtual environments have been employed in the travel sector as they offer considerable
advantages to the customers. A virtual tour of a specific destination can offer a pre-trial
opportunity to consumers, making them more confident regarding their decision (Biocca, 1997)
as they receive information regarding the spatial, factual and experiential aspects of a potential
destination (Cho et al., 2002; Berger et al., 2007).
As such, consumers who are more informed about a destination due to a virtual visit that allows
them to explore the place in depth are more likely to have an increased desire to actually visit
it and are less likely to be unsatisfied by their vacation choice (Cheong, 1995). Consequently,
the travel industry has increasingly presented consumers with virtual scenarios where tourists
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
6
are, for instance, represented by avatars who can explore a 3D representation of the destination
through their computer-mediated interface (Pantano and Servidio, 2011). Furthermore, research
has found evidence for the beneficial effect of virtual environments in travel marketing
specifically on attitudes, brand image and purchase intentions when comparing a virtual
experience with a paper travel brochure (Wan et al., 2007), but also regarding AIDA
(awareness, interest, desire action) responses as mediated by arousal (Yeh et al., 2017). As such,
VR provides a multitude of benefits in tourism contexts, for both customers and businesses or
destinations (cf. e.g., Tussyadiah et al., 2018 for a recent overview).
With regards to the travel sector and Virtual Reality, concerns have been raised in the past, as
some claimed that the technology could replace actual tourism. However, researchers are not
in agreement regarding this issue, as Virtual Reality can indeed replace significant parts of the
experience, but to date cannot recreate the social and cultural experience one has when actually
visiting a destination (Cheong, 1995). Moreover, it was noted by Paquet and Viktor (2005, p.
1) that “Most people want to see reality and not only virtuality”. In fact, researchers believe that
Virtual Reality may even increase the demand to actually go visit a real destination and increase
tourism demand (Refsland et al., 2000).
2.2. Virtual Reality definition
Virtual Reality is a computer-based technology that enables the simulation of a real
environment where users can perceive the feeling of presence (Serrano et al., 2016). Steuer
(1992, pp. 76-77) defines Virtual Reality as “a simulated environment in which a perceiver
experiences telepresence”. The more vivid and interactive the medium, the more a user is likely
to experience a feeling of telepresence in the depicted location (Steuer, 1992). Interactivity is
“the extent to which users can participate in modifying form and content of a mediated
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
7
environment in real time” (Steuer, 1992, p. 84) and vividness refers to “the representational
richness of a mediated environment” (Steuer, 1992, p. 81).
2.3. Types of virtual environments
In the literature, the concept of Virtual Reality is used in various contexts. Authors in general
refer to a virtual environment (VE), which can take several forms. ‘Virtual environment’ is a
term that is used to denote a number of virtual representations that can include stitched 360°
pictures that provide a panoramic view of a destination (e.g., Yeh et al., 2017), interactive 360°
video that allows users to navigate through the video by choosing which angles they wish to
view, web-based virtual tours (Cho et al., 2002), virtual world environments (e.g., Second Life;
Huang et al., 2016), or the newest generation of mass market Virtual Reality with a headset
(smartphone enabled or fixed headsets such as Oculus Rift). The latter evolved from a device
for applications in gaming, healthcare and education to a rising medium in tourism and
hospitality marketing as well. The availability of low cost VR viewers like Google Cardboard
and the abundance of tourism-related VR content make the experience of virtual tours of cities,
musea or tourism destination more accessible to the mass of consumers (Tussyadiah et al.,
2018). Thus, it is important to note that not all virtual representations that are examined in
academic empirical research involve ‘Virtual Reality’ in a stricter sense of the definition. For
instance, studies may refer to virtual tours or virtual reality when using panoramic or stitched
photographs in which navigation is not possible (e.g., Yeh and Wang, 2017), although this is
not genuine VR (Guttentag, 2010).
Virtual Reality systems with a mobile, or untethered head-mounted device (HMD), as compared
to those using desktop displays, result in more natural interaction and superior space orientation
(Ruddle et al., 1999), but also provide kinaesthetic (Slater and Usoh, 1993) and sensory input
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
8
regarding depth perceptions due to the visual input to each eye separately (Vince, 2004). Due
to the sensorially rich character of Virtual Reality, which distinguishes it further from other
virtual environments, users can experience sensory and motor input (e.g. walking, moving the
head around to change perspective, …) which provides more compelling imagery of tourism
destinations and vivid mental representations of the computer-mediated environments
(Tussydiah et al., 2017; 2018). Thus, Virtual Reality has a higher potential for telepresence
(Cho et al., 2002) due to which a more realistic representation of the environment can be
perceived by the user (Tussydiah et al., 2017; 2018).
Web-based virtual environments such as a series of ‘stitched’ pictures or a video provide a
relatively lower potential for ‘telepresence’ (Cho et al., 2002). The higher the levels of
vividness and interactivity of the medium, the more the user evolves from being a ‘watcher’ to
being a ‘player’ (Cho et al., 2002). When for example viewing a movie, the user is an observer.
Virtual Reality technology, however, allows one to be inside the experience and be a participant
that has a direct relationship with the surroundings (Williams and Hobson, 1995). The
advantage of a virtual environment in which users are ‘players’ who can experience their virtual
destination in their own way, is that they can identify and examine exactly those aspects of their
surroundings that they personally find important (Cho et al., 2002). As such, consumers are no
longer passive receptors of information but become co-creators of value for themselves
(Bendapudi and Leone, 2003). Interaction is also quintessential in CE strategies (Brodie et al.,
2011).
Distinguishing between the various types of virtual representations can generally be done by
considering the level of perceived immersion users experience. The concept of telepresence, or
presence, is strongly related to the concept of ‘immersion’ (Mikropoulos, 2006), which implies
both a sense of physical immersion in a virtual location as well as a psychological presence
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
9
(Guttentag, 2010). According to Williams and Hobson (1995, p. 424), “immersion is the degree
of suspension of disbelief by the VR participant and is created through a field of view, panorama
surrounding the participant, viewer-centred perspective (where images react to the head and
body movements), and a body or physical representation of objects.”
Related to immersion, users can also experience ‘flow’, which is also often considered as a
concept strongly associated with telepresence as they both relate to the level of involvement in
the activity (Cho et al., 2002; Nah et al., 2011). Flow in online experiences was initially defined
by Hoffman and Novak (1996, p. 57) as “the state occurring during network navigation” in
which one concentrates on the virtual activity to such an extent that one is no longer aware of
external stimuli and the passage of time (Cho et al., 2002), which has been found to impact
consumer behavioural outcomes, such as attitudes, enjoyment, brand equity, consumer learning,
purchase intentions, and repatronage intentions (Nah et al., 2010). It is a state of optimal
experience characterized by focused attention and effortless concentration (Csikszentmihalyi,
1990). According to Novak et al. (2000, p. 22), flow is a ‘cognitive state experienced during
navigation that is determined by (1) high levels of skill and control, (2) high levels of challenge,
(3) focused attention and (4) is enhanced by interactivity and telepresence’. While flow is
considered a potential antecedent of CE, involvement is a required antecedent of CE (Brodie
et al., 2011).
Involvement can be defined as the ”perceived relevance of the object based on inherent needs,
values, and interests” (Zaichkowsky, 1985, p. 342). Almost two decades ago, Havitz and
Dimanche (1999) already summarized the vast empirical support in the leisure marketing
literature, for the role of involvement in driving frequency with which consumers participate,
travel or purchase. More recently, empirical studies by Harrigan et al. (2017, 2018) have
demonstrated the role of involvement particularly as an antecedent of CE with tourism social
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
10
media brands. More specifically, in line with social exchange theory (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959),
they found that highly involved consumers are more likely to invest thoughts, emotions and
behaviors into their preferred brands. This conclusion is in agreement with earlier findings that
greater consumers’ involvement with an advertisement, the more attention they pay to the
advertisement (MacKenzie et al., 1986).
Attention also plays a key role in the flow model, albeit to a different extent. According to
Csikszentmihalyi (1990), to enter and stay in a flow state, attention becomes completely
absorbed into the stimulus field defined by the activity. As such, the concept of flow closely
relates to the cognitive absorption dimension of CE (cf. e.g., Patterson et al., 2006), as
distinguished by, for example, So et al. (2014) and Dwivedi (2015) who define absorption as a
pleasant state wherein the customer is fully concentrated and deeply engrossed in brand
interactions. A key characteristic of the flow model moreover is its interactionist nature,
focusing rather on the dynamic person-environment interactions than on the person, abstracted
from context (e.g., traits, stable dispositions). In customer engagement, involvement is a
necessary precursor while flow can – potentially - be a predictor of CE, but not necessarily.
Think for example about writing a hotel review, as an example of a behavioral manifestation of
CE. Involvement is required to take the effort and engage in a tourist site sharing one’s
experience on the world wide web, while a state of flow is not necessarily applicable in doing
so.
Note that the concept of CE extends beyond the cognitive component of involvement, in that it
also implies a proactive, interactive customer relationship with a specific engagement object,
and ‘unlike involvement, [it] requires the satisfying of experiential value, as well as
instrumental value’ (Mollen and Wilson, 2010, p. 5). Interaction is therefore fundamental to CE
and one of the core dimensions in, for example, So et al.’s (2014) conceptualization of CE,
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
11
referring to both interactions between customers and the focal engagement object as well as
interactions with other customers. The present study focuses on interactions of customers and
destinations represented via diverse media and how the interactivity of these media (among
others) drive user experiences and responses toward the medium and the depicted destination.
Interactivity corresponds to the notion of facilitating two-way communication necessary to have
interaction between the focal engagement subject and object (Patterson et al., 2006) and
characterized by the participant’s sense of control in modifying the form and content of the
mediated environment in real-time (Wu, 2006; Mollen and Wilson, 2010; Steuer, 1992).
2.4 Customer engagement in tourism and hospitality
Since its first conception about a decade ago, customer engagement (CE) has steadily evolved
into becoming a cornerstone concept in marketing. Drawing on relationship marketing theory
and service-dominant (SD) logic, Brodie and colleagues (2011, p. 260) define CE as ‘a
psychological state that occurs by virtue of interactive, cocreative customer experiences with a
focal agent/object (e.g., a brand) in focal service relationships. Most conceptualizations in the
academic and business practice literature define CE as a multi-dimensional phenomenon,
consisting of a combination of cognitive aspects (e.g., being interested in a company’s
activities), emotional aspects (e.g., feeling positive about a company’s activities), and/or
behavioral aspects (e.g., intentions to purchase) (Brodie et al., 2011; Dijkmans et al., 2015). CE
as such goes beyond pure transactions, and incorporates both psychological and behavioral
dimensions (e.g., Patterson et al., 2006; Brodie et al., 2011, Vivek et al., 2012; So et al., 2014).
According to the Marketing Science Institute (MSI, 2010), firms increasingly consider
nontransactional activities as a route for creating, building and enhancing customer-firm
relationships.
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
12
Engaged customers play a vital role in viral marketing activity (Brodie et al., 2011), new
product/service development (Hoyer et al., 2010), and in cocreating experience and value
(Brakus et al., 2009). Customer engagement behaviors as such go beyond transactions, but still
represent a strategic imperative for enhancing corporate performance, as reflected in parameters
such as sales growth (Neff, 2007), superior competitive advantage (Sedley, 2008), profitability
(Voyles, 2007), and consumer-related (relational) outcomes such as purchase decisions
(Patterson et al., 2006), company reputation (Dijkmans et al., 2015), brand loyalty (Bowden,
2009; van Doorn et al., 2010; Hollebeek, 2011; So et al., 2016), commitment, trust, and
consumers’ emotional brand attachment (Brodie et al., 2013; So et al., 2016) and self-brand
connection (Moliner et al., 2018).
Within interactive, dynamic business environments, and particularly in highly competitive
markets, like the tourism and travel industry (So et al., 2016), CE can act as a counterweight to
competition on price only, and help in attracting and retaining customers (Bowden, 2009;
Dijkmans et al., 2015). In tourism and hospitality, both scholars and practitioners, have
therefore started to examine CE strategies for managing customer-brand relationships (e.g., So
et al., 2016; Romero, 2017). An important evolution driving this stream of research is the fact
that the internet ever more serves as a platform for customer(-firm) interactions, leading to a
range of new media channels that enable tourism and hospitality firms to connect with
customers beyond the service encounter (So et al., 2014). Destination Marketing Organizations
(DMOs) nowadays have to manage user-generated content (reviews, referrals etc.; cf. e.g., Wei
et al. 2013) and connect with (potential) customers whenever and wherever they like, via mobile,
online and social media as engagement channels (So et al., 2016).
Most empirical research on CE in tourism so far focused on analyzing online brand engagement
behaviors on social media like Facebook and Twitter, and their effect on strategically relevant
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
13
outcome variables. Dijkmans et al. (2015) for example demonstrated a positive effect of
consumers’ engagement level (i.e., passive or active engagement with an airline brand on
Facebook) and perception of the airline’s corporate reputation. Cabiddu and colleagues (2014)
applied an inducive multiple-case study approach to identify three social media affordances
(i.e., ‘opportunities for action’; Gibson, 1979) that can be leveraged by tourism service
providers to engage customers. Harrigan et al. (2017, 2018) rely on social exchange theory to
examine the role of consumer involvement with social media such as TripAdvisor in driving
customer engagement with such tourist sites and ultimately also loyalty toward these brands.
Besides social media, there are other fruitful ways of connecting with customers beyond
purchase. Mobile applications and Augmented Reality have been studied in relation to CE in
tourism and hospitality by for example He et al. (2018), Jung and tom Dieck (2017), Tussyadiah
et al. (2017) and Fang et al. (2017), primarily focusing on factors encouraging adoption of
mobile technology among tourists. With respect to Virtual Reality, it is long clear from a
conceptual point of view that the medium entails rich opportunities for engaging customers
(e.g., Williams and Hobson, 1995), but only very recently empirical studies are being set-up
testifying of this notion. As discussed above, most of these existing empirical validations tend
to focus on VR-related environments in tourism marketing, as opposed to genuine Virtual
Reality as facilitated by the newest generation of headmounted devices (HDM). Moreover, most
studies focus on either cognitive, affective or behavioral effects of VR, and as such examine
only part of the rich multi-dimensional nature of the CE concept. Table 1 provides an overview
of virtual reality studies in tourism and hospitality.
[insert Table 1 about here]
3. Research objectives
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
14
Inducing high levels of telepresence via a virtual environment is expected to have a positive
effect in travel marketing (Cheong, 1995; Guttentag, 2010). Nevertheless, besides conceptual
studies on the power of VR as a marketing tool, theory-driven and evidence-based empirical
research on the mechanisms that determine the effectiveness of various VEs is scant
(Tussyadiah et al., 2018). For example, while researchers have examined the impact of a single
type of virtual environment (cf. Table 1), such as Huang et al. (2016)’s examination of user
acceptance of tourism in virtual worlds, there is a call for research to compare different types
of representation media in a tourism context (Huang et al., 2016). Yeh et al. (2017) recently
compared two types of VEs: pictures and stitched 360° images and found that 360° stitched
pictures (i.e., the medium that has a higher potential in terms of eliciting telepresence) evoke
stronger AIDA (i.e., awareness, interest, desire and action) responses, especially for consumers
experiencing high arousal. As outlined in section 2.3, several types of virtual environments
exist. While Yeh and colleagues provided evidence for the superiority of a medium that has
more potential regarding the elicitation of telepresence, the present study further extends this
knowledge by examining pictures vs. two other media that are expected to have an even stronger
ability to elicit telepresence, namely 360° video and genuine, newest generation HMD VR. As
such, the first objective of this study is to examine whether and to what extent the three tourist
destination representation media differ in terms of perceived levels of vividness and
interactivity and their ability to induce telepresence in the context of destination marketing.
Besides identifying key innovative characteristics of VR in tourism, the second objective of this
study is to explain potential differences in consumer behavioural outcomes as a result of these
drivers for travel marketing. In particular, the impact of perceived telepresence on flow,
enjoyment and online purchase intentions, and how these CE antecedents and components
interrelate, is examined.
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
15
In examining above constructs and objectives, this study also reveals the impact of
representation media on customer engagement perceived by the user. Several fundamental
propositions regarding customer engagement (Brodie et al., 2011) are addressed in this research
set-up. The study examines interactions with three different media, thus examining the
psychological state of the consumer as a result of this interaction with each medium. As various
media are examined, several situations are considered that may generate different levels of
customer engagement. The constructs measured, namely flow and enjoyment, are antecedents
of relational customer enagement. Moreover, we address the cognitive (i.e., flow), emotional
(i.e., enjoyment) and behavioral effects (i.e., purchase intentions) of different media, and
unravel how these interrelate in the context of pre-purchase online travel information search.
We concentrate in this study specifically on Millennials, one of the largest groups to be targeted
by tourism companies as they rather spend their money on traveling than on buying a house
(Rita et al., 2018). Yet, while they represent an important target market for the tourism industry,
travel companies worldwide face the challenge of winning their hearts as they are less interested
than older generations in professional advice (Li et al., 2013). On the other hand they tend to
be more open for new media and technologies. Across different nations Millennials also appear
to be triggered by similar travel motivations, amongst which ‘sightseeing’ has been identified
as one of the most attractive destination activities (Rita et al., 2018).
4. Research hypotheses
Depending on the type of virtual representation, levels of interactivity, vividness and as a result
telepresence, may differ. A medium can be ranked in terms of interactivity and vividness. For
instance, Klein (2003) found that video with audio (vs. with textual information) is perceived
as more vivid and inducing a higher level of telepresence. Similarly, two-dimensional static
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
16
photographs of products are found to be less interactive and vivid than pictures which a user
can zoom in on or rotate (Li et al., 2002; Debbabi et al., 2012), while traditional video is also
perceived as less vivid than Virtual Reality (Van Kerrebroeck et al., 2017). Generally, three-
dimensional and immersive VEs result in users perceiving more telepresence, interactivity and
vividness when using the medium (Steuer, 1992; Yeh et al., 2017; Hyun and O’Keefe, 2012).
Drawing on Steuer (1992)’s theory and other studies’ findings on virtual representation media,
it can be expected in this study that photographs will be the least interactive and vivid, followed
by 360° video, while Virtual Reality representation using a head-mounted device will provide
superior levels of vividness, interactivity and thus telepresence (Coyle and Thorson, 2001). As
such, by means of manipulation check, we hypothesize the following:
H1: The level of interactivity is highest in case of VR, followed by 360° representation,
and lowest for photographs.
H2: The level of vividness is highest in case of VR, followed by 360° representation,
and lowest for photographs.
H3: The level of telepresence is highest in case of VR, followed by 360° representation,
and lowest for photographs.
The relationship between interactivity, vividness and telepresence has been confirmed in
several studies (e.g., Li et al., 2002; Hyun and O’Keefe, 2012; Van Kerrebroeck et al., 2017;
Vonkeman et al., 2017). Higher levels of interactivity result in higher perceptions of
telepresence: the more one is able to interact with a (virtual) environment, the more one will
perceive the illusion of being present (Vonkeman et al., 2017) and the more a customer is likely
to perceive engagement (Brodie et al., 2011). Similarly, higher levels of vividness and thus
richer, more vivid and sensory representations are expected to result in higher perceptions of
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
17
telepresence (Klein, 2003; Van Kerrebroeck et al., 2017). Previous research pointed out that in
order to enhance the persuasiveness of VR, it is imperative to heighten the sense of presence
(Tussyadiah et al., 2016). This study inspects the relative importance of two key innovative
features of VR, namely interactivity and vividness, in generating telepresence in a tourism
context. We particularly include the following hypotheses in order to validate findings from
previous research in a travel marketing context:
H4: Interactivity positively affects the perception of telepresence.
H5: Vividness positively affects the perception of telepresence.
When regarding telepresence, the concept of flow should also be taken into consideration, as
both constructs have been found to be related in previous research (Faiola et al., 2013). Flow is
an antecedent of customer enagement (Brodie et al., 2011) that can be described as the state of
mind in which one is no longer aware of one’s real surroundings, which is a consequence of the
perception of telepresence (Cho et al., 2002; Nah et al., 2011). It can thus be expected that
telepresence will positively affect the flow experience, thus positively impacting the user’s
engagement (Calvo-Porral et al., 2017). Furthermore, telepresence has also been found to
positively affect users’ enjoyment of the digital experience (Nah et al., 2011; Sylaiou et al.,
2010). Therefore, we present following hypotheses:
H6: Telepresence positively affects flow perceptions.
H7: Telepresence positively affects enjoyment.
The sensation of presence positively affects consumer interest and destination liking (Tussydiah
et al., 2017) and the more immersive an environment is, the greater the capability of the system
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
18
to induce the desire to visit the destination (Pantano and Servidio, 2011). We thus expect the
following:
H8: Telepresence positively affects travel purchase intentions.
Flow experienced in virtual environments has been found to positively affect consumer
behavioural outcomes, such as purchase intentions (Novak et al., 2000; Huang et al., 2013).
More specifically, flow has been found to induce increased learning effects about a tourist
destination, leading to higher intentions to book the trip (Skadberg and Kimmel, 2004).
Furthermore, previous research has established the relationship between enjoyment and
consumer behavioural outcomes related to purchase intentions (Guo and Barnes, 2011).
Moreover, a positive relationship between flow and enjoyment has also been found to exist
(Nah et al., 2011; Lee and Chen, 2010; Shin, 2006). As telepresence positively affects flow and
enjoyment, which are expected to positively affect purchase intentions, we expect that the
relationship between telepresence and online purchase intentions will be mediated by flow and
enjoyment (Weibel et al., 2008), two relational antecedents to customer engagement (Brodie et
al., 2011). Marasco et al.’s (2018, p. 146) very recently called for empirical studies on this
matter in the context of VR for tourism marketing: ‘Future research should explore the influence
of emotional involvement of virtual visitors on behavioural intentions. In this regard, attention
should be directed toward the identification of the mediating effect of other experiential
variables on destination visit intentions, including, for example, enjoyment and flow’. We thus
present the following hypothesis:
H9: The positive relationship between telepresence and purchase intentions is mediated
by (a) flow, (b) enjoyment and (c) enjoyment via flow.
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
19
The resulting conceptual model, consisting of these 9 research hypotheses, is presented in
Figure 1.
[insert Figure 1 about here]
5. Research methodology
5.1. Procedure
This study employed an experimental between-subjects design to empirically test the research
model (Figure 1). The manipulation involves three types of representations of the travel
destination New York City (NYC). NYC was selected as a destination, as it is popular among
Millennials but a remote destination for the sample respondents and thus not yet visited by a
large proportion of the study participants. In order to control for pre-existing impressions of the
city, those respondents who had previously visited New York were excluded from the study.
The first group was exposed to a multiple-picture interface displaying a total of eleven static
images of New York City between which the participants could navigate on a laptop (cf. Figure
2). The second group was exposed to a 360° video of the city in which users could determine
their view by dragging the video around using the computer mouse on a laptop. The third group
was offered a virtual visit to NYC via an immersive Virtual Reality tour, using a smartphone-
enabled VR headset with which they could look and move around their virtual surroundings (cf.
Figure 3). The digital material was sourced from the virtual travel destination website
YouVisit.com, which offers both 360° tours and Virtual Reality, and the pictures were eleven
screenshots of the virtual tour in order to provide consistent stimuli. The experiment took place
in a classroom setting with a student sample.
[insert Figure 2 about here]
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
20
[insert Figure 3 about here]
5.2. Measures
Participants completed a pre- and post-questionnaire. The pre-questionnaire pertained to
destination attitude (adapted from Jalilvand et al., 2012; 3 items; α = 0.849; e.g. ‘very
unpleasant/very pleasant’) and travel intentions (adapted from Jalilvand et al., 2012; 3 items; α
= 0.836; e.g. ‘I predict I will visit New York City in the future’) in order to control for
potentially existing predispositions toward the destination.
In addition, the following constructs were measured in the post-test: vividness (adapted from
Keller and Block, 1997; 2 items; r = 0.508, p<0.001; e.g. ‘not easy to picture/easy to picture’),
interactivity (adapted from Liu, 2003; 2 items; r = 0.532, p<0.001; e.g. ‘I felt that I had a lot of
control over my Virtual Reality experience’), telepresence (adapted from Coyle and Thorson,
2001; 6 items; α = 0.851; e.g. ‘After looking at the pictures, I felt like I came back to the “real
world” after a journey’), flow (adapted from Huang et al., 2013; 3 items; α = 0.829; e.g.
‘Experiencing New York City via pictures excites my curiosity’), enjoyment (adapted from
Huang et al., 2013; 4 items; α = 0.880; e.g. ‘The experience with the pictures was fun’) and
online purchase intentions (adapted from Amaro and Duarte, 2015; 2 items; r = 0.378, p<0.001;
e.g. ‘I expect I will book a trip to New York City online in the future’). Apart from the items
measuring ‘vividness’, which were semantic scale items, all items in the questionnaire were
measured by 7-point Likert scales (with anchor points 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly
agree). For each of the measured constructs, summated scale means are calculated for further
analyses.
5.3. Sampling and participant information
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
21
A total of 182 responses was collected from a pool of students studying the undergraduate
program ‘Tourism and Recreation Management’ at a Belgian college. Of the respondents, 62
participated in the photo condition, 55 in the 360° video condition and 65 in the Virtual Reality
condition. The average age of the respondents is 21.3 (SD = 2.05; range: 18 – 32 years old) and
overall 78 males and 102 females participated.
Based on the responses on the pre-test, we controlled for differences in destination attitude and
prior travel intentions to ascertain that outcomes are not coincidentally affected by
predispositions regarding New York City. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) reveals that no
significant difference in destination attitude can be discerned between the different
experimental conditions (F(2,179) = 1.921; p = 0.149), but that a significant difference in prior
travel intentions to NYC between the conditions appears to exist (F(2,179) = 3.260; p = 0.041).
As such, we include travel intentions as a covariate in our further ANOVA analyses to control
for this difference.
6. Analyses and results
6.1. Effect of user interface on telepresence (ANCOVA results)
To test our research model, we conducted an Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) to analyse
the effect of user interface on the extent to which interactivity, vividness and telepresence is
induced (H1 through H3). Table 2 summarizes mean scores and standard deviations (between
brackets) for each target variable in each of the three experimental conditions, and Table 3
reports the ANCOVA results.
[insert Table 2 about here]
[insert Table 3 about here]
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
22
As the results in table 3 demonstrate, the representation medium significantly affects
interactivity (F = 36.83; p<0.001), vividness (F = 15.60; p<0.001) and telepresence (F =
31.90; p<0.001). Post-hoc multiple pairwise comparisons revealed that the photos vs. 360°
video groups did not differ significantly in terms of vividness (mphotos = 4.68, SD = 1.07 vs.
m360 video = 4.74, SD = 1.14 vs. mVR = 5.70, SD = 0.93; p = 0.257 > 0.05), but that all other
individual differences were significant and in the expected direction (Table 2). Thus, H1
(regarding interactivity) and H3 (regarding telepresence) are supported, and H2 (regarding
vividness) is partially supported, with the destination represented in Virtual Reality indeed
being perceived as the most vivid of all three. Note that for the three variables under study,
VR consistently outperforms 360° video, which in turn outperforms photographs.
6.2. The role of telepresence, flow and enjoyment on online purchase intentions (PLS)
To test the remainder of our research model (i.e., H4-H9), we conducted Partial Least Squares
Path Modelling (PLS-PM) to analyse the relationships between the constructs in the conceptual
model.
6.2.1. Analysis of the measurement model
First, the measurement model was evaluated. All latent constructs in this model contain
reflective items, for which unidimensionality is tested according to Karlis et al. (2003)’s
procedure and confirmed. Furthermore, the psychometric properties of the model are examined,
including item validity and discriminant validity.
The PLS analyses indicated high factor loading for most items (cf. Table 4), namely above the
0.70 level. Although the scores for 2 items (PI1 and T1) were below the threshold of 0.70, being
between 0.60 and 0.70, we chose to retain these items as it is considered appropriate to keep
the items to avoid losing relevant content (Barclay et al., 1995). Discriminant validity was
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
23
assessed first by comparing the square root of the average variance extracted (AVE) with the
correlations between the constructs (i.e., the Fornell-Larcker criterion). Every diagonal value
in Table 5 is found to be higher than the off-diagonal values in its column, thus indicating that
discriminant validity is established (Hair et al., 2017). Further screening of the Heterotrait-
monotrait ratio (HTMT) of the correlations however pointed at possible issues with
discriminant validity of the concept flow. In particular, HTMT values exceeded the threshold
value of 0.90 (Henseler et al., 2015) for the discriminant validity check between (1) flow –
enjoyment (HTMT = 0.93) and (2) flow – interactivity (HTMT = 1.01), An inspection of the
operationalization of the construct flow hinted at deleting one item (i.e., item F3 - ‘When
experiencing New York City via pictures, I have the feeling to have control over the situation’).
Following Hair and colleagues’ (2017) guidelines, this item was deleted on the basis of an
examination of cross-construct item correlations. A follow-up HTMT check of the trimmed
model assured discriminant validity, with HTMT values ranging from 0,271 (i.e., online
purchase intentions - telepresence) to 0,893 (i.e., flow - enjoyment, and vividness - interactivity).
The Fornell-Larcker criterion approach of the resulting model confirmed this conclusion.
[insert Table 4 about here]
[insert Table 5 about here]
Common method bias was controlled for in this study design by using both procedural and
statistical methods. Common method bias is a phenomenon that occurs when items are
artificially correlated with each other, with variance being attributable to the measurement
method (Podsakoff et al., 2003). First, the following procedural measures were taken in the
study design to overcome common method bias. We collected responses from multiple
participants, to eliminate (or at least attenuate) systematic, person-specific effects, in line with
Hulland et al.’s (2018) suggestions. We also assured the anonymity of the respondents, and
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
24
asked them to answer as honestly as possible, using a paper and pen questionnaire. Our
questionnaire moreover included a brief cover story to conceal the true purpose of the study:
‘The city NYC is launching an information campaign and has developed the following
promotional material. This gives you a global impression of New York City. We would like to
know your opinion on the destination on the basis of this information material.’. In addition,
besides 7-point Likert scale type items, also semantic differential scales were used, namely to
operationalize the concept vividness. The outcome measure of online travel purchase intentions
is moreover physically separated from the predictor measures within the questionnaire (cf.
Hulland et al., 2018).
Furthermore, in terms of statistical, post-hoc methods for dealing with common method bias,
three tests are conducted. First a Harman’s single-factor test is performed in order to detect
potential common method bias statistically. An exploratory factor analysis extracts more than
one dimension in the pool of items and reveals that no single factor accounts for more than 50%
of the total variance. Second, a ‘marker’ variable approach in line with Lindell and Whitney’s
(2001) procedure is used, whereby partial correlations between the single items in the latent
constructs’ measurement model and a theoretically unrelated marker variable are inspected. We
used a personality trait measure that was incorporated in the questionnaire, namely the item ‘I
consider myself to be a person that is social, outgoing’. This item was measured on a 7-point
Likert scale with the same anchor points and verbal labels as most items in our conceptual
model under study. The average correlation was 0.05 and none of the bivariate correlations
reached statistical significance, which gives an additional indication of the fact that there seems
to be no systematic method variance at play. Third, we check the model for collinearity issues
by examining the VIF values of all sets of predictor constructs. The VIF values of all
combinations of endogenous constructs and corresponding exogenous constructs (i.e.,
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
25
predictors) are all clearly below the threshold of 5 (Hair et al., 2011; Hair et al., 2017: 2012)
and even below the more conservative cut-off value of 3.3 proposed by Kock (2015). Therefore,
collinearity among the predictor constructs appears not to be a critical issue in the structural
model, and there is no direct indication of the model being contaminated by common method
bias. While each of these statistical post-hoc measures (i.e., Harman’s single factor test, Lindell
and Whitney’s marker approach, and Kock’s full collinearity test) have advantages but for sure
also limitations, combined they provide support for having confidence in the fact that CMB is
not likely to have distorted the validity of the findings drawn from our analyses.
6.2.2. Analysis of the hypothesized structural relationships in the model
PLS-PM and a 5000-resample bootstrap was applied to analyse the relationships indicated in
the conceptual model and to evaluate its statistical significance. PLS is a variance-based
estimation technique which is not restrictive in terms of dataset distribution and can handle
more complex models (Hair et al., 2017).
First, regarding the antecedents of telepresence, the analyses reveal that both interactivity and
vividness positively affect telepresence (confirming hypotheses 4 and 5; cf. Table 6), with the
impact of interactivity on telepresence (β = 0.55; p<0.001) being much higher than that of
vividness on telepresence (β = 0.21; p = 0.003).
Next, regarding the direct consequences of telepresence, we find that telepresence positively
affects flow (β = 0.69; p<0.001), enjoyment (β = 0.42; p<0.001), and online purchase intentions
(β = 0.23, p = 0.003) (affirming H6, H7 and H8; cf. Table 6).
Furthermore, mediation analysis is conducted to further explain the impact of telepresence on
online purchase intentions via the intermediate constructs of flow and enjoyment (H9).
According to the procedure for mediation analysis outlined by Zhao et al. (2010), we first
determine whether the indirect effect is significant. Based on the path coefficients generated by
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
26
the PLS analysis, we find that the total indirect effect path coefficient, aggregated over the
different mediating paths equals 0.22. We determine the significance of the effect via
confidence intervals based on the aforementioned 5000-resample bootstrapping procedure
(Nitzl et al., 2016) and find that the confidence interval at the 5% level [0.04; 0.417] does not
include zero. Thus, it can be assumed that there is a significant indirect effect (Nitzl et al., 2016).
Second, we determine the significance of the direct effect when the mediators are included in
the structural model and find that, in this case, the direct effect of telepresence on purchase
intentions equals -0.018, which is not significant (p > 0.05). An assessment of the variance
accounted for (VAF; i.e., the size of the indirect effect in relation to the total effect), reveals
that with a direct effect path coefficient of -0.018 and an indirect effect path coefficient of 0.22,
the VAF score amounts to 92.42%, indicating full mediation between telepresence and online
purchase intentions via flow and enjoyment (Hair et al., 2017).
6.2.3 Multi-group analyses on the research hypotheses
The analyses reported in the preceding section 6.2.2 are based on the model estimation for the
complete dataset. For robustness sake, we conduct PLS-MGA (multi-group analyses; Sarstedt
et al., 2011) to explore potential differences in parameter estimates across the three
experimental conditions (i.e., photo, 360° and VR).
In order to be able to compare these groups, measurement invariance needs to be established
first, in order to be confident that group differences in model estimates do not result from
distinctive content and/or meanings of the latent variables across groups (Hair et al., 2018). By
means of Henseler et al.’s (2016) MICOM (i.e., measurement invariance of composite models)
approach, three steps are taken with this objective, namely a check of (1) configural invariance,
(2) compositional invariance, and (3) equality of composite means and variance. The first check
is non-statistical and involves examining whether there are identical indicators per
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
27
measurement model (cf. face and/or expert validity), identical treatment of indicator data (e.g.,
coding, standardization, missing values treatment), and identical algorithm settings or
optimization criteria, across the three groups. This test allowed us to establish configural
invariance across the Photo-, 360°-, and VR condition.
Second, compositional invariance is required to ensure that differences in structural coefficients,
when comparing groups, do not result from differences in the way the composite or latent
construct under study is formed (Henseler et al., 2016). To test whether the composite scores
are the same across the groups, despite possible differences in the group-specific weights used
to compute the scores, a permutation test of correlations between composite scores is conducted.
Similar to bootstrapping, this implies that a reference distribution is generated from the actual
data (Hair et al., 2018). Contrary to bootstrapping, permutation tests randomly sample
observations from the original data without replacement. It is an efficient approach to
nonparametric testing, also when the sample size is small (e.g., Ernst, 2004). The results from
Step 2 allow us to also establish compositional invariance. For none of the latent variables is
the composite score significantly different at the 1 percent level of significance, across the
groups. These results provide support for partial measurement invariance, allowing for a
comparison of the standardized path coefficients across the groups, by means of a multigroup
analysis.
Besides configural and compositional invariance, which are necessary conditions to allow for
PLS-MGA, a third step in testing measurement invariance consists of establishing equality of
the composites’ mean values and variances. Applying Henseler et al.’s (2016) guidelines, we
fail to find support for this third step. Combined, this implies that although multi-group analyses
are allowed and make sense, statistically speaking, it is more correct to report structural path
model results for each group separately, than reporting analysis results on the pooled data-level
(Henseler et al., 2016).
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
28
Therefore, in Table 6, the results for all four samples are presented: (1) the Photographs
condition, (2) the 360° condition, (3) The VR condition, and (4) merely for indicative purposes,
the complete sample. Note that the inferences that can be drawn from the analyses are largely
in line, across all settings, and in agreement with what was reported for the total sample in
Section 6.2.2. The only difference that arises, pertains to H5 on the link between vividness and
telepresence. While in group 1 (i.e., Photo condition; β = 0.08, p > .05) and group 3 (VR; β =
0.25, p = 0.053), this relationship is not statistically significant, it does reach significance in
group 2 (i.e., 360° condition; β = 0.34, p < 0.01) and in the complete sample (β = 0.21, p <
0.01). Apart from this difference in statistical significance, the coefficient is in all four cases
positive. Moreover, in all four samples, the vividness coefficients do not reach the value of the
interactivity coefficients as second driver under study for the core construct telepresence,
leaving the earlier drawn conclusion on relative importance of both drivers intact.
[insert Table 6 about here]
Moreover, multi-group analyses are conducted based on the bootstrapping approach developed
by Henseler et al. (2009) to further investigate such differences in parameter estimates across
all three experimental conditions (i.e., photo, 360° and VR). The results of these PLS-MGA
(Sarstedt et al., 2011; Hair et al., 2018) formally confirm that the model estimation results are
comparable across these three subsamples. Of the total of eight structural relations to be
estimated in our model, which are compared across three groups, only one difference was
revealed as statistically significant in the PLS-MGA. It pertains to the relationship between
flow and enjoyment, which is identified as significantly different, at the 1% significance level,
between group 2 (i.e., 360° condition; β = 0.648, p < 0.01) and group 3 (VR condition; β =
0.264, p < 0.05). Both path coefficients are however positive and significant, as was the case in
estimating the model for the complete dataset (β = 0.463, p < 0.01). As such, conceptually, no
different conclusions result for the different types of representation media for which we
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
29
estimated our model, as compared to the complete dataset model estimation. The overall results
can as such be considered robust and stable.
Besides examining multi-group differences in parameter estimates of direct effects that were
hypothesized in the model, we also inspect the mediating effect of flow and enjoyment in the
relationship between telepresence and online travel purchase intentions, across the three
subsamples. The VAF in purchase intentions, by the total indirect effect of telepresence,
resulting from the mediation analyses, ranges from 40.85% in the 360° condition, over 42.42%
in the photographs condition, to 51.68% in the VR condition. As such, the results reveal, for
each of the three conditions, that the effect of telepresence on online travel purchase intentions
is partially mediated (with VAF values exceeding 0.20 but remaining below 0.80; Hair et al.,
2017), by flow and enjoyment. While these findings allow to confirm the key role that flow and
enjoyment play in the relationship between telepresence and intentions to book a trip to that
destination, identifying partial mediation can also hint at the possibility of an omitted additional
mediator (Zhao et al., 2010). In section 8, suggestions for further research are provided to guide
future inquiries in this regard.
So far, we have estimated separate models, whereby we account for observed heterogeneity in
the data due the three distinct experimental conditions in our research design. Besides such
observed heterogeneity, we have also controlled whether unobserved heterogeneity may play a
critical role in our data set. Doing so, adds to the validity of the PLS path modelling results
(Hair et al., 2018). We apply one of the currently most prominent latent class techniques, called
finite mixture partial least squares (FIMIX-PLS) to ascertain that unobserved heterogeneity
does not influence the results. Given the sample size and model complexity, we run the FIMIX
procedure for 1, 2, and 3 latent cluster solutions, with 5000 iterations (maximum), and
optimization criterion value 1 * 10-5. We applied 10 repetitions for each FIMIX run to avoid
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
30
identifying local rather than global optima by means of the underlying estimation-maximation
algorithm on the likelihood function. Based on several of the proposed information criteria in
FIMIX-PLS (cf. Sarstedt et al., 2011), such as AIC3, AIC4, BIC and CAIC, the conclusion is
uniform and in favor of the single latent segment solution (of which the value of these
information criteria is consistently the lowest). Thus, besides disentangling the aggregate
dataset into three subsamples on the basis of the observed experimental group variable, further
segmentation based on potential latent sources of heterogeneity seems not beneficial.
7. Discussion
The objectives of this study were first to examine the extent to which the media differ in terms
of perceived levels of interactivity, vividness and telepresence, and second to explain the
differences in consumer behavioural outcomes as a result of these mechanisms.
Regarding the first objective, we found that significant differences between the different media
with respect to interactivity, vividness and telepresence exist, with the level of these constructs
being highest for Virtual Reality, followed by 360° video representation and lowest for the
series of photographs. The findings also reveal that both interactivity and vividness contribute
significantly to the perception of telepresence, with the impact of interactivity on perceived
telepresence being higher than the impact of vividness. As such, it appears that especially
interactivity is of great importance in travel applications. This finding is in line with the findings
of Pantano and Servidio (2011) in their study on stereoscopic 3D representations of historical
objects (e.g., statues and vases) and buildings in a museum, which revealed that it is especially
the level of interactivity that interests consumers when regarding innovative methods to deliver
touristic information.
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
31
Furthermore, the findings reveal that telepresence positively impacts flow, enjoyment and
online purchase intentions, in line with Nah et al. (2011). Therefore, this research also
demonstrates that the medium via which pre-purchase travel information is communicated can
impact antecedents of customer engagement, with greater levels of presence generating more
customer engagement. As such, it can be concluded that the sensation of being present in a
virtual environment and forgetting about one’s surroundings are key elements in eliciting
positive consumer behavioural outcomes.
Further analysis reveals that the relationship between telepresence and online purchase
intentions is fully mediated by the mediators flow and enjoyment. These findings confirm our
expectations regarding the role of enjoyment (via flow) as a mediator (Huang et al., 2013) on
consumer behavioural outcomes. Overall, the use of a more vivid and especially interactive
medium for travel destination representation can induce flow and enjoyment to consumers and
indirectly lead to enhanced behavioural intentions. As such, the present experimental study
confirms the pivotal role of customer engagement in generating conversion based on interactive
and vivid media for marketing communications. It is not so much telepresence perceptions in
se that will translate automatically into purchase behaviour, but rather the cognitive and
emotionally engaging states evoked by this telepresence that explain increased purchase
intentions.
8. Limitations and suggestions for further research
Although this research contributes to the knowledge on the application of Virtual Reality in
tourism retail services, there are some limitations that must be taken into account. The first
limitation of this study is related to the fact that we focused on Millennials and thus used a
student sample. While some studies suggest that this may not significantly affect validity when
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
32
the research involves individual decision-making (McKnight et al., 2002) and effects of
advertising (Singh et al., 2000; Wan et al., 2007), it should be acknowledged that the findings
of the study may not be generalizable to other generations of travellers (Mazaheri et al., 2012;
Peterson & Merunka, 2014). While we do find some initial support by Gibson and O’Raw (2018,
p. 102) for the absence of a relationship between VR usage/response and age, we acknowledge
that further research to confirm this preliminary finding is recommendable as their study was
based on only 129 consumers, aged 18-65+. Further research should examine how an older
sample group reacts to the various media, as younger people are, for instance, often more likely
to seek sensation (Xu et al., 2015) and are more open to new technologies (Venkatesh et al.,
2003). A study considering a more diverse respondent sample, considering all age groups could
allow for the comparison between age groups, possibly identifying age as a moderator. Upon
examining broader groups in the population and/or longer term effectiveness of the VR medium
in tourism marketing, close attention needs to be paid in designing the study so as to minimize
non-response bias (cf. e.g., guidelines in Groves and Peytcheva, 2008).
Next, the current study presented only one holiday destination to the experiment participants.
As New York City is a well-known city trip location, results may differ for virtual
representations of different types of travel destinations (e.g., beach holidays, active holidays,…)
or of less well-known destinations (Wan et al., 2007). Thus, the findings may not be
generalizable to all tourist destinations, as a vivid representation may be more suited for a
dynamic travel destination, whereas a less dynamic representation could be more appropriate
for more calm environments such as beaches (Daniel and Meitner, 2001), and the effect may
be even stronger for lesser-known travel destinations.
Additionally, further research avenues could consider tourist typologies or personality traits.
Various traveller typologies exist (e.g., Decrop and Snelders, 2005; Gretzel et al., 2004).
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
33
Tourists may be looking for culture, shopping pleasure, activity, or relaxation at the beach and
such travel motivations could be used as a moderator when examining the effects of various
media. This kind of segmentation could moreover provide valuable information for the
targeting of destination representation via particular media to specific consumer segments as
the travel motivation and the destination representation medium should be congruent. Moreover,
the travel motivation (e.g. adventure) may also provide an indication as to the openness towards
a more novel medium such as VR. Furthermore, personality traits, sensation seeking behaviour
(Xu et al., 2015; Pizam et al., 2004) or technology readiness (Parasuraman and Colby, 2015)
may also be considered to provide further insights into the effectiveness of diverse
representation media for different consumer segments, as it can be expected that sensation
seekers and consumers who are more open toward new technologies will report more positive
perceptions towards VR than those who are not.
Besides examining boundary conditions to the generalizability of the present study’s findings,
by conducting further research on potential moderators in this context, future studies should
also consider additional mediators. The mediation analysis for all three samples (i.e., Photo,
360°, and VR) reveal partial mediation of the relationship between telepresence and travel
purchase intentions by the concepts of flow and enjoyment. It would be enlightening to
investigate potentially other mediating factors to deepen our understanding of the process
underlying the effects of telepresence on travel purchase intentions. While flow and enjoyment
are rather abstract or respectively affective consumer states, it could be valuable to include in
particular cognitive evaluations as additional mediators. For example, does telepresence lead to
increased self-confidence or reassurance in being able to make the right decision, in consumers
using a particular travel destination representation medium? If VR allows them to feel better
informed a priori, in the orientation stage of their customer journey, this could have a positive
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
34
effect on travel purchase intentions as well. Further investigation is needed to examine whether
these (and/or other) mediating factors, besides flow and enjoyment, can further add to the
explanation of online travel purchase intentions.
Lastly, we encourage future studies to include multiple information sources to draw inferences
from. The present study relied on self-reported measures, based on a consumer survey.
Researchers might also consider the use of secondary data sources (e.g., objective performance
data, such as actual sales records) as outcome measures (Hulland et al., 2018). Pursuing this
approach in further research would be beneficial in two ways. On the one hand, until present
only a minority of survey research in marketing has included data from such sources (i.e., 6.4%
of all survey-research based marketing publications in JAMS, JM and JMR, as evidenced in a
recent review study of the period 2006-2015, by Hulland et al., 2018). There is as such still
much to be uncovered, in this regard. On the other hand, measuring performance by means of
objective performance data or real consumer behaviour, can help to eliminate (or at least
attenuate) potential bias arising from common method usage in the model estimation. In this
same vein, indirect methods for measuring consumer reactions are worthwhile to consider.
Techniques such as Implicit Association Testing (IAT; e.g., Greenwald, McGhee, and Schwartz,
1998; Dimofte, 2010; Goodall, 2011) or even neurophysiological techniques (e.g., pupil
dilatation or galvanic skin response analysis; Ramsøy et al., 2017) could provide fruitful
avenues to base further research on, as they respectively allow for examining the affective
valence and intensity aroused by representation media in tourism marketing on customer
reactions. Furthermore, field studies whereby destination marketing by real DMOs through
various representation media is related to performance measures are also particularly called for
to examine the external validity of our findings. To this end, (probably at least partly) survey-
based research designs addressing strategic management decisions are advisable. A priori
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
35
reflection on potential sources of endogeneity and inclusion of theoretically grounded control
variables is herein strongly recommended (Hamilton and Nickerson, 2003; Hult et al., 2018).
For example, technology readiness of the DMO or marketing budget, could be such factors that
can entail endogeneity problems.
9. Implications
The findings of our study provide contributions both to the academic literature, and to the travel
retail sector. The theoretical novelty of the results is in essence fourfold. First, the main
originality in this research resides in the fact that it studies a novel medium of tourist destination
marketing, namely Virtual Reality, and in particular the newest generation of mobile HMD VR
devices. While existing research in tourism marketing already demonstrated the effectiveness
of VR-related representation media, such as virtual worlds (e.g., Second Life) or 360 virtual
tours (without interaction/navigation options controlled by the user), the full potential of the
newest generation VR using HMD such as untethered mobile Google Cardboards, is still to be
uncovered. There is an urging call for particularly empirical support for previous conceptual
research insights (e.g., Tussyadiah et al., 2018).
Second, while representation medium effects (including effects of VR-related media) in
destination marketing have received substantial academic attention (cf. Table 1 for an
overview), most existing studies entail effect measures pertaining to only either emotional,
cognitive, or behavioural (intentions) of consumers (tourists). Our study is unique in examining
the effect of VR tourism marketing on the cornerstone concept ‘Customer Engagement’ in its
full dimensionality (i.e., cognition, affect, and behavioural intentions) by examining constructs
of flow, enjoyment and purchase intentions, while minding interrelations between these
concepts. Both direct and mediating effects are integrated in the estimated model, to unravel
the mechanisms at play. As such, our study for instance responds to Marasco et al.’s (2018) call
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
36
for mediation analyses to add to the comprehension of the role of flow and enjoyment in
explaining VR telepresence effects on behavioural intentions.
Third, despite the importance of the CE concept in a tourist context, and the resulting rise in
academic attention among hospitality marketing scholars for this topic, until present, these
studies predominantly examined the potential of social media strategies. Hotels, airlines and
other Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs) however increasingly also adopt new
media channels like VR and AR to manage customer relationships beyond purchase. As such,
the integration of core CE components into a unified model is necessary for creating a
comprehensive understanding of effective VR-based CE strategies in a tourism context.
Fourth, the comparative design of our study, examining traditional versus innovative
representation media (i.e., pictures, 360° video and VR), allows for identifying the key
innovative features that drive the engaging potential of the VR medium. The findings in
particular show that the interactive nature of the VR medium, more so than its vividness, is the
main driver of user perceptions of telepresence which in turn leads to increased levels of
customer engagement. While some relationships hypothesized within the proposed model (e.g.,
the linkage between interactivity, vividness and telepresence) have been previously investigated
(cf. e.g., Hyun and O’Keefe, 2012), ‘it is important, theoretically and managerially, that
customer engagement is not treated as an outcome but rather a process’ (Harrigan et al., 2017,
p. 6000). Doing so, this study offers some empirical indication of how CE is situated within a
comprehensive nomological network. The conceptualization and formal testing of the linkages
between different CE components in this integrated model provide nomological validity for the
CE concept (cf. e.g. also So et al., 2016) and, more importantly, also illustrate its position in
the wider nomological network in a destination marketing context.
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
37
The findings of our study moreover entail managerial implications for DMOs on a non-
negligible technological trend in tourism and hospitality marketing. A new stream of wearable
VR devices, including HMDs such as Oculus Rift and Google Cardboard, is becoming ever
more accessible to the consumer market (Van Kerrebroeck et al., 2017). The latter can be
purchased at prices in the range of 10-20 USD (Alford, 2018), which obviously encourages
consumer adoption. Moreover, VR content to run on apps in such HMDs, providing compelling
imagery of diverse tourist destinations, museums and cultural heritage are readily available at
platforms like for instance YouVisit. This evolution has become one of the major drivers of
transformation of tourists’ behavior and tourism experiences (Marasco et al., 2018). These new
media channels are, as such, ever more adopted in tourism and hospitality marketing, to manage
customer relationships beyond purchase (So et al., 2016). The findings of the present study
reveal that a strongly engaging technology such as Virtual Reality may indeed be a useful tool
for the travel retail sector, even more so than less advanced virtual environments. Undeniably,
marketing in the tourism industry can be more effective when consumers can access
information anywhere and anytime (Werthner and Klein, 2000), and this as realistically as
possible (Tussydiah et al., 2017). Our study focused on NYC as a tourist destination. Previous
research demonstrated however, that the superiority of virtual experiences over more traditional
media is contingent upon the type of destination (Wan et al., 2007). DMOs should consequently
mind the particular destination they are promoting upon considering using VR as a medium.
The focus of the present research on technology-enhanced CE in the pre-visit phase is
particularly relevant for managerial purposes, since this stage is crucial in the overall experience
process, as tourists at that point develop their expectations about the visit and activate their
decision making process (Neuhofer et al., 2012; 2014; Marasco et al., 2018). In line with
expectation-disconfirmation theory (Oliver, 1977), it is essential to shape consumers’ pre-
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
38
purchase expectations in line with reality, in order for the service encounter to meet
expectations, resulting in satisfied customers and a basis for customer relationship management.
New technologies such as VR have an important role to play for tourism providers and
destination organizations seeking to promote their products and sites in innovative and more
effective ways, in this anticipatory phase (Marasco et al., 2018).
The findings of our study moreover provide specific guidelines on which are the key buttons
for tourism marketers to push in order to effectively engage Millennials with VR. In particular,
we revealed that interactivity of the medium (cf. Liu, 2003), more so than its vividness, is of
great importance in contributing to the perception of presence for this particular application. It
is that perception that in turn leads to enjoyment and feelings of flow, which in turn mediate
consumers’ behavioural intentions. As such, travel retailers and Virtual Reality developers
should take this into consideration in order to develop successful and particularly engaging
applications.
For DMOs, it is moreover necessary to envision how to fit such pre-purchase stage VR
interactions with (potential) customers into the encompassing customer journey and in longer
term customer relationship management. Starting from the notion that CE goes beyond the
purchase transaction, VR could also facilitate customer-firm interactions in the post-purchase
stage. As discussed in section 2.4, most of the fairly limited literature on CE in tourism so far
focused on the role of social media and user-generated content (e.g. referrals, hotel reviews etc.;
cf. Wei et al., 2013, for example). While tourists nowadays sometimes already take the effort
to upload pictures of their (hotel) experience, they could share their experiences in a more
comprehensive manner by sharing VR (or for starters 360° video or panoramic picture) content
in social media as well. Panoramic pictures can readily be taken with most recently available
smartphones. 360° Video- and VR content creation is (so far) not yet possible with regular
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
39
consumer smartphones, but DMOs could assume their role as resource integrator, providing
consumers with the right technological equipment, in order to elicit such diverse tourist
experiences. These VR-elicited experiences would provide the DMO with rich insights on the
subjective, interactive tourist experience, allowing for service encounter and CE optimization.
Further research both in terms of practicality as well as from a theoretical perspective is needed.
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
40
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Figure 1. Conceptual model
Note. Dashed lines indicate the mediation hypothesis (H9a,b,c)
Willems, K., Brengman, M., & Van Kerrebroeck, H. (2019). The impact of representation media on customer engagement in
tourism marketing among millennials. European Journal of Marketing, 53 (9), 1988-2017.
Corresponding author Kim Willems can be contacted at: kim.willems@vub.be
50
Figure 2. Examples of pictures used in the photograph condition
Figure 3. VR headset use
