The Origins of Necromancy or How We Learned to Speak to the Dead

Abstract

As far as human history goes, death and dying has always been an important, though in many occasions tragic, event that influences the everyday life of the community. With the development of more complex and elaborate ideas about the afterlife and the underworld, humans have started to think through methods for contacting the dead. The reasons may vary, ranging from the emotional to the purely pragmatic, but the effort remains the same. A multitude of rituals have been developed over time aimed at reaching the deceased and summoning them to the land of the living. And thus the function of the necromancer was born-and the person who is able, or knows of ways, to speak to the lifeless. But are we able to determine where this practice originated? When the moment that man was thought to himself that he might be able to overstep the thin line between life and death?

Full text

30 Kapcár, A. (2015). The Origins of Necromancy or How We Learned to Speak to the Dead. Sacra, 13(2), 30–58.
The Origins of Necromancy or
How We Learned to Speak to the Dead
Andrej Kapcár, FA MU, Department of Archaeology and Museology
e-mail: andrej.kapcar@gmail.com
Abstract
As far as human history goes, death and dying has always been an important,
though in many occasions tragic, event that inuences the everyday life of the
community. With the development of more complex and elaborate ideas about the
afterlife and the underworld, humans have started to think through methods for
contacting the dead. The reasons may vary, ranging from the emotional to the
purely pragmatic, but the effort remains the same. A multitude of rituals have
been developed over time aimed at reaching the deceased and summoning them
to the land of the living. And thus the function of the necromancer was born –
and the person who is able, or knows of ways, to speak to the lifeless. But are we
able to determine where this practice originated? When the moment that man was
thought to himself that he might be able to overstep the thin line between life and
death?
Keywords
necromancy, death, funeral magic, psychology of death, sociological behavior,
occultism, magic, divination
Introduction
Throughout time, people have always been fascinated by death, dying and the
afterlife. Funerary practices, grave decoration, post-mortem rites and rituals have
accompanied humankind from the brink of civilization and have not left us even
up to modern times.
The nal departure of an individual had always had a crushing effect on the
socio-economic structure of a society, going even further if the society consisted
of only a scarce number of members. The closer the ties between the ancestors, or
other dominant gures of the community, the stronger the need to preserve those
bonds in some way, even after death.
The most commonly known practices – including the handling of the corpse, the
preparation of the funeral place, and a certain time reserved for mourning – were
not the only actions closely intertwined with the deceased. In the shadow of the
“mainstream” rites were also found different ones, built on the idea that through
the dead one could archive certain benets, guidance or wisdom. Many of these
customs were carried out in secrecy, away from the view of the public, shrouded
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in a veil of mystery. Maybe it is here that we could nd the origins of the occult
practice that would later be known as necromancy.
Methodology and Goals
The processing of such a complex topic as the necromantic manipulation of the
dead can be a difcult task to accomplish, especially if the facts provided by history
are often vague and based in the realm of myths and legends. This paper does
not have the goal of documenting all of the current approaches and researchers
contributing to the topic of necromancy, but rather to provide a brief introduction
to the subject and set a possible framework as to where the practice may have
originated. The main source of information in the analysis has been anchored in
the written documents of antiquity which could also serve as the foundation stone
in the search for the origins of necromancy in order to provide at least some form
of certainty. As we go further back in history, the lack of written evidence and the
increased stress on material goods is a fertile ground for speculations and unproved
theories that are accepted by some, disregarded by others. Here we might theorize
as to whether the practices of the oldest periods of human history might really
have been connected to necromancy per se, or if they served a different purpose,
but again, that is not the goal. These rather serve as a possible motive for the later
evolution of the practice, one of multiple possible prologues to the whole story.
The Search for Origins – Setting the Timeframe
Even if it would be tempting to concern ourselves with the time periods in
which necromancy had already “bloomed”, the goal of this paper lies elsewhere – to
determine the presumed origins of this practice. For our needs we will concentrate
on the earliest known direct proof of the divination of the dead and then gradually
venture even further into history, where the lack of written words serves as a fertile
ground for speculations and hypotheses, inbound from the certainty of evidence.
The numerous references to communication with the deceased found in the
Bible, the approach of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages, as well as the
extensively described rituals of the Renaissance already lie beyond our period of
interest and will be mentioned only as a reference to older practices.
The timeline to be followed is somewhat different from what might, perhaps,
have been expected. The oldest period of history, with certain evidence recorded
by multiple authors, can be dated to Hellenic Greece. From there, by going further
back into the past we can only assume the presence of necromancy based on
indirect evidence; but nonetheless the aim of this paper is to advance towards the
oldest possible practices, present long ago before the expression established itself
in any documented vocabulary.
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Img. 1. The witch of Endor conjures the soul of Samuel on behalf of Saul – Front plate of
Joseph Glanvil’s “Saducism Trimphatus: Or, Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches
and Apparitions”, London, 1682.
What Is Necromancy and What Was Its Use?
Before we go any further into the explanation of why humans felt the need to
turn themselves to the afterlife in their search for answers, we will have to build
a framework on what can be understood by the term necromancy.
In general, the term necromancy covers all the divination practices connected
with the spirits of the dead.
The expression necromancy, a 17th-century English derivation (Aldrich, 2002:
146) of the Italian word nigromancia (black magic) can be traced back to the
Latin word necromantīa, with the same meaning as its later Italian counterpart.
But for the real roots of the word, we have to go even further into the past – the
Latin expression was borrowed from the pre-classical Greek word νεκρομαντεία
(nekromanteía) consisting of two words – nekrós – νεκρός (dead, corpse) and
manteía – μαντεία (divination).
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First reports of the word in this context come from the early Christian theologian
Origen of Alexandria, 3rd century AD. In his citation of the Recognitions of Clement,
he describes how Simon the Magus said:
By means of ineffable adjuration I called up the soul of an immaculate boy,
who had been put to a violent death, and caused it to stand by me: and by
its means whatever I command is effected. And (the soul freed from the
body) possesses the faculty of foreknowledge: whence it is called forth for
necromancy.1 (Roberts, 1995: II/XIII).
The root of the Hellenistic word can be, on the other hand, found in the classical
Greek word ἡ νέκυια (nekyia), the cult practice of questioning the ghosts about
the future. The earliest reference to this rite can be found in Book XI of the
Odyssey, where Odysseus is instructed to perform a ritual, sacricing a ram, thus
summoning the ghosts of the dead to question them abot his further steps to reach
the Halls of Hades (Homer, 1891).
The expression necromancy (as an act), or necromancer (as a person) per se was
understood during different periods of time, locations and cultures, by multiple
authors in various meanings. As already mentioned, the original meaning was
to describe practices involving divination by means of the spirits of the deceased.
This practice was at a later time supplemented by the idea of an individual
raising either a corpse or a part of it back to life to do his bidding. Since in the
Middle Ages the possibility of raising a deceased person from death was attributed
only to the miracles of God, any actions that would be aimed at similar results
were perceived as “demon magic” and strictly condemned by the Catholic Church.
The practitioners of the Late Middle Ages and Early Renaissance included the
names of angels or saints in their spells, masquerading them as prayers, creating
thus a new syncretic form of necromancy that would be practiced by many of
the well-known occult gures of the Renaissance (John Dee or Edward Kelly)
(Kieckhefer, 1998: 43).
Why this occurred may still be debated. One of the explanations may be that
they wanted to avoid persecution by Christian authorities, another might point
to the fascination with the Kabbalah, or as a means of further exploring and
implementing some aspects of Christian mysticism.
The most recent perception of the art of necromancy is from the late 19th and
early 20th centuries, where it is generally described as all the practices involving
ritual magic, sometimes even omitting the whole involvement of the dead. On the
other hand, this new structure often includes sigil magic, channeling, divination,
demonology, black magic and other occult practices (Godwin, 1834: 75)2.
1 “Pueri incorrupti et violenter neceti animam adjuramantis ineffabilibus evocatem adsistere mihi feci;
et per ipsam t omne quod jubeo. Statim et praescientiam habet (anima), proper quod evocatur ad
necromantia.” (Roberts, 1995: II/XIII).
2 Mostly because of the correlation between the words necromancy and nigromancy
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Img. 2. Engraving of John Dee and Edward Kelly summoning “in the act of invoking the
spirit of a deceased person”, Astrology by Ebenezer Sibly, London, 1806.
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Finding the Roots – The Uncertain History of Necromancy
Antiquity
As has already been discussed, the origins of the expression of necromancy can
be traced back to the Hellenistic period of ancient Greece and it is also here that
we will start our research into its practice.
The earliest and one of the most prominent works mentioning the existence of
necromancy is the Odyssey, by Homer. This Greek epic poem, fundamental to the
Western canon and the second oldest complex written work of Western civilization,
dating back to the 8th century BC, describes the journey of the Greek hero Odysseus,
or Ulysses in the Roman tradition3. After the fall of Troy Odysseus traveled for ten
years on his way home to Ithaca, taking part in multiple adventures and surviving
numerous perils.
In Book XI, unable to nd his way back home to Ithaca, Odysseus consults the
sorceress Circe and is instructed in various rites he has to perform in order to reach
the ghost of the Theban Tiresias (Homer, XI: 138; cited in Ogden, 2001: xxiii).
At the beginning of the practices named nekyia, Odysseus digs a trench with his
sword and around it they pour libations for all the dead, rst mixed with honey,
the second time mixed with sweet wine, the third time mixed with water and then
they sprinkle white meal over it. Odysseus promises the hordes of the dead, that
when back in Ithaca he will offer them a barren heifer in his palace and build
for them a huge sacricial pyre. Especially for Tiresias he will sacrice an all-
black sheep that excels among other sheep. Then he cuts off the heads of several
sheep he has brought for this occasion, letting the blood ow into the trench. Not
until then do the masses of the dead appear – young and old, as well as a vast
number of soldiers, still bearing marks of their mortal wounds. In the last part
of the ritual, the sheep are skinned and burned on a pyre, in order to invoke the
gods Hades/Pluto and his wife Persephone/Proserpine (Homer, XI: 25–50; cited in
Ogden, 2001: xxiv).
3 The oldest one is the Iliad, from the same author, also written in the 8th century BC, but it is presumed
it predates the Odyssey by several years. The Odyssey serves, in some parts, as a sequel to the Iliad.
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Img. 3. Odysseus, between Eurylochos and Perimedes consulting the spirit of Tiresias, side
A from a Lucanian red-gured calyx, 380 BC.
What can be understood from this section? First, the necromantic art Odysseus
was practicing could not be aimed at a single individual, even if his initial goal was
to question Tiresias. The invocation summoned all of the dead of Hades, who came
at his calling. Second, the idea of the necromancer controlling the dead is also not
present here. As the story goes further, Odysseus is rst visited by his departed
companion Elpenor, who died and was left unburied at the palace of Circe, then
by his mother Anticlea and nally then comes the blind prophet Tiresias. All of
these characters converse with Odysseus, questioning or advising the hero in
his further quest, not showing any sign of obedience or obligation. Thirdly, all of
the dead are drawn by the fresh blood that they hasten to drink4. Tiresias also
advises Odysseus, that the spirits he would like to question should also be allowed
to drink from the sacricial blood. Here we observe what would later infamously
become a dominant trait of necromancy – the practice of blood sacrice needed for
interaction with the underworld.
4 Tiresias asks the Greek hero to step aside for him to drink the blood rst, and only after this is he
willing to answer the questions of Odysseus.
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Also note should be taken of the conversation between Odysseus and Elpenor.
The youngest of Odysseus companions gets drunk, falls from a ladder and breaks
his neck on the island of Circe. Because the rest of the party hasten to fulll more
urgent matters, the body remains unburied (Homer, XI: 51; cited in Ogden, 2001:
xxiv) and this points to the widespread fear of the Greeks of the restless dead –
those that died but did not receive a proper funeral. This category of the dead was
feared, and according to the general belief, even avoided by the other dead. Several
measures could be taken in order to give these revenants their nal rest, among
others the construction of cenotaphs, or empty tombs5.
The symbol of the descent into the underworld present in the Odyssey, known
as katabasis, is described in multiple other Greek poems and epics6. In book VI of
Virgil’s Aeneid, the hero Aeneas, with the help of the Sibyl, the priestess of Apollo,
in search of the ghost of his father seeks the entrance to the underworld. After
several tasks and encounters with monsters, warriors and tortured souls he is
nally able to meet his father, who tells him of the future history of Rome (Virgil,
VI: 637–901; cited in Louden, 2011: 209).
Img. 4. The engraving of Aeneas and Sibyl in the underworld, by Bugell, J. L., Peplus
virtutum Romanarum in Aenea Virgiliano eiusque rebus fortiter gestis, ad maiorem
antiquitatis et rerum lucem, communi iuventutis sacratae bono, aere renitens, Nuremburg,
1688.
5 The word cenotaph derives from the Greek kenotaphion (κενοτάφιον), consisting of two words kenos
(κενός) – “empty”, and taphos (τάφος) – “tomb”.
6 Kata (κατὰ) – “down” and basis (βαίνω) – “go”.
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When compared with Odysseus, we notice that Aeneas does not invoke the dead,
but rather takes the journey himself. Even if the story is missing the important
invocation aspect, the result is approximately the same – divination with the help
of the dead.
Several other descents into the underworld by various characters from
Roman mythology can also be found in several works by different authors
(Ovid’s Metamorphoses among others). Juno travels into the land of the dead
to consult the furies (Ovid, 2010, 416–463), one of the twelve labors of Hercules
was to capture the guardian of the underworld, the multi-headed hound of
Hades, Cerberus (Apollodorus, 1921, 5:12), the abduction of Proserpina by Pluto
(Persephone and Hades), and the journey by Proserpina’s mother Ceres into the
underworld in order to rescue her daughter (Ovid, 2010: 552–615, 658–712),
Img. 5. The abduction of Persephone by Hades – Hellenistic painting from the royal tomb of
Aiges by Vergina.
or the effort of Orpheus to return his beloved wife, Eurydice. Proserpina, moved
by the heartfelt song of Orpheus allows Eurydice to leave, under the condition
that Orpheus does not look back until they reach the exit. He fails to abide by this
requirement and his wife disappears forever and the legendary musician is struck
by her death a second time (Ovid, 2010: 1–110).
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Img 6. Orpheus Mourning the Death of Eurydice, painting by Ary Scheffer, 1814.
Here one might also mention another form of katabasis, but from the Epic of
Gilgamesh. At the beginning of tablet 12, Gilgamesh mentions a toy, made by his
own hands, which has fallen into the underworld. His friend Enkidu volunteers to
retrieve it, but even if he is instructed by Gilgamesh as to what actions to avoid,
he is careless and is soon after captured and held prisoner. Also noticeable is
that Enkidu provides the description of the underworld through communication
with Gilgamesh. As the state of the tablet did not provide further information on
how they were communicating, by some it is regarded also as a form of possible
necromancy (Gilgamesh 12: 11–78; cited in Louden, 2011: 206).
Even though none of the stories point directly to the practice of necromancy,
several points still prove useful to its research, especially in the connection with
the older periods that will be covered in later chapters. The main point being the
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accessibility of the realm of the dead, but not necessarily in “both directions”. Most
of the time the ability to travel between the two realms is positively provided to
mortals. Although difcult and demanding, after the accomplishment of several
tasks the hero is able to access the underworld, but not vice versa. The dead have
to remain in their realm and can be summoned only through a ritual, or with the
permission of a higher deity. Secondly, the dead are able to communicate. They
are not just formless shades inhabiting the depths of Hades, but they still keep
their memories and character. They can be questioned, they can be benecial and
on several occasions they evaluate the past, or foretell the future. Lastly, the hero
uses their services for his own benet – mostly seeking advice in things to come.
In these cases we do not have the classical concept of a necromancer, the magus
or a sorcerer who uses rituals to conjure the spirits and uses them according to
his own needs, but if we leave this part out, the outcome is still the same – it is
a discourse with the spirits of the dead with the intention of seeking help beyond
the “conventional” means.
The Oracles of the Dead
The Oracles of the Dead were known under many different names in the
antiquity but their meaning was approximately the same – a place where one could
communicate with the dead, dedicated to either Hades or his wife Persephone, the
deities of the underworld7. The term was mostly used with one of the four most
famous places – Acheron in Thesprotia, Avernus in Campania, Heracleia Pontica
on the south coast of the Black Sea and Tainaron at the tip of the Mani Peninsula,
even if there were a vast number of smaller sites. Heracleia and Tainaron were
located in natural caves, modied by certain man-made means and Acheron and
Avernus were placed beside lakes (Ogden, 2001: 18).
The ritual itself involved the consumption of several meals prepared for this
occasion, consisting among others of supposedly hallucinogenic lupines and
beans, the ritual sacrice of animals and purication after which the consultor
would fall into a sleep during which he would encounter the dead in his dreams
(Ogden, 2001: 19).
Beyond the mythological narratives there were other records of practical
necromancy in antiquity recorded by several well-known historians.
Greek Sources
Plutarch in his De sera numinis vindicta (Section 17) mentions Collondes who
slew Archilochus, a favorite of the Muses, in a ght, and was therefore ejected by
the Pythian priestess. He had to humble himself through prayer and sacrice,
appeasing the evoked ghost of Archilochus to undo his deed (Plutarch, XVII: 41,
cited in Ogden, 2002: 190).
7 The oldest expression being nekuomanteoin – prophecy-place of the dead/5th century BC (Herodotus,
5.92; cited in Ogden, 2002: 188); psuchogogion – drawing-place of ghosts/4th century BC (Theophrastus,
24; cited in Ogden, 2002: 188); psuchomanteion-prophecy-place of the dead/end of 4th century BC
(Crantor of Soli, Plutarch, X: 109bd, Cicero, 115; cited in Ogden, 2002: 188); psuchopompeion-sending-
place of the dead/1st century AD (Plutarch, cited in Bolte, 1932: 2046); nekuor(i)on – seeing-place of the
dead and nekromanteion-prophecy-place of the dead – latinized/5th century AD (Heschyius; cited in
Ogden, 2002: 188).
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In the same work Plutarch describes several other cases of necromancy – in
section 10 he describes the fate of Pausanias, king of Sparta, who for no apparent
reason kills his lover, Cleonice of Byzantium. After this deed, haunted by frightening
visions and apparitions, he travels to the Oracle of the Dead in Heraclea to conjure
the murdered woman. She appears and announces in brief that his hauntings will
cease after his arrival at his hometown of Lacedaemon. Her prophecy comes true,
but not as he expects since after his return he dies (Plutarch, X: 31; cited in Ogden,
2002: 189).
Herodotus in his work the Histories (Book V., chapter 92G) mentions the
Corinthian tyrant Periander and his interaction with the ghost of his dead wife
Melissa. Melissa has been murdered by Periander, based on false accusations by
his concubines. Only she knew the whereabouts of a deposit left behind by his
friend, which causes the tyrant to send messengers to the Oracle of the Dead on the
river Acheron, to evoke and question the ghost. On the rst try, even though the
evocation is successful, Melissa refuses to reveal the location, for she is naked and
cold since the garments she was buried in were never burned. As evidence regarding
her identity for her husband she mentions that “he had put his loaves into a cold
oven”. Periander realizes that it is really his deceased wife (only he knows that he
had had sexual intercourse with her dead body), orders all of the woman of Corinth
to gather, strip naked and have their clothes burned, as a sacrice to Melissa. Only
then is the ghost of Melissa satised and she divulges the location of the deposit
(Herodotus, V 92G: 2–4; cited in Ogden, 2002: 188).
Another work by Plutarch, “Consolatio ad Apollonium”, section 14, provides
an example of a combination of oneiromancy (the divination through dreams)
and necromancy. Euthynoüs, the son of Elysius has suddenly died without any
apparent cause. His father, in doubt as to the possibility of poisoning, visits the
Oracle of the Dead. In the temple he falls asleep and is visited by the ghosts of
his father and then his son who provides him with the information he is seeking
(Plutarch, XIV; cited in Ogden, 2011b: 179)8.
Latin Sources
Among the Roman authors who mention the topic of necromancy one might
mention Horace and his work Satires, where he describing the sightings of witches
(Canidia). Hideous to look at, they can tear a black lamb apart with their teeth,
lling the trenches with blood so that they can summon the dead (Horace, 2005:
23–50).
From Cicero we hear of Vatinius’s Pythagoreanism. In his speech against
Vatinius from 56 BC he asks about the “monstrous and barbarous ways” and his
engagement “in rites of an unparalleled wickedness, after having summoned up
the spirits of the dead and after having sacriced boys to the Di Manes of the
Underworld and then consulting their spirits” (Dickie, 2005: 163)9.
8 The answer he is seeking comes in form of a note, handed to him by his dead son. After he opens
the note, he reads the notice: “Verily somehow the minds of men in ignorance wander; Dead now
Euthynoüs lies ; destiny has so decreed. Not for himself was it good that he live, nor yet for his parents”
(Plutarch(a), 1928: 70).
9 It should also be mentioned, that two years later Cicero in his speech Pro Vatinio successfully defended
Vatinius, clearing him of his charges and even praised him for his Pythagoreanism which he had
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A similar situation can be found in the report of the poet Lucan (Pharsalia, Book
VI), describing Sextus Pompeius, the son of Pompey the Great, who travels to the
magician Erichtho to learn the outcome of the battle at Pharsalus between the
forces supporting his father and those supporting Julius Caesar. It is not clear if
Sextus is personally present, or even participating in the ritual, but it is clear, that
the outcome requires a blood sacrice of young boys. The freshly killed corpse who
is summoned back to life refuses to tell Sextus what awaits him, but advises him
to go back to Sicily and summon the ghost of his father, who will answer all of his
questions (Lucanus, 1905).
Among other records of several well-known historians we might also mention the
emperor Claudius, who showed interest in several forms of magic and divination
as well as in necromancy, Appius, the friend of Cicero and Emperor Drusus, Nero
or Caracalla who all practiced the divination of the dead (Dickie, 2005: 163)10.
Even though the existence of necromancy was mentioned on many occasions by
multiple authors, the incarnations and actual rites were described vaguely at best.
The importance of blood for attracting the dead is visible in most of the practices.
The blood of the sheep described in the Odyssey, the warm blood poured into the
veins of a corpse to restore it to life and the entrails of children as an offering for
the gods, described by Lucan or Cicero.
We can also observe a major shift in the approach towards the existence of
necromancy between the Greek and the Roman period. While in Hellenic Greece
the practice was, based on the descriptions, considered to be something more or
less benecial, despite its bloody content, in the times of the Roman Republic and
the Empire, its existence was becoming unacceptable, as seen from the usage
in arguments against a political opponent. Another important difference is the
sacricial subject – the shift from animal towards human sacrice, underlining the
more sinister tone the practice was beginning to evince.
Necromancy in the East
Not just the Greeks and the Romans had an elaborate belief in the underworld
and with it a close connection to necromancy. Multiple other nations, mostly
from the Middle Eastern region, also had their own ways of communicating with
the dead. On several occasions, the practitioners in this art from other regions
were also mentioned by Greek sources, often even declaring that the knowledge
originated with the nations of the East. Strabo, in his work Geography reports that
magicians, among others also diviners of the dead, originated in Egypt, Babylonia
or Etruria11. Among the most prominent mages, as well as necromancers, were
previously criticized.
10 Tacitus – Annal, II, XXVII, Suetonius – Nero, XXXIV, Dio Cassius, LXXVII, XV, Pliny the Elder –
Historia Naturalis, XXX, V–VI.
11 “What truth there may be in these things I cannot say; they have at least been regarded and believed
as true by mankind. Hence prophets received so much honour as to be thought worthy even of thrones,
because they were supposed to communicate ordinances and precepts from the gods, both during their
lifetime and after their death; as for example Teiresias, “ to whom alone Proserpine gave wisdom and
understanding after death: the others it about as shadows.” Such were Amphiaraus, Trophonius,
Orpheus, and Musæus: in former times there was Zamolxis, a Pythagorean, who was accounted a god
among the Getæ; and in our time, Decæneus, the diviner of Byrebistas. Among the Bosporani, there
was Achaicarus; among the Indians, were the Gymnosophists; among the Persians, the Magi and
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the Chaldeans, and foremost the Sabians; the mages of Persia, who are believed
to have taught the art of the divination to several of the already mentioned Greek
and Roman sorcerers; and the priests of Babylonia and Egypt.
Isaiah 19:3 mentions the existence of the practices of divination and oracles in
Egypt,
The spirit of Egypt shall fail her, and I will daze her wits, till men go about
consulting oracle and diviner, wizard and soothsayer.
and in Deuteronomy 18:9–12, Moses warns the Israelites against the imitation
of the Canaanite occult practices:
None must be found among you to consecrate son or daughter by making
them pass through the re, to consult the soothsayers, or keep watch from
dream-revelations and omens; there must be no wizard, or enchanter, none
who consults familiar spirits and divinations, and would receive warnings
from the dead.
Chaldeans, Magi and the Wise Men of the East
The magi, or the wise men was a cumulative expression covering mysterious,
magic practicing gures that extended their inuence over Egypt, Babylonia,
Persia, India and even farther to the east. Known under many different names
– Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, Manzazuu or Sha’etemmu – all were considered
respected patrons of knowledge, often consulted by kings and rulers in regard to
important decisions12.
In Babylonia, the practice of asking the dead for help and advice was relatively
common. The necromancers, called Manzuzuu or the Sha’etemmu (etemmu being
the word for “spirit”) believed that the deceased were free of the bonds of the
material world and thus closer to god. As such they possessed knowledge that no
mortal could know and they were able to see the future and warn about events to
come (Godwin, 1834: 175).
When Ardashir I, the founder of the Sassanian Empire ascended to the throne
of Persia in 226 AD, he issued a call for all the Magi from all parts of his new
dominion to assemble. According to the records more than eighty thousand of
the wise men gathered. Even to that day they still preserved their position and
popularity among the people, strongly clinging to their hierarchy, traditions and
institutions (Godwin, 1834: 176).
Necyomanteis, and besides these the Lecanomanteis and Hydromanteis; among the Assyrians, were
the Chaldæans; and among the Romans, the Tyrrhenian diviners of dreams.” (Strabo, 1903: 2:39).
12 “The Chaldean necromancers are upon us. Be constant, and fear nothing.” (Cumberland, 1813: 141)
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Img. 7. Artistic reconstruction of the Persian Magi/ costumed Zoroastrian priests, hand
drawn picture, 1858.
The magic of the Egyptians was closely connected to the cult of Osiris and the
eschatological beliefs of the underworld. The soul of the deceased had to assist
Osiris on his journey through the realm of the dead, defending him from the
attacks of several enemies. These labours, together with his clear conscience and
the prayers and magical formulas were most important in the judgment of the
dead person. The incarnation that could be found on mummies had a protective
effect on the pilgrimage with Osiris, while the single magical formula protected the
body from destruction, as well as repelled evil spirits that could possess it in the
meantime, forcing the body to reanimate as a living corpse. According to Egyptian
beliefs and practices, these spirits were ghosts of the condemned that managed to
return to the earth before their annihilation in the “second death” (Lenormant,
1877: 89).
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Img. 8. Opening of the Mouth ceremony, showing two priests and two mourners with ritual
tools. Painting from the tomb of Khonsu in Gourna, XIX Dynasty.
Not much is known about the origin of the Sabians (or Sabeans). According to
some of the surviving Islamic sources they were a Middle Eastern religious group,
mentioned three times in the Quran as one of the People of the Book (the others
being Christians and Jews). Some of the hadiths consider them simply as converts
to Islam.
From the Quran:
Surely those who believe, and those who are Jews, and the Christians, and
the Sabians, whoever believes in Allah and the Last day and does good, they
shall have their reward from their Lord, and there is no fear for them, nor
shall they grieve (2:62)
Surely those who believe and those who are Jews and the Sabians and the
Christians whoever believes in Allah and the last day and does good they
shall have no fear, nor shall they grieve. (5:69)
Surely those who believe and those who are Jews and the Sabeans and the
Christians and the Magians and those who associate (others with Allah)
surely Allah will decide between them on the day of resurrection; surely Allah
is a witness over all things. (22:17)
A more detailed view of the Sabians is provided by Maimonides (1125–1204) in
his translation of The Nabataean Agriculture, and his Guide for the Perplexed.
Among other things, he claims that the Sabians themselves attempted to inuence
the stars and developed into soothsayers, enchanters, sorcerers, necromancers,
charmers, re-passers, practitioners of theurgic magic of every sort (Stern, 1998:
119).
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One of their possible origin stories is connected with the Abbasid caliph al-
Ma’mun of Baghdad, who forced the Harranians to choose and convert to one
of the “religions of the book” recognized by the Quran13. In order to retain their
belief, they chose to identify themselves with the Sabians, maybe an extinct sect of
Mandeans or another unknown faith in southern Mesopotamia.
The newly renamed Harranian Sabians acknowledged Hermes Trismegistos as
their prophet (possibly through his identication with Idris/Enoch in the Quran),
and the Hermetica was considered their holy scripture (Churton, 2002: 26–27)14.
Shamanism, the Root of Necromancy?
Even if the origin of necromancy per se is dated to antiquity, it still does not
answer the question where and how it appeared. It would be hard to believe that
the Greeks “invented” it. More plausible would seem that it was either an older
practice, assimilated by the Greek pantheistic religion and home cults, or that it
migrated with travelers from other regions.
Following this logic, we would need to concentrate on religious systems with
partially similar approaches towards the dead pre-dating Greek polytheism. In
this case shamanism, even with the broad variety of its practices differentiated
from region to region, would seem like a logical predecessor. Let us take a closer
look at why this could be a relevant possibility.
The shamanic tradition is centered around the charismatic gure of the shaman,
a character chosen by the spirits who serves as a mediator between the middle
realm of the humans, the upper realm, where the high spirits reside, and the lower
realm, the home of the dead, as well as the gods, demons and monsters of the
underworld.
Another skill attributed to most of the shamans (we are talking about “traditional”
shamanism, located mostly in Northeast Asia, South and Central America, south
and central Africa and Australia) is the handling of the soul and communicating
with spirits. If a person was sick, according to the belief, the soul of the person
was either stolen by a malecent spirit or taken directly to the underworld. The
shaman then undertook a dangerous journey to retrieve the soul, often visiting the
realm of the dead.
The same example can be used in his practice of divination. The spirits knew
the future, and during his trance he could negotiate with them to divulge it to him.
He was also the one who could speak to the deceased and bring messages, or fulll
tasks in the service of the living or the dead.
The shaman also served as a psychopompos, the guide of the souls of the dead
who would bring them safely to the underworld.
13 Harran was a major city in Upper Mesopotamia, 44 kilometers SE of today’s Şanlıurfa, Turkey.
During its long history it was also part of Assyria, the Hittite Empire, the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Neo-
Babylonia, Persia, the Seleucid Empire, the Roman Empire and nally the Umayyad and Abbasid
Caliphate.
14 Hermetica is a 2nd–3rd century AD book, the foundation of later Hermeticism. It consists of dialogues
between a teacher, presumably Hermes Trismegistus, and his disciple. The topic of their conversation
revolves around the divine, the mind, nature, the cosmos, alchemy, astrology and similar matters.
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As we can see, the shamanic practices are similar to those of the necromancer.
Talking to spirits, visiting the dead, summoning them if needed, divination, or
katabasis (though this is not that typical for the role of the necromancer) were
present. Certain similarities can also be found in the approach towards spirits in
the cultures where necromancy was active, even if distant in location, hierarchy or
developmental level. Both of them were closely connected with the spirit world. In
regions inuenced by shamanism, spirits were the cause of, but also the solution to,
most of the problems. They were part of the everyday life of the community, even
though direct communication was reserved for the few chosen ones. Superstition
of the kind that the logical mind of today would place among the realm of fairy
tales was inseparable from the rest of the tasks and actions of every member of
the community. The realm of the dead was not something surreal, metaphorical or
unreachable, but only distant and still as real as the one inhabited by the living.
The ourishing cultures of Greece and later Rome were not that different in
the matter of belief. The presence of supernatural beings, gods, and of course
ghosts, spirits and revenants was noticeable even in the highest places of the socio-
economic hierarchy. The general fear of the “restless dead” was common in ancient
Greece. The restless dead were the victims of murders, furious about their fate,
who still had the potential of harming or bringing misfortune to the living. Specic
precautions were undertaken to prevent the dead from returning (the building of
kenotaphs, purications of the body, the living space, or the burial ground, etc.)
and to punish those whose crimes were extraordinary even in the afterlife. Plato in
his work Laws suggests that all murderers should be executed and their remains
should be thrown out beyond the city limits unburied. An extended form of this
punishment was meted out to murderers of family members or children. They were
to be left unburied at the crossroads, and it was advised that every archon passing
by throw a rock at the deceased one (Tsaliki, 2008: 5).
Antique “Shamans”
The connection between the shamans and the necromancers does not stop at the
stage of mere comparison. When we look closely at the most prominent characters
connected with necromancy in ancient Greece, we nd out that two names stand
out above all others – Orpheus and Pythagoras. Interestingly, both of them are
sometimes described as “Greek shamans” (Ogden, 2001: 116), because of their
actions in regard to soul manipulation, healing, traveling between the realms of
the dead and the living, as well as the mysteries and secrecy following their cult.
Moreover, their followers or pupils (in the case of Pythagoras) were often also well-
known and iconic characters presumably practicing the art of necromancy15.
But what do these characters of antiquity have in common with the shamans
of Northeast Asia? Several attributes, tasks, or deeds in multiple records are the
evidence of abilities that surpass those of mere mortals. The shaman has the
ability to send his soul away from his body and travel to remote areas. Epimenides
was said to be able to send his soul away from his body at any given moment (Suda
s.v., 1993: 139). Aristeas was believed to have written his poem Arimaspeia after
15 To name a few – Aristeas of Proconessus, Hermotimus of Clazomenae, Epimenides of Cnossus, Abaris
the Hyperborean, Zalmoxis the Tracian, Empedocles of Acragas (Ogden, 2001: 116).
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his soul left his body through the mouth, took the form of a crow and traveled to
the distant lands of Hyperbora, Arimaspia or Cimmeria (Herodotus: 4.15; Strabo:
C21; Pliny: 7, 10; cited in Ogden, 2001: 118). Hermotimus is said to have gained
his powers of prophecy during one such soul ight (Pliny 174; Plutarch: 592c–d;
Apollonius: 3; Tertullian: 44; cited in Ogden, 2001: 118)16. The ight of the soul was
considered to be a way of gaining the ability of prophecy in general. Pythagoras
thought that only a puried soul could be detached from the body and travel to
other realms (Iamblichus: 70, 106, 139; cited in Ogden, 2001: 118). Such a soul
was able to converse with the gods and thus acquire knowledge of the future or
the unknown past. Following this logic, a dying person was particularly adept at
divination, since his soul has already left, but he still had sufcient control over
bodily functions to be able to speak (Diodorus: 18.1; cited in Ogden, 2001: 119)17.
Another example of shamanic abilities was the power of bilocation – to appear
in two places at the same time. Aristeas was witnessed to appear simultaneously
at Proconessus and Cyzicus (Herodotus, 1920: 4.14), Pythagoras at Metapontum
and Croton (Aristotle, 2004: F191).
Also important was the possibility of suspending their lives for a long period
of time and then returning back to the living – Pythagoras disappeared into
the underworld for 207 years prior to his return (Laertius, 1972: 8.41). Aristeas
disappeared for 240 years (Herodotus, 1920: 4.13–15). Epimenides, as a boy, slept
for 57 years in a cave (Diels & Kranz, 1903: DK 21, B20). The main reason the
“shamans” disappeared was to acquire wisdom, or to travel to the underworld.
Pythagoras himself, according to some reports by Augustine, learned the
necromantic craft from the Persians (Augustine, 1829: 1829, 1829, 319). His actions
closely connected with the conjuration of the dead were probably known during
the time of Cicero, where he used the Pythagorean background of Vatinius in his
speeches against him (Cicero:18; cited in Ogden, 2001: 117). Iamblichus writes
that when Pythagoras, questioned about what it meant that he had dreamed about
his dead father, replied that it meant nothing, he was simply speaking to him
(Iamblichus: 139; cited in Ogden, 2001: 117).
Empedocles, a pupil of Pythagoras, is another who has been described as
a practitioner of necromancy. On one occasion he told his disciples, that they would
“bring from Hades the strength of a dead man” – pointing to the conjuration of
spirits and using them to his advantage. He is also attested to have permanently
brought a woman back from the dead who had been deceased for thirty days
(Empodocles: 111; cited in Ogden, 2001: 118).
An interesting example of necromancy is the exorcism of the ghosts of Athens
accomplished by Epimenides. The supporters of the tyrant Cylon were murdered
while leaving the acropolis. According to the story, soon after that the city was
plagued by a pestilence that was explained to have been an attack of ghosts.
Epimenides, brought to cleanse the city, based on a report by Diogenes Laertius
(1972: 60), ordered the populace to let a number of black and white sheep roam
16 Hermotimus died during one such ight once his helpless body, presumably dead, was burned by his
enemies (Ogden, 2001: 119).
17 One of the events that Pythagoras was able to predict was earthquakes. These, according to his
theory, were caused by large gatherings of the dead, and one could foresee the calamity by drinking
underground water from a well (Pliny, 1855: 2.191).
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the city freely. The spots where the sheep lay down to rest were marked and the
animals were sacriced to “the relevant god”. Afterwards an anonymous altar was
erected at the same place. The spot where the sheep rested was the place where
each one of the supporters was killed, and the “relevant gods” were either their own
ghosts, or protective deities that acted on behalf of the victims. Another variation
of the myth tells that instead of sheep, two young men had to be sacriced to
appease the raging spirits (Plutarch: 12; cited in Ogden, 2001: 118).
Another interesting fact about Epimenides, also in connection to necromancy,
was that he went on with his prophecies even after his death, through his own
corpse (Suda s.v, 1993). It is said, that his skin was found covered in tattooed
letters and afterwards it was accordingly preserved, the letters having formed
oracles. Pythagoras (Scholiast Lucian: 124; cited in Ogden, 2001: 122) and
Zalmoxis (Porphyry: 15; cited in Ogden, 2001: 122) were also tattooed according
to the records.
Thus far we have described only the actions of Pythagoras and other characters
usually described as Pythagoreans. Another even older cult closely connected with
necromancy, as well as with the Pythagoreans, were the Orphics. The Greeks
linked the two together, as they believed that Pythagoras was initiated into the
mysteries directly by Orpheus. In recent research Pythagoreanism is considered
an organized and doctrinal form that took root in the non-organized and non-
doctrinal Orphism (Ogden, 2001: 123).
Orpheus himself is often considered a “shaman”, mostly because of his music, and
his ability to communicate with animals. Thracian by birth, he traveled to Greece
and then to Egypt, where he learned from Hermes the ability of a psychopompos,
a guide of the dead.
His most regarded necromantic deed is his descent into the underworld to
retrieve his dead wife Eurydice. He descended into the land of the dead in two
separate places, in Acheron and Tainaron. As described by Virgil, as well as Ovid,
the condition by which Orpheus could lead Eurydice out of the underworld was not
to look back during the whole duration of the journey. He failed to do so and thus
was his wife lost for the second time (Virgil(a), 2008: 453; Ovid, 2010: 63). A slightly
different story of Orpheus is recorded by Plato, who describes how Orpheus actually
did bring his wife back from the underworld, though it was not the real woman,
but rather her ghost, and that he used his song to charm her. Plato, as well as
Isocrates, also imply that Eurydice was not the only one whom Orpheus brought
back (Plato(a), 1967: 315; Plato(b), 1925: 179). A part of the Aeneid also explicitly
describes the retrieval of Eurydice as an evocation (evocare), where Orpheus used
his songs, accompanied by his lyre, as spells. Varro suggests that Orpheus wrote
a poem on the evocation of the soul called Lyre, where he connects the seven
strings of the instrument to the seven heavenly spheres through which the soul
travels after death to purify itself (Nock 1927; West, 1983: 30–32). According to the
classical Attic approach, Orpheus gained his knowledge of the afterlife after lifting
Eurydice’s veil (Hecataeus of Abdera, 1939: 264, Diodorus, 1953: 96).
Orpheus himself met a violent end. Torn limb from limb by the furious women of
his native tribe, his dismembered head was reported to have oated down the river
of Hebrus still emitting muttered cries for Eurydice. It was carried to the island of
Lesbos, where it resided in a cave, and still capable of speech, it provided prophecies
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not only to the people of Lesbos, but to everyone in need and to such an extent that
its fame reached even to Babylon (Ovid, 2010: 55; Philostratus, 1871: 172). Aeneas
of Gaza, from the fth century A.D., even claims that the ghost of Orpheus could
be evoked by a sacrice of a cock and some additional special formulas (Aeneas of
Gaza, 2012: 18–19). It is noteworthy that even Eliade sees similarities between
the prophecies of the severed head of Orpheus and the practices of the Yukagir
shamans (Eliade, 1964: 391).
Img. 9. Orpheus taming wild animals with his songs – a mosaic dating to 194 AD, found in
Şanlıurfa, Turkey.
Ancestor Worship and Ancestor Cults
Even if shamanism is considered to be one of the oldest religions, the origins
of necromancy may lie even further in the past. The rst similarities with the
necromantic rituals and practices of the later periods could be rooted in the cult of
the ancestors that may be traced back to the Stone Age.
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The veneration of the dead, which also includes ancestors, is one of the oldest
religious practices in human history and surprisingly still survives even today.
The whole concept of the ancestor cult stands on two principles:
•the dead still hold continual affairs in the land of the living, and wish to
provide benecial help to mortals
•the fear of the dead, based on their vengefulness, requires certain rituals to
appease them
As we can see, both of these pillars are very similar to the practices of the later
necromancy. The benet for the living, the provision of help and advice, has a close
connection with the need to foretell the future known from the later divination
practices. On the other hand, the soothing of the dead can be observed as similar
to protective rituals against the anger of spirits that might plague the household or
individuals, a practice now known as exorcism. Both of these practices also involve
the direct communication with the dead.
Since this practice was (and still is) widespread throughout the world, including
in vast numbers of nations and cultures, to generalize the nature of this practice
would be bordering on audacity. However the similarities in goals the practitioner
is trying to achieve with necromancy cannot be argued. If we reduce the whole idea
of necromancy to its oldest known meaning, communication with the dead to gain
certain benets for oneself or a contractor, its relation to the ancestor cults would
be more than comparable.
The Oldest Evidence of Manipulation with the Dead
As already outlined, the exact origin of the practice of venerating the dead
is almost impossible to determine. From the point of view of archeology we can
determine that intentional manipulation with the body of the deceased dates back
to the Neanderthals18. To nobody’s surprise, in a period this old it is extremely
difcult to determine even the intention behind the burial (hygienic/empathic/
religious reasons), not to mention practices and goals the tribe members were
aiming for. We can only assume that the Neanderthals, or for that matter Homo
Sapiens of the Paleolithic, had some concept of the afterlife, a concept that would
serve as a basis for any complex and abstract idea of harnessing the power of the
deceased to someone’s benet.
The archaeological sites that would point out a cult linked to the ancestor cult
can be found in today’s Turkey, the Levant and Palestinian territories. Jericho, Tell
Ramad, Yiftahel, Nahal Hemar in the Levant, or Çatal Hüyük and Köşk Höyük
in present day Turkey are just a few sites where researchers have found unique
evidence of post-mortem activity in relation to deceased ancestors, particularly
the creation of plastered skulls (Özbek, 2009: 380). These artifacts are believed
to have been used in religious as well as secular practices. In most cases they
18 One of the oldest certain examples of burials was found in 1908 in the French locality Le Mouster. The
discovered grave contained the remains of an approx. 15 year old boy buried on his left side. The grave
contained, among other things, pieces of chipped stones, stone weaponry and the remains of several
burned bones, presumably food for the deceased. The skeleton is between 50 000–45 000 years old
(Hauser, 1909: 178).
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are interpreted either as memorials of the deceased or as necromantic artifacts
(Aufderheide, 2009: 360; Croucher, 2012: 400).
The two oldest and most prominent sites are Çatal Hüyük and Jericho.
Çatal Hüyük, dating back to 7500–5700 BC, was a large Neolithic settlement,
southeast of the present-day city of Konya. The settlement consisted exclusively
of private buildings with no trace of a public building, even though the function
of some decorated rooms remains unclear to this day. The houses were clustered
closely together in a honeycomb-like maze. The entrance was through a hole in the
roof. No streets were evident on the site, meaning that the population must have
moved through the roofs of the houses. The advanced culture inhabiting this area
practiced a relatively unusual burial custom. The dead were buried within the
village. Human remains have been found beneath the oors, or mostly beneath
the hearths and beds. The bodies were either tightly tied up together, sometimes
placed in baskets, or left outside to decompose freely, with the bones collected
and placed in the living area afterwards. The heads were sometimes removed and
decorated with plaster and color (McNamara, 2011: 70–71).
This type of manipulation with the skulls is more typical of the site of Jericho.
This Neolithic site is one of the oldest inhabited areas in the world with its oldest
phase dating back to 10,000 BC. The mentioned plastered skulls were found in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B phase (PPNB), dated between 7220 to 5850 BC. In total,
10 skulls were found. Each had its jaw removed, and was covered with plaster;
shells were used as eyes, probably to imitate the facial features of the deceased
person. It is assumed that the skulls were kept in people’s houses, while the rest
of the bodies were buried beneath the oor or in the rubble of abandoned buildings
(McNamara, 2011: 70).
Img. 10. Plastered human skull from Jericho, the British museum.
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It is assumed, that all examples of unconventional burial rites served as ways
of venerating the dead. This theory has also been supported by the fact that
some of the skulls from some of the mentioned locations bear marks of articial
deformations, maybe in the attempt to make the skulls look older, more suitable
for the ancestor cult (Arensburg & Hershkovitz, 1989: 115–131)19. A different
explanation presented by several researchers is that the skulls and burials served
as a form of hunting magic (Bienert, 1991: 9–23), or war trophies (Özbek, 2009:
382). Another explanation that has gained popularity in recent years is that the
skulls served as a form of genealogy proof – that people deduced their origin from
their ancestors based on the facial looks, or purely artistic expressions. Lastly,
the skulls could also have been used in a mythological, or religious context as
a connection between the land of the living and the land of the dead, or as a form
of protection against evil (Goring-Morris, 2000: 109; Verhoeven, 2002: 252). In any
case, the elaborate handling of the human remains would point to the important
link between the inhabitants of these places and the deceased.
Conclusion
As we can see, some form of evidence of necromancy can already be seen in the
oldest cultures of humankind. The approach of the living towards the dead did
not change signicantly through the course of history; living humans were always
caught somewhere between respect, fear and avoidance. The death of a person was
always the great unknown. Even in the modern society of today, where the nal
departure can be explained from the perspective of medical sciences as a decline
in the biological functions, the idea of dying is still shrouded in mystery. One can
be rational only to a certain degree, most likely when the question of death does
not concern one directly. Social and emotional bonds are severed by the demise of
a close friend or relative. In such a situation it is only understandable to assume
that a desperate person is willing to try methods beyond the realm of the logical
and the scientic. It is also not too surprising that in the ages of superstition
the people were more prone to what, by today’s standards, would be considered
unconventional methods.
From the previous examples, we can determine two main reasons to practice
necromancy:
•To summon a relative or friend with whom the contractor had unnished
business to attend to.
•To summon a known gure, not necessarily a person whom one knew
personally, to gain some sort of knowledge, insight or other benet for oneself.
Even if the difference seems minor at rst view, this could serve as a method to
categorize necromancy into two main groups – sympathetic necromancy (to conjure
a person with an emotional link to the contractor – Orpheus and his wife Eurydice)
19 Even though new approaches point out that the difference in age and gender of the plastered skulls
could be proof that the cult was not only reserved for older males (Bonogofsky, 2003: 1–10).
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and benecial necromancy (to conjure a person that has some sort of knowledge
about events benecial to the contractor – Odysseus and Tiresias).
An interesting fact also comes to mind in the cases of benecial necromancy –
the importance of the summoned spirit is closely dependent upon the concept of
the world held by the contractor. Most of the examples of conjured spirits were
from close proximity (either geological, temporal or “ideological”) to the summoner.
It might be quite possible that all the ghosts and spirits from distant times and
areas would be adapted to the current situation of the conjurer. Something similar
can be seen in the depiction of hell in the 14th century Divine Comedy by Dante
Alighieri and his description of its nine circles. Dante’s guide in hell is the Roman
poet Virgil. During his travels across the rst circle of hell (Limbo) he meets many
prominent characters from Antiquity, such as Homer, Aristotle or Cicero, who were
unable to reach heaven because they were not believing members of the Christian
religion.
Also of note is the importance of blood in the described rituals. Homer, Lucan
or Horace mention that necromancers used blood in order to call the dead. Blood
is the life force that sustains them and renders them able (or willing) to speak.
The importance of blood is one of the most noticeable rites in almost all of the
religions and cults even today. The ochre color in the graves of the Stone Age,
blood rituals in Antiquity, Aztec and Mayan beliefs in the concept of the universe,
the importance of blood in Judaism and Islam (the disposal of blood during the
preparation of meat), the Matam of the Shia or the Holy Blood of Christ are just
a fraction of all the blood-related practices and ideas that accompany the religious
beliefs of mankind. No wonder then that the most important uid also nds its way
into the communication with the deceased. The renown this practice gained was
also the foundation of the later infamous linking of all the occult practices to blood
rituals and sacrices, rendering occultists outcasts who were active in practices
harmful to the general public.
The roots of necromancy can be positively traced back to early Antiquity, with
documented practices of several cultures and frequent interactions between them
mutually inuencing each other. The necromancers of the past are mentioned by
many sources, including the Bible and the Quran. A multitude of Greek and Roman
historians described the rituals of their own contemporaries, as well as foreigners
from different lands. The belief which accounted the dead to be wiser, because
of their closer proximity to god, and thus able to provide visions and prophecies
beyond the ability of mere mortals was present in several cultures of Antiquity.
Nevertheless the origins of the conjuration of the dead is probably older.
Similarities reaching back to the practices of shamanism, or even to the ancestor
cult can be traced back to the Stone Age. But whether the unusual burial
customs and the handling of corpses and bones were really part of an elaborate
“necromantic” practice, as a means of placing oneself under the protection of an
ancestor, or to appease his needs in reaching forth to the land of the living, will
likely remain uncertain.
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55
Kapcár, A. (2015). The Origins of Necromancy…
Img. 11. Scenes of divination, including haruspication, pyromancy and necromancy, by
Hans Burgkmaier the Elder (1473–1531), Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France, year
unknown.
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