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Abstract

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the extraction of essential oils from plants by the supercritical fluid extraction technique. However, other interesting information, regarding the process optimization, is also discussed. Therefore, logical steps were identified to completely describe the process. These steps were divided into three parts: (1) characterization of essential oils; (2) properties attributed to the supercritical fluid, including supercritical fluid extraction, parameters affecting the procedure such as temperature, pressure, particle size, modifier, flow rate, and water, the importance of fractionation, types of collection methods, the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of essential oils extracted by supercritical fluid, advantages and drawbacks of this method in comparison with other extraction techniques; and (3) the use of experimental designs, including screening, optimizing and modeling, in the process of supercritical fluid extraction of essential oils.

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... The advantage of isolating EO by SFE lies on the relatively low temperatures used during the process, preventing thermal degradation of BACs (Yousefi et al., 2019). Another significant benefit of this extraction technique is the complete elimination or minimal use of organic solvents. ...
... Moreover, CO 2 is regarded as a green solvent, nonflammable, costeffective, and easy to use (Gil-Martín et al., 2022). One more benefit of SFE lies on the relatively low temperatures used during the process, preventing thermal degradation of BACs, such as essential oils (Yousefi et al., 2019). ...
... Extraction samples can be liquid or solid, but solid samples are much more commonly used. It can be defined as the process of extracting compounds from a matrix using supercritical fluids as solvents (Anas et al., 2022;Yousefi et al., 2019). SFE represents a sustainable alternative to conventional methods, primarily because it belongs to green extraction techniques, and is in accordance with most of the principles of green chemistry (Beckman, 2004). ...
... These substances have intrinsic properties such as natural origin, volatility, and complexity in their composition and are liquid substances with a prominent aroma [40,41]. In plants, these substances represent a small part of their composition, with approximately 5% of the plant s dry matter, so they are directly involved in their defense mechanisms or even in attracting insects to favor the dispersion of pollen and seeds [42,43]. ...
... These substances have intrinsic properties such as natural origin, volatility, and complexity in their composition and are liquid substances with a prominent aroma [40,41]. In plants, these substances represent a small part of their composition, with approximately 5% of the plant's dry matter, so they are directly involved in their defense mechanisms or even in attracting insects to favor the dispersion of pollen and seeds [42,43]. ...
... Therefore, the extraction process begins with drying the plant material in the shade for a week and, shortly after, the EOs and extracts containing volatile components are extracted from these structures using different extraction methods [87]. These extraction methods can be grouped into traditional methods, such as hydrodistillation [88] and steam distillation [89], and innovative methods, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction [90], supercritical fluid extraction [43], and microwave-assisted extraction [91]. It is important to highlight that the choice of extraction method is influenced by the portion of the plant material (flower, leaf, stem, root or seed), its physical form, in addition to the economic viability of the process. ...
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This literature review explores cutting-edge microencapsulation techniques designed to enhance the antimicrobial efficacy of essential oils in dairy products. As consumer demand for natural preservatives rises, understanding the latest advancements in microencapsulation becomes crucial for improving the shelf life and safety of these products. The bibliometric analysis utilized in this review highlighted a large number of documents published on this topic in relation to the following keywords: essential oils, AND antimicrobials, AND dairy products, OR microencapsulation. The documents published in the last 11 years, between 2013 and 2023, showed a diversity of authors and countries researching this topic and the keywords commonly used. However, in the literature consulted, no study was identified that was based on bibliometric analysis and that critically evaluated the microencapsulation of essential oils and their antimicrobial potential in dairy products. This review synthesizes findings from diverse studies, shedding light on the various encapsulation methods employed and their impact on preserving the quality of dairy goods. Additionally, it discusses the potential applications and challenges associated with implementation in the dairy industry. This comprehensive analysis aims to provide valuable insights for researchers, food scientists, and industry professionals seeking to optimize the use of essential oils with antimicrobial properties in dairy formulations.
... The collected substance passes through a high-temperature rotary water bath at 70 • C [13], reducing the exposure time by taking advantage of ethanol's volatile nature and immediately cooled to minimize essential oil loss. ...
... The collected substance passes through a high-temperature rotary water bath at 70 °C [13], reducing the exposure time by taking advantage of ethanol′s volatile nature and immediately cooled to minimize essential oil loss. ...
... Using ethanol as a co-solvent can enhance the solubility of polar substances, thereby increasing the overall EO extraction rate [18]. Similar conclusions were drawn by Yousefi M's team [13] in their experiments on supercritical CO 2 extraction of EOs. However, there is a significant difference of 9.58% in the extraction rates between 10% and 20% co-solvent contents. ...
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A longstanding concern in plant essential oil extraction is how to optimize extraction efficiency with limited materials. Supercritical CO2 extraction has been proven effective in enhancing the yield and efficiency of extracting plant essential oils. However, the impact of temperature, pressure, and co-solvent content on extracting Hetian rose essential oil remains unclear. There is a lack of research on the influence of pretreatment methods. This study focuses on investigating supercritical CO2 extraction of rose essential oils from Xinjiang Hetian. The research analyzes the effects of pressure and temperature on the extraction rate and validates the efficiency by calculating the solubility of essential oils in supercritical fluid. Under conditions of 35 MPa, 40 °C, 10 L/h, and a particle size of 0.8 mm, this study evaluates the extraction efficiency using Xinjiang Hetian rose materials pretreated with salt solutions at concentrations of 5%, 10%, and 20%, as well as enzyme solutions at concentrations of 2%, 5%, and 10%. Results indicate that appropriate solution concentration can enhance the extraction effect and mass transfer process, but excessively low or high concentrations do not contribute to improved extraction reactions. The highest extraction rate (8.99%) is achieved using a salt solution concentration of 10%, while the lowest (4.21%) is obtained with a salt solution concentration of 20%.
... These two traits are associated with the density and the chemical nature of fluid employed, respectively. The modification of supercritical fluid density, which subsequently leads to changes in solvating power of the fluid, not only causes improving the extraction efficacy, but also aids to the selectivity of fluid to extract compounds of interest from a complex matrix [35,36]. In addition to selectivity, this technique is accomplished in the mild conditions and prevent problems related with the thermal decomposition of substances [37]. ...
... Before optimizing the process of SFE, screening the most efficient factors is an immediate matter. The screening process of variables in the SFE of plant extract are usually accomplished by two-level full factorial, two-level fractional factorial, and Plackette-Burman designs [35]. Investigating the related studies demonstrates that temperature and pressure are two factors, which are always seen in papers, then flow rate, modifier, time, and sample size are recognized as variables need to be optimized [99][100][101]. ...
... To optimize the SFE yield, designs of Taguchi, Box-Behnken designs (BBD), central composite designs (CCD), small face central composite design (SFCCD), chaotic gray wolf optimization (ACGWO), etc. have been exploited so far [35,102,103]. Most of these designs are on bases of response surface methodology (RSM) designs. ...
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Supercritical fluid extraction is a successful technique in the field of extraction of different bioactive compounds at the mild temperature conditions. This technique is frequently used for the extraction of plant extracts. In the review, supercritical fluid extraction is investigated from different aspects in regards to extraction from plants, including differences with classical and modern extraction methods, antioxidant and antibacterial strength of extracts obtained by supercritical fluids, representing the effectiveness of the extraction system, and various parameters affecting the extraction yield such as temperature, pressure, time, fluid flow rate, modifier, and sample size. Also, a number of studies concerning the modeling and optimizing of supercritical fluid extraction of plant extracts is also discussed.
... The essential oil with highest content of eugenol and eugenol acetate was obtained by steam distillation method [55]. [81][82][83][84]. Green color-no organic solvent, no heating, Orange color-no organic solvent but need heating; Red-with organic solvent and heating. ...
... Traditional and emerging methods for the extraction of essential oils[81][82][83][84]. Green colorno organic solvent, no heating, Orange color-no organic solvent but need heating; Red-with organic solvent and heating. ...
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Insect infestation and microbial, particularly mold contamination, are the major causes of stored grain deterioration during postharvest storage, which results in a significant loss in grain quality and quantity, and the formation of toxic chemicals such as mycotoxins. Pesticides, together with physical protection strategies, have been widely used to control insects and molds in stored grains, but their uses present significant environmental and health problems. This has led to the exploration of safer pesticide alternatives. Essential oils (EOs) are highly concentrated materials extracted from leaves, stems, flowers, seeds, roots, fruit rinds, resins, or barks. They are multifunctional due to their complex chemical composition. Thus, EOs are frequently used for their therapeutic, antimicrobial, odoriferous, and flavor properties in a wide range of products like medicine, cosmetics, and foods. This review provides comprehensive information on the chemical compositions of EOs commonly used in the food industry, factors influencing EO composition, and recent studies on the potential of EOs as alternatives to synthetic pesticides and fungicides for stored grain protection. The relationship between chemical compositions of EOs and their anti-insects and antimicrobial potentials, as well as current approaches/technologies of using EOs for food preservation, are also covered. However, this review also highlights the need for research on the development of feasible and affordable methodologies to apply effective EOs or encapsulated EOs in grain storage settings, particularly for organic grain protection.
... Essential oils are extracted using various techniques, typically categorized into conventional and advanced methods. Traditional extraction methods include steam distillation (SD), hydro-distillation (HD), hydro-diffusion (HDF), and solvent extraction (SE) [67]. [61,62]; (c) eugenol, one of the main component of Syzygium aromaticum buds and Cinnamomum cassia bark EOs [63], (d) caryophyllene, limonene, and α-thujene, terpenes composed exclusively of carbon and hydrogen [16]; (e) caryophyllene oxide, terpineol, and thujone, oxygenated analogous of terpenes [56]; (f) menthone and 3-carene, examples of a monoterpenoid and a monoterpene, respectively [64]; (g) α-turmerone and germacrene D, examples of a sesquiterpenoid and a sesquiterpene, respectively [65]; (h) taxadiene, a precursor diterpene of the anticancer drug paclitaxel [66]. ...
... Essential oils are extracted using various techniques, typically categorized into conventional and advanced methods. Traditional extraction methods include steam distillation (SD), hydro-distillation (HD), hydro-diffusion (HDF), and solvent extraction (SE) [67]. On the other hand, advanced methods comprise microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) [24]. ...
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Essential oils (EOs) are highly valued in the cosmetic and food industries for their diverse properties. However, traditional extraction methods often result in low yields, inconsistent compositions, lengthy extraction times, and the use of potentially harmful solvents. Natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) have emerged as promising alternatives, offering advantages such as higher efficiency, cost-effectiveness, biodegradability, and tunable properties. This review explores the application of NADES in enhancing EO extraction, focusing on current methodologies, key insights, and practical applications. It examines the factors that influence EO extraction with NADES, including the optimization of their physicochemical properties, extraction techniques, operational conditions, and the role of sample pretreatment in improving efficiency. Additionally, this review covers the chemical characterization and biological activities of EOs extracted using NADES. By providing a comprehensive overview, it highlights the potential of NADES to improve EO extraction and suggests directions for future research in this field.
... However, CO2's nonpolarity limits its solvent effectiveness, showing affinity only to nonpolar compounds (de Melo et al., 2014). Cosolvents such as ethanol or isopropanol are used to modify the solvent polarity (Yousefi et al., 2019). ...
... Additionally, higher temperatures may cause thermal degradation of compounds, while higher pressure can increase fluid density and obstruct diffusivity into the biomass, decreasing extraction yields (Molino et al., 2020;de Melo et al., 2014;Yousefi et al., 2019). This thermal degradation and reduced yield at higher pressures were reported by Sanzo et al. when extracting astaxanthin and lutein from Haematococcus pluvialis (Sanzo et al., 2018). ...
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In this study a Machine Learning model was employed to predict the lipid profile from supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of microalgae Galdieria sp. USBA-GBX-832 under different temperature (40, 50, 60°C), pressure (150, 250 bar), and ethanol flow (0.6, 0.9 mL min⁻¹) conditions. Six machine learning regression models were trained using 33 independent variables: 29 from RD-Kit molecular descriptors, three from the extraction conditions, and the infinite dilution activity coefficient (IDAC). The lipidomic characterization analysis identified 139 features, annotating 89 lipids used as the entries of the model, primarily glycerophospholipids and glycerolipids. It was proposed a methodology for selecting the representative lipids from the lipidomic analysis using an unsupervised learning method, these results were compared with Tanimoto scores and IDAC calculations using COSMO-SAC-HB2 model. The models based on decision trees, particularly XGBoost, outperformed others (RMSE: 0.035, 0.095, 0.065 and coefficient of determination (R²): 0.971, 0.933, 0.946 for train, test and experimental validation, respectively), accurately predicting lipid profiles for unseen conditions. Machine Learning methods provide a cost-effective way to optimize SFE conditions and are applicable to other biological samples.
... In contrast, SFE is able to obtain chemical components through milder conditions compared to SDE. Therefore, SFE has a stronger ability to retain the main components of CAEO 26 . In addition, some compounds such as α-terpinene, and dihydrocarveol, are obtained only by using SDE. ...
... Moreover, the particle size of SFE-CAEO-NE was smaller than that of SDE-CAEO-NE, reflecting the superior stability of the former. This difference could be attributed to the stronger interfacial binding ability and antioxidant properties of SFE-CAEO 26,37 . ...
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To overcome the defects of Citrus aurantium L. var. amara Engl. essential oil (CAEO), such as high volatility and poor stability, supercritical fluid-extracted CAEO nanoemulsion (SFE-CAEO-NE) was prepared by the microemulsification method. Emulsifiers comprising Tween 80, polyoxyethylenated castor oil (EL-40), and 1,2-hexanediol, and an oil phase containing SFE-CAEO were used for microemulsification. We examined the physicochemical properties of SFE-CAEO-NE and steam distillation-extracted CAEO nanoemulsion (SDE-CAEO-NE), which were prepared using different concentrations of the emulsifiers. The mean particle size and zeta potential were 21.52 nm and –9.82 mV, respectively, for SFE-CAEO-NE, and 30.58 nm and –6.28 mV, respectively, for SDE-CAEO-NE, at an emulsifier concentration of 15% (w/w). SFE-CAEO-NE displayed better physicochemical properties compared with SDE-CAEO-NE. Moreover, its physicochemical properties were generally stable at different temperatures (–20–60℃), pH (3–8), and ionic strengths (0–400 mM). No obvious variations in particle size, zeta potential, and Ke were observed after storing this nanoemulsion for 30 days at 4℃, 25℃, and 40℃, suggesting that it had good stability. The sleep-promoting effect of SFE-CAEO-NE was evaluated using a mouse model of insomnia. The results of behavioral tests indicated that SFE-CAEO-NE ameliorated insomnia-like behavior. Moreover, SFE-CAEO- NE administration increased the serum concentrations of neurotransmitters such as 5-hydroxytryptamine and γ-aminobutyric acid, and decreased that of noradrenaline in mice. It also exerted a reparative effect on the function of damaged neurons. Overall, SFE-CAEO-NE displayed a good sleep-promoting effect. graphical abstract Fullsize Image
... It has been well-established that encapsulated EOs have antibacterial activities that are useful for food preservation [15]. But EOs have downsides, such as limited water solubility, high vapor pressure, and oxidation when exposed to air [16]. The aforementioned problems with the industry's use of EOs as food preservatives can be resolved with the use of nanotechnology. ...
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Exploring innovative approaches to combat Helicobacter pylori infections, this study investigates the antimicrobial efficacy of nanoemulsions derived from Cinnamomum zeylanicum (cinnamon) essential oil using an advanced microfluidic platform. Clinical isolates of H. pylori were obtained from gastric biopsies of five patients presenting with gastrointestinal complications at the Shariati Hospital in Tehran. Two nanoemulsion formulations (F1 and F2) were developed with distinct particle sizes of 78 nm and 152 nm, respectively, achieved through varying surfactant concentrations. The antibacterial activity was systematically evaluated across multiple parameters, including particle size, concentration gradients (25–300 µg/mL), and residence times (2.5–45 min) within a custom-designed microfluidic device. Bacterial membrane disruption was quantitatively assessed through protein and nucleic acid release measurements, with maximum absorbance values of 1.50 (OD280nm) and 0.6 (OD260nm) observed for the F1 as small size formulation. Scanning electron microscopy revealed significant morphological alterations in bacterial structure upon exposure to the nanoemulsions. Notably, the F1 formulation (78 nm) demonstrated superior antimicrobial activity, achieving efficacy comparable to 70% ethanol at concentrations of 100 µg/mL within 2.5 min of exposure. This study presents a novel integration of nanotechnology and microfluidics for rapid assessment of natural antimicrobial compounds, offering potential applications in food preservation and therapeutic interventions against H. pylori infections.
... Despite its advantages, SFE is associated with high operational costs due to the specialized equipment and significant energy input required, making it less economically feasible for some operations. Additionally, the technical complexity of optimizing extraction parameters to maximize efficiency while preserving essential nutrients necessitates substantial expertise [119]. Nevertheless, SFE holds promise for producing highquality defatted BSFLM with minimal environmental impact, especially when advancements continue to reduce costs and improve process efficiency. ...
Article
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Aquaculture plays a critical role in global food security, with Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) recognized for its adaptability and robust growth. However, traditional feeds, heavily reliant on fishmeal (FM) and soybean meal, face economic and environmental challenges. In response, black soldier fly larvae meal (BSFLM) has emerged as a promising, nutrient-dense alternative. This review synthesizes existing literature on BSFLM’s nutritional profile and its suitability for Nile tilapia diets, while acknowledging that the data come from diverse independent studies conducted under varying environmental conditions and husbandry practices. BSFLM consistently provides high-quality protein (29.9%–48.2%), aligning with tilapia’s requirements, and is rich in essential minerals and fatty acids. While its lipid content (25.69%–28.43%) may require processing adjustments, the overall profile supports tilapia health and growth. Trends from case studies suggest that certain systems, such as hapas placed in ponds, have reported favorable growth and feed conversion efficiencies at 50% FM replacement levels. However, these findings cannot be directly compared across all studies due to differences in methodologies, culture conditions, and inclusion rates. Instead, they collectively indicate that BSFLM can effectively replace traditional protein sources and enhance sustainability. As research and production scale up, careful consideration of context, system design, and feed formulations will be essential. Collaborative efforts among researchers, industry, and policymakers will further refine the use of BSFLM, ultimately advancing the environmental and economic sustainability of Nile tilapia aquaculture.
... Additionally, SC-CO 2 is environmentally friendly, utilizing recyclable CO 2 instead of harmful organic solvents. The process is also faster, scalable, and ideal for extracting volatile compounds without loss or alteration, making it a versatile and sustainable extraction technique [9][10][11]. In particular, E. globulus and S. oficinalis plants have been shown to be an interesting source of terpenoids, which have been obtained by SC-CO 2 using temperatures from 40 to 60 • C and extraction pressures ranging from 100 to 220 bar [12][13][14][15]. ...
Article
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This study investigates the biorefinery approach to extracting blood–brain barrier (BBB)-permeable compounds from Eucalyptus globulus Labill. and Salvia officinalis L. for neuroprotective purposes. A sequential extraction process was applied, starting with supercritical CO2 extraction (SC-CO2) to obtain non-polar terpenoids, followed by pressurized natural deep eutectic solvent extraction (PLE-NaDES) to recover phenolic compounds from the SC-CO2 residue. PLE-NaDES extracts exhibited higher antioxidant and anticholinergic capacities than SC-CO2 extracts for both plants, with S. officinalis extracts being more bioactive than E. globulus extracts. A total of 21 terpenoids were identified using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry from E. globulus while 24 were detected from S. officinalis SC-CO2 extracts. In addition, 25 different phenolic compounds were identified in both plants using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry from PLE-NaDES extracts. The study of the permeability across the BBB showed limited permeability for non-polar compounds obtained by SC-CO2 from both plants; however, the more polar compounds obtained by PLE-NaDES showed high permeability, particularly for flavonoids in E. globulus and rosmarinic acid in S. officinalis. This study revealed, for the first time, the antioxidant and neuroprotective potential of S. officinalis and E. globulus extracts obtained using SC-CO2 followed by PLE-NaDES, as well as the high permeability of PLE-NaDES extracts when crossing the BBB to exert their protective effects. This research opens a new pathway for exploring alternatives to current drugs used in treating neurodegenerative diseases.
... However, incorporating natural oils and hydrocarbons into the process improves the attraction of CO 2. It reduces contact with the sample matrix to a minimum. This results in a significant enhancement of extraction efficiency [68]. SC-CO 2 extraction requires a lot of energy and is expensive. ...
Article
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Nature has been acknowledged as a fundamental source of diverse bioactive molecules. Among natural carotenoids, lutein, zeaxanthin, and their oxidative metabolites are specifically deposited in the macular region of living organisms. Lutein and zeaxanthin are carot-enoids primarily found in green leafy vegetables, eggs, and various fruits. Lutein and zeaxan-thin emerge as the primary carotenoids in the retina, playing a crucial role as photo-protectants to prevent retinal degeneration. The extraction of lutein and zeaxanthin from natural sources involves several techniques, including solvent extraction and supercritical fluid extraction, with an emphasis on optimizing efficiency and yield. Incorporating these carotenoids into functional foods-such as fortified dairy products, baked goods, and snacks-enhances their nutritional profiles and provides significant health benefits. This review examines the sources, stability, bioactivity, and various extraction methods for lutein and zeaxanthin, highlighting their potential for photoprotection, antioxidant activity, and antidiabetic effects. These attributes , combined with innovative extraction techniques, position lutein and zeaxanthin as promising ingredients for functional food applications.
... The steam might not have adequate time to contact the plant material at larger particle sizes, minimizing extraction rates. Also, the plant matrices with larger particles can cause turbulent conditions that will limit the interaction of the steam with the matrix, hence limiting the extraction capability 40 . ...
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Pistacia lentiscus L. is an aromatic plant containing a significant percentage of essential oil (EO) used in fragrance, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and the food industry. The purpose of this work is focused on the optimization of Pistacia lentiscus L. oleo gum resin EO yield extracted by superheated steam extraction (SHSE) by response surface methodology, including extraction parameters of particle size (0. 5 − 1 mm), temperature (140–180 °C) and time (90–150 min). The optimum conditions for Pistacia lentiscus L. EO extracted by SHSE were found to be (particle size: 0.75 mm, time: 120 min and temperature: 160 ℃) which produced the highest EO yield of 5.7%. A regression model was developed, demonstrating a robust quadratic correlation with an R² value of 0.9991, making it suitable for predictions. Furthermore, the yield of Pistacia lentiscus L. EO extracted by SHSE was compared with the conventional steam and hydro distillation techniques. The study revealed that SHSE yielded higher quantities of EO than other extraction methods. GC-MS analyzed the chemical composition of Pistacia lentiscus L. EO. The predominant compound of Pistacia lentiscus L. EO was determined to be α-pinene, while the other identified compounds include trans-verbenol, verbenol, cis-verbenone, camphene, β-myrcene, d-limonene, cymene, α-myrtenol, α-campholenal, α-copaene, and α-thujene, whose content differed according to different extraction techniques. Overall, superheated steam extraction is an efficient technique for extracting Pistacia lentiscus L. essential oil that enhances EO yield, requiring less time for extraction.
... There are a number of recognized extraction methods for essential oils, such as ultrasonic hydrogenated water vapor distillation (Modi et al., 2019), supercritical fluid extraction (Yousefi et al., 2019), and subcritical fluid extraction (Wang et al., 2017), but a new technology with higher extraction rate, greener, and lower cost is needed to achieve large-scale industrial application, especially in the prepared dish industry. Low-temperature continuous phase transition (LTCPT) technology is an efficient extraction method independently developed on the basis of supercritical and subcritical extraction technology. ...
Article
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Ginger essential oil is widely used in the food industry due to its unique aroma and antibacterial activity. In this study, for the first time, ginger essential oil was extracted using a low-temperature continuous phase transition (LTCPT) device and used in the study of the preservation effect of prepared duck meat. Compared to water vapor distillation, LTCPT increased the extraction rate of ginger essential oil by 3.3 times and produced seven additional active ingredients. Meanwhile, the content of zingiberene in ginger essential oil obtained by this method is as high as 38.12%. Further, a nanoemulsion with a particle size of 145.6 nm and zeta potential of − 42.4 mV was used as a carrier to investigate the preservative effect of ginger essential oil on duck breast meat. Ginger essential oil not only inhibited the microbial growth and reduced the production of malondialdehyde and volatile basic nitrogen but also slowed down the rise of pH value during the storage of duck breast, thus extending the shelf life by about 21 days. Finally, analysis of the microflora changes of duck breast meat revealed that ginger essential oil decreased the abundance of the dominant spoilage bacteria (Acinetobacter) by approximately 2.6 times at 14 days compared to the control group. In conclusion, this study provides new ideas in the research aspect of preservation of prepared meat products.
... In general, the effectiveness of the supercritical fluid's ability to generate nano-liposomes depends on several factors, including flow rate, pressure, time, temperature, etc. In the circumstances like this, when many factors may affect the final result, optimizing and modeling process variables using approaches such as the one factor at a time (OFAT) or design of experiments (DOE) approach is an excellent way to increase process efficiency [31]. Since in the DOE strategy, all the interactions between various parameters are considered, it produces more accurate findings than the OFAT strategy. ...
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A semi-synthetic camptothecin derivative known as irinotecan hydrochloride is frequently used to treat colorectal cancer, including colorectal adenocarcinoma and lung cancers involving small cells. Irinotecan has a very short half-life; therefore, continuous infusions are required to keep the drug’s blood levels at therapeutic levels, which could produce cumulative toxicities. Effective delivery techniques, including liposomes, have been developed to address these shortcomings. In this study, a continuous supercritical fluid approach dubbed Expansion Supercritical Fluid into an aqueous solution, in which the pressure decreases rapidly but remains over the critical pressure, is proposed to manufacture polyethylene glycolylated (PEGylated) liposomes carrying irinotecan hydrochloride. To accomplish this, PEGylated liposomes were created using a Box–Behnken design, and the operating parameters (flow rate, temperature, and pressure drop) were optimized. Encapsulation efficiency, mean size, and prepared liposome count were 94.6%, 55 nm, and 758 under ideal circumstances. Additionally, the stability of the PEGylated liposome was investigated during 8 weeks, and also PEGylated liposome-loaded irinotecan release profile was compared to conventional liposomes and free irinotecan, and a constant drug release was seen after the first burst release from liposomes.
... The parameters were selected according to the previous reports on the extraction of essential oils. 24,25 On the basis of a single-factor test, a definitive screening design was used to investigate the uncertain process parameters, including solid−liquid ratio (X 1 ), auxiliary NaCl concentration (X 2 ), soaking temperature (X 3 ), soaking time (X 4 ), ultrasonic power (X 5 ), ultrasonic time (X 6 ), ultrasonic temperature (X 7 ), and distillation time (X 8 ). JMP software (Version 11 pro, SAS Corporation of the United States) was used for the experimental design. ...
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Jinhua finger citron is one of the traditional specialties of Jinhua with a long history of cultivation. The current study highlighted the advantages of using the quality by design approach to optimize the ultrasonic-assisted distillation extraction of Jinhua finger citron essential oil. The yield of Jinhua finger citron essential oil was regarded as a potential critical quality attribute. Potential critical process parameters were screened by the definitive screening design. Finally, the design space of the essential oil extraction process was constructed. The optimal operating space included an auxiliary NaCl concentration range of 9–12.00%, a soak temperature range of 30–50 °C, a distillation time range of 3.5–4.00 h, an ultrasonic power range of 200–300 W, a solid–liquid ratio range of 1:3–1:3.5, and a soak time range of 40–80 min. On this basis, the relative density, refractive index, and pH values of different batches of Jinhua finger citron essential oil were checked. The involved batches were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC), and gas chromatographic fingerprints were established by identifying major compounds, including d-limonene, γ-terpinene, and 5,7-dimethoxycoumarin. Based on the “quality by design” strategy, the extraction process of Jinhua finger citron essential oil established in this study was robust, reliable, and flexible.
... In addition, the use of environmentally friendly subcritical water and supercritical CO 2 as solvents allows one to classify these methods as "green" sample preparation methods. In the last five years, there has been a boom in the use of these methods in technological processes for the isolation of biologically active substances (phenolic compounds, lignans, carotenoids, oils and lipids, essential oils and other nutraceuticals) from various plant materials and food products [18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25]. Despite the high cost of laboratory equipment required for extraction, these methods have not lost their relevance in chemical analysis, as evidenced by the number of reviews devoted to the use of pressurized liquid extraction [26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44], subcritical water extraction [45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57], and supercritical fluid extraction for the extraction of organic compounds from natural and biological solids, as well as from food products (Table 1). ...
... While water facilitates extraction by swelling matrices and opening pores, its excessive presence can impact recovery. In the context of raspberry seed oil extraction, a moisture content of 3.25 ± 0.16% significantly influences the effectiveness of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), altering fluid characteristics and target molecule solubility (Yousefi et al. 2019;Pavlić et al. 2020). ...
Chapter
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The increased attention to the valorization of agro-food industrial waste arises from environmental concerns and economic opportunities. The use of sub- and supercritical fluids, including CO2, in oil extraction is garnering attention for their unique properties that improve extraction rates and preserve bioactive compounds. Advanced pressurized fluid extraction techniques offer significant advantages over traditional methods, enabling efficient and sustainable processes for greener production in the global manufacturing sector. Extracted oils and bioactive compounds can enhance the nutritional profile of diverse food products and find applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and nutraceutical industries. The chapter begins by outlining the fundamental principles of sub- and supercritical fluid extraction, delving into the intricate balance between maximizing extraction yields and maintaining desirable oil characteristics. Case studies and experimental findings underscore the varied applications of sub- and supercritical fluid extraction in extracting oils from agro-food industrial waste. This chapter provides insights into the impact of subcritical and supercritical fluid extraction on oil yields obtained from different industrial waste materials.
... При необходимости высушенную ОЖ можно обезжиривать, например, путем экстракции сверхкритическим CO 2 . Этот технологический подход широко применяется в фармацевтике и производстве БАД, поскольку позволяет экстрагировать жир из биологических субстанций без использования токсичных органических растворителей и относительно недорого при малотоннажном производстве [12]. ...
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... In general, the effectiveness of the supercritical uid's ability to generate nano-liposomes depends on several factors, including ow rate, pressure, time, temperature, etc. In the circumstances like this, when many factors may affect the nal result, optimizing and modeling process variables using approaches such as the one factor at a time (OFAT) or design of experiments (DOE) approach is an excellent way to increase process e ciency [31]. Since in the DOE strategy, all the interactions between various parameters are considered, it produces more accurate ndings than the OFAT strategy. ...
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... Above 37 • C, the curve gently declined. Further increases in temperature might lead to the degradation of terpenoids [43], resulting in a decrease in extraction yield. Thus, the temperature range of 32-42 • C was chosen for the CCD design. ...
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The recent millennium has witnessed a notable shift in consumer focus towards natural products for addressing lifestyle-related disorders, driven by their safety and cost-effectiveness. Nutraceuticals and functional foods play an imperative role by meeting nutritional needs and offering medicinal benefits. With increased scientific knowledge and awareness, the significance of a healthy lifestyle, including diet, in reducing disease risk is widely acknowledged, facilitating access to a diverse and safer diet for longevity. Plant-based foods rich in phytochemicals are increasingly popular and effectively utilized in disease management. Agricultural waste from plant-based foods is being recognized as a valuable source of nutraceuticals for dietary interventions. Citrus peels, known for their diverse flavonoids, are emerging as a promising health-promoting ingredient. Globally, citrus production yields approximately 15 million tons of by-products annually, highlighting the substantial potential for utilizing citrus waste in phyto-therapeutic and nutraceutical applications. Citrus peels are a rich source of flavonoids, with concentrations ranging from 2.5 to 5.5 g/100 g dry weight, depending on the citrus variety. The most abundant flavonoids in citrus peel include hesperidin and naringin, as well as essential oils rich in monoterpenes like limonene. The peel extracts exhibit high antioxidant capacity, with DPPH radical scavenging activities ranging from 70 to 90%, comparable to synthetic antioxidants like BHA and BHT. Additionally, the flavonoids present in citrus peel have been found to have antioxidant properties, which can help reduce oxidative stress by 30% and cardiovascular disease by 25%. Potent anti-inflammatory effects have also been demonstrated, reducing inflammatory markers such as IL-6 and TNF-α by up to 40% in cell culture studies. These findings highlight the potential of citrus peel as a valuable source of nutraceuticals in diet-based therapies.
... Similarly, reducing the particle size can increase the surface area of the plant material, which can result in improved contact between the plant material and the solvent and, consequently, a greater oil yield (Jha & Sit, 2022). However, reducing the particle size can also increase the flow resistance of the supercritical fluid, which can reduce the mass transfer rate of oil components from the plant material to the solvent, resulting in a lower oil yield (Yousefi et al., 2019). Consequently, the optimal particle size for SC-CO 2 extraction of citronella oil depends on several variables, such as the extraction conditions, pressure, temperature, and solvent-to-feed ratio. ...
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This review paper explores the utilization of supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction to isolate citronella oil, delving into its multifaceted dimensions, including process optimization, product quality enhancement, and diverse potential applications. Citronella oil, renowned for its myriad bioactive compounds with demonstrated health benefits, is a coveted essential oil in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and food industries. The transition from traditional extraction techniques to SC-CO2 extraction presents a paradigm shift due to its manifold advantages, such as heightened yield rates, expedited extraction durations, and elevated product quality. However, the efficacy of SC-CO2 extraction is intricately interwoven with an array of parameters encompassing pressure, temperature, flow rate, particle size, and co-solvent ratios. Accordingly, meticulous process optimization is indispensable in achieving the desired product quality while maximizing yield. Furthermore, the paper explores the extensive spectrum of potential applications for citronella oil, extending its reach into formulations with antimicrobial, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. These applications underscore the versatility and commercial appeal of citronella oil. The review establishes SC-CO2 extraction of citronella oil as a promising and sustainable alternative to conventional extraction methodologies, offering myriad applications across the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and food sectors. This scholarly work provides valuable insights into the intricacies of process optimization and product quality. It outlines future perspectives and avenues for further exploration in SC-CO2 extraction of citronella oil.
... An optimal yield of 0.031 ± 0.02% was achieved at temperatures and pressures of 50°C and 90 Bar, respectively. The highest quality oil can be extracted at low temperatures (Yousefi et al., 2019). Current findings regarding the yield and explanation of supercritical fluid extraction (SCFE) closely align with the outcomes reported by (Rajput et al., 2023) for the extraction of essential oil from clove buds. ...
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In this work essential oil was extracted from Algerian Rosemary leaves by the supercritical CO2 extraction. The effects of the key parameters such as pressure and temperature on the yield of extraction were examined. The obtained yield were in the range of 0.95-3.52 g of dry oil / g of rosemary, and the best value was obtained at a pressure of 22 MPa and temperature of 40 degrees C. The model of shrinking-core was used to analyse the experimental results of the extraction, this model contains one adjustable parameter, effective diffusivity De, the experimental results were successfully fitted.
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Essential oil was extracted from lavender using supercritical carbon dioxide by means of a newly developed periodic static-dynamic (PSD) procedure and the conventional semicontinuous (SC) technique. Applying GC-FID analysis in conjunction with Box-Behnken design, an optimum overall extraction yield (94.4%) was obtained via PSD in contrast to 90% for the SC method. The results indicate that supercritical fluid extraction is a viable technique for separation of constituents such as linalyl acetate, linalool, fenchone, and camphor for pharmaceutical and medicinal applications. Furthermore, a substantial reduction of energy consumption and solvent consumption is achieved with the developed PSD process compared to the conventional SC method.
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The volatiles of Achillea millefolium L., cultivated in Iran, were obtained by hydrodistillation and supercritical (carbon dioxide) extraction methods. The volatiles were analyzed by capillary gas chromatography using fame ionization and mass spectrometric detections. The effects of different parameters, such as pressure, temperature, modifier volume and extraction time, on the supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of A. millefolium volatiles were investigated. The results showed that, under a pressure of 300 atm, temperature 35°C, 5% methanol and dynamic extraction time of 20 min, extraction was more selective for germacrene D. Fifty compounds were identified in the hydrodistilled oil. The major volatile components of A. millefollium were 1,8-cineole (15.2%) and germacrene D (14.1%). However, by using supercritical carbon dioxide under optimum conditions, only two components constituted more than (60%) of the volatile concentrate.
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The present study presents experimental results concerning the supercritical CO2 extraction of essential oil from Algerian rosemary leaves. The effects of key operating parameters such as pressure, temperature, particle size and CO2 mass flow rate on the extraction yield were investigated. The obtained yields were in the range of 0.95–3.52 g oil/g dry rosemary, and the best value was observed at a pressure of 22 MPa, a temperature of 40 °C, a flow rate of 7 g/min, and a particle size of 1 mm. The performance of the local rosemary used was assessed by comparison of the obtained yields with values reported in the literature for essential oils derived from different rosemary sources. The GC and the GC-MS analyses showed that the major compound detected in the essential oil was camphor, at 48.89 wt %.
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Sixty compounds of Lavandula angustifolia L. cultivated in Friuli Venezia Giulia (North-East Italy) were identified and quantified by GC-MS and GC-FID from essential oils obtained by means of hydrodistillation, and from extracts obtained by supercritical CO2 extraction (SFE) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (US). Using absolute calibration, a true quantification of 1-8 cineol, camphor, linalool, linalyl acetate and β-caryophyllene was carried out. The best extracts, in terms of amount of isolated compounds, flavour quality and stability were those obtained with SFE. Sonication performed at low amplitude for 5 min offered respect to high amplitude a promising alternative to hydrodistillation as a source of lavender flavouring ready to use for alcoholic beverages or/and confectionery products.
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The superfine grinding could produce a narrow and uniform particle size distribution in dry ginger. The physical–chemical properties of five types of ginger powders with particles size of 300, 149, 74, 37 and 8.34 μm were investigated. The size was smaller for ginger powders, greater for the surface area (from 0.331 to 1.320 m2/g) and bulk density (from 0.3069 to 0.3426 g/ml) and smaller for the angle of repose (from 51.50° to 46.33°) and slide (from 45.80° to 39.50°). The values of water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI) and protein content significantly increased with decreasing the size of ginger particles (p < 0.05). Interestingly, the values of WAI, WSI and protein content of ginger powder with a particle size of 8.34 μm during soaking reached 0.52 g/g, 33.70% and 84.93% for 60 min, respectively. SEM observations revealed the shape and surface morphology of five types of ginger powders.
Article
Essential oil of Salvia mirzayanii cultivated in Iran was obtained by hydrodistillation and supercritical (carbon dioxide) extraction methods. The oil was analysed by capillary gas chromatography using flame ionization and mass spectrometric detections. The compounds were identified according to their retention indices and mass spectra (EI, 70 eV). The effects of different parameters such as pressure, temperature, modifier volume and extraction times (dynamic and static) on the supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of S. mirzayanii oil were investigated. The results showed that, under a pressure of 35.5 MPa, temperature of 35 °C, 6% methanol, dynamic extraction time of 50 min and static extraction time of 30 min, extraction was more selective for the linalyl acetate. Thirty four compounds were identified in the hydrodistilled oil. The major components of S. mirzayanii were linalyl acetate (7.6%), 1,8-cineole (8.0%), linalool (9.0%) and 8-acetoxy linalool (11.0%). However, by using supercritical carbon dioxide in optimum conditions, only three components contain more than 63% of the oil. The yield of the obtained oil based on hydrodistillation was 2.20% (v/w). Extraction yield based on the SFE varied in the range of 1.50–9.67% (w/w) under different conditions. The results revealed that, in Iranian S. mirzayanii oil, linalyl acetate is a major component.
Article
Chemical compositions and antioxidant activities of essential oils from nine different species of Turkish plants, namely Melissa officinalis L., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Cuminum cyminum L., Piper nigrum L., Lavandula stoechas spp., Foeniculum vulgare, Pimpinella anisum L., Thymus serpyllum and Liquidamber orientalis Mill., were studied. Essential oils were obtained by supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO2) extraction and steam distillation, and were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The antioxidant activities of SCCO2 extraction and steam distillation extracts were tested by means of the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. Essential oils extracted by SCCO2 and steam distillation showed different compositions in different species. In the DPPH assay, R. officinalis, C. cyminum, P. anisum, T. serpyllum and L. orientalis essential oils obtained by SCCO2 extraction showed higher antioxidant activity than steam distillation extracts, with radical scavenging activities ranging from 87.1 +/- 0.23% to 92.0 +/- 0.34% compared with the butylated hydroxytoluene positive control (91.4 +/- 0.21%).
Article
The possible use of antimicrobials from seven plant essential oils as food preservatives was studied by examining their effects on the growth kinetics of activated Bacillus cereus INRA L2104 spores inoculated into tyndallized carrot broth. The effects of various concentrations of borneol, carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, menthol, thymol, and vanillin were determined. Five microliters of cinnamaldehyde, 15 microl of carvacrol, or 30 mg of thymol per 100 ml of inoculated carrot broth completely inhibited bacterial growth for more than 60 days at 16 degrees C. Lower concentrations of the three antimicrobials prolonged the lag phase and reduced both the exponential growth rate and the final population densities of cultures. The study of the sensory characteristics of the supplemented broths suggested that low concentration of cinnamaldehyde enhanced the taste of carrot broth, and that it did not have any adverse effect on the taste and smell of carrot broth at concentrations less than 6 microl 100 ml(-1).
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