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Impacts of Climate Change on Small Holder Households in Mt. Elgon Region of Uganda: Does Gender Matter?
Abstract
Agriculture, the main livelihood activity for several communities in Uganda, is threatened by short- and long-term changes in temperatures and precipitation. The increasing involvement of women in agriculture has attracted a myriad of gender-climate studies. However, much of the focus has concentrated on the usual gender dichotomy that assumes homogeneity within gender identities. This study is based on the premise that while an evaluation of male- and female-headed households is important, it only forms an initial stride in understanding climate change impacts’ and adaptation analyses. Using focus group discussions and household surveys, this study unveils the climate change adaptation dynamics created by the different positions that men and women hold across defined household typologies in the Mt. Elgon region. The results indicate that male divorced/separated/widowed households are more impacted by crop failure than female divorced/separated/widowed households. Across the households, adult male and female vulnerability was attributed mainly to a limited asset ownership portfolio. Due to ownership of more diverse assets, coupled households had more flexibility to engage in a number of adaptive/coping strategies compared to any other household type. Women in coupled households were also more likely to adapt to crop failure compared to women in other household types, given that they have some access to and use rights of their spouse’s assets. Given these dynamics, it is concluded that issues of gender and climate change are multifaceted and that meaningful design and implementation of adaptation strategies should not view “male,” “female,” and “household” as homogeneous categories but rather recognize their variation in adaptation process.
... This has been observed amongst Afar pastoralists in Ethiopia, where women made more contributions to household adaptations to drought (Balehey et al., 2018). In another more intersectional study, nuances are found in the relationship between marital status and gender as displayed through the status of household headship; in Uganda, Gorettie et al. (2019) find that marital status, as linked to household headship, determined the extent to which women were likely to be able to adapt to climate change. In their case, women in coupled households were better able to adapt to crop failure than women in female-headed households due to better access to resources; whilst male divorced/separated/widowed households were more impacted by crop failure than female divorced/separated/widowed households (Gorettie et al., 2019). ...
... In another more intersectional study, nuances are found in the relationship between marital status and gender as displayed through the status of household headship; in Uganda, Gorettie et al. (2019) find that marital status, as linked to household headship, determined the extent to which women were likely to be able to adapt to climate change. In their case, women in coupled households were better able to adapt to crop failure than women in female-headed households due to better access to resources; whilst male divorced/separated/widowed households were more impacted by crop failure than female divorced/separated/widowed households (Gorettie et al., 2019). In Uganda, CSA adaptations created additional labor burdens for women (Jost et al., 2016). ...
This scoping paper presents the results of a review of the landscape of research on gender and agricultural and pastoral livelihoods in select countries in west and east Africa (Burkina Faso, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia, and Uganda) published over 5 years (January 2016–March 2021). A keyword search of the Scopus database gave rise to an ultimate dataset of 169 papers which were coded for geographical location, approaches to gender, and theme based on inductive identification of clusters of research. There has been an increase in the number of published papers but there is an uneven geographical distribution of research. Studies vary in the way they treat gender: with an almost even split between modeling-based studies, where gender is one of many variables to be correlated with, or to determine, an outcome (e.g., poverty—for example, as a dummy variable in regressions); and studies where the expressed aim is to look at gender differences, whether through the gender of an individual or the gender of a household head. Clusters of papers look at gender differences in assets, health, perceptions of environmental degradation, agricultural perceptions and outcomes, and climate change perceptions, vulnerability, and adaptation. There is also a number of papers exploring women's empowerment, including intra-household decision making. Intersectional approaches have been employed both through modeling studies and through more in-depth qualitative studies that are able to trace changes in identity over time, and the implications therein. The household and household headship have remained common entry points and units of analysis, despite known critiques. The results highlight a need to address geographical gaps in gender research, expand the evidence base of intersectional approaches, explore other aspects of social inequality, and expand more innovative methodological studies.
This factsheet gives answers on how climate exacerbates root causes of conflict in Uganda, using a two-stage econometric approach. The findings show that climate shocks negatively affect households’ food security status (mainly through temperature anomaly), and that food security variables significantly impact the probability of conflict incidence.
The last decades are recognized as a period when a gender-sensitive perspective being broadly acknowledged by the majority of actors involved in the field of climate change. Existing gender inequalities exacerbated by climate change urge the inclusion of a differentiated female-male approach into research, decision-making processes, adaptation, and mitigation. This paper quantitatively reviews scientific contributions in the gender subfield within climate change research published between 1996-2020 by adapting a bibliometric analysis approach. The literature was extracted from Web of Science, Google Scholar, and World Bank's repositories. The results of the co-occurrence, bibliographic coupling, co-citation, and co-authorship analyses were mapped by using the VOS viewer software. The selection criteria were developed to maximize the thematic coverage of the publications that could be referred to the gender subfield within climate change research. The findings help better understand the overall developments in the gender subfield in terms of discussed topics, authors and institutional collaborations, contributions of international organizations in the capacity of authors, and an amount of grey literature. The review might represent an interest for further studies in consideration of new research topics, geographical focus, compositions of co-authors teams, and be communicated in debates on gender within the climate change context.
A narrative linking women and vulnerability has been overarching in vulnerability literature. However, this narrative has not been empirically proven aside from generalizations based on poverty-gender linkages. This study used primary data collected in 2016 from 735 randomly selected households in Eastern Uganda to construct a gender vulnerability index based on the livelihood vulnerability framework to determine the most vulnerable gender differentiated households. The results showed that single male-headed households were the most vulnerable to climate change, even worse than single female-headed households. Mixed gender households showed lowest vulnerability. Presence of a female spouse reduced the vulnerability of the traditionally “male headed” households. The results suggest that disparity in access to requisite resources mediates vulnerability among groups of households. It is concluded that the straight assumption that vulnerability is associated with female-headed households is misleading and could disenfranchise some male-headed households that are more vulnerable.
In order to develop climate adaptation strategies that address location and context-specific vulnerabilities, there is need to understand how communities perceive the variability in their climate as perception of climate variability is a critical component within which climate adaptation should operate. This paper examines communities’ perceptions about climate variability in relation to available meteorological data in the Mt. Elgon region. The study demonstrates that community perceptions of temperature and precipitation trends as indicators of climate variability are in agreement with meteorologically observed trends. It also reveals that local communities’ perceptions of climate variability may also provide more localized contexts of climate variability which be insufficiently captured by meteorological data in communities where capture of meteorological data is not fully developed.
In this paper we examine conditions that underlie vulnerability and resilience possibilities for households and communities that face and respond to climate- and other changes, in nine East and West African countries. We base our analysis on a unique integrated qualitative and quantitative dataset composed of household surveys and village focus group studies carried out across a wide range of environments and agricultural systems. We identify human population growth, commercialization of the economy, and natural resource use policies, in addition to weather, as key drivers of change. We compare the agricultural and livelihood systems of male and female respondents, as well as their productive resources, organization and access to services. Women have less access than men to common property resources, as well as to cash to obtain goods or services. Women control less land than men, the land they control is often of poorer quality, and their tenure is insecure. Women engage in mutual insurance and risk-sharing networks, and benefit from non-agricultural services provided by social support institutions external to the village. Formally registered, public and private external organizations that foster agriculture and livestock production have tremendous anti-women biases, and tend to provide support primarily to men. Policies and strategies are needed to eliminate those prejudices so that men and women increase their resilience and manage well their changing environments.
In Uganda, Ghana and Bangladesh, participatory tools were used for a socio-economic and gender analysis of three topics: climate-smart agriculture (CSA), climate analogue approaches, and climate and weather forecasting. Policy and programme- relevant results were obtained. Smallholders are changing agricultural practices due to observations of climatic and environmental change. Women appear to be less adaptive because of financial or resource constraints, because of male domination in receiving information and extension services and because available adaptation strategies tend to create higher labour loads for women. The climate analogue approach (identifying places resembling your future climate so as to identify potential adaptations) is a promising tool for increasing farmer-to-farmer learning, where a high degree of climatic variability means that analogue villages that have successfully adopted new CSA practices exist nearby. Institutional issues related to forecast production limit their credibility and salience, particularly in terms of women’s ability to access and understand them. The participatory tools used in this study provided some insights into women’s adaptive capacity in the villages studied, but not to the depth necessary to address women’s specific vulnerabilities in CSA programmes. Further research is necessary to move the discourse related to gender and climate change beyond the conceptualization of women as a homogenously vulnerable group in CSA programmes.
Perceptions and knowledge play a key role in shaping individual and collective response to climate change. Understanding gender dimensions of climate change perceptions and knowledge contributes to effective climate change adaptation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate male and female farmers' perceptions, knowledge as well as its (knowledge) determinants with respect to climate change in the Teso sub-region, eastern Uganda. Data from male-and female-headed households were analysed using descriptive statistics, Chi-Square, linear and multinomial logistic regression. Results showed that all farmers, men and women, were aware of climate change. Male and female farmers' perceptions of climate change did not differ significantly on all the parameters except on frequency of droughts with women more likely to perceive increased drought frequency compared with men. Further, sex of the household head was found to be the sole significant determinant of knowledge of the cause of climate change. Female-headed households were more likely either not to know the cause or to have erroneous information. Significant gender gaps in education levels and access to sources of information, namely, radio, extension and groups are cited as possible factors that could explain women's lower knowledge levels compared to men. Climate adaptation interventions should, therefore, put into consideration gender based variations in perceptions and knowledge for equitable and sustainable climate change adaptation.
The increased involvement of food relief agencies nearly on an annual basis is a clear indication that agricultural production continues to decline as a result of climate change. In order to mitigate the negative effect of climate change, households engage on adaptation strategies. The extent to which these impacts are felt depends mostly on the level of adaptation in response to climate change. The main objectives of the study were to identify the adaptation strategies employed by households and to analyse factors influencing the choice of adaptation strategies by households using personal interviews. The study used data from a random sample of 350 households. Descriptive statistics and multinomial logistic regression model were used to analyse the data. The results showed that adaptation strategies employed were; drought tolerant varieties, switching crops, irrigation, crop rotation, mulching, minimum tillage, early planting, late planting and intercropping. The results showed that the choice of adaptation strategies by households was significantly (p <0.05) influenced by; age of household head, occupation of household head, being a member of a social group, land category, access to credit, access to extension services and training, high incidences of crop pest and disease, high input prices, high food prices, perceptions of households towards climate change. Moreover, the analysis showed that perceptions of households towards climate change significantly influence all adaptation strategies. However, sex and education level of the household head were insignificant in influencing household choice when adapting to climate change. It is recommended that there is need to educate households about the negative impact of climate change on cropping systems. The study also recommends that agriculture extension services should be strengthened, agriculture financial institutions should accommodate subsistence farmers on communal land and rural micro-finance institutions should be developed, in order to facilitate farmers to choose effective adaptation strategies.
Feeding a growing global population in a changing climate presents a significant challenge to society. The projected yields of crops under a range of agricultural and climatic scenarios are needed to assess food security prospects. Previous meta-analyses have summarized climate change impacts and adaptive potential as a function of temperature, but have not examined uncertainty, the timing of impacts, or the quantitative effectiveness of adaptation. Here we develop a new data set of more than 1,700 published simulations to evaluate yield impacts of climate change and adaptation. Without adaptation, losses in aggregate production are expected for wheat, rice and maize in both temperate and tropical regions by 2 °C of local warming. Crop-level adaptations increase simulated yields by an average of 7–15%, with adaptations more effective for wheat and rice than maize. Yield losses are greater in magnitude for the second half of the century than for the first. Consensus on yield decreases in the second half of the century is stronger in tropical than temperate regions, yet even moderate warming may reduce temperate crop yields in many locations. Although less is known about interannual variability than mean yields, the available data indicate that increases in yield variability are likely.
Rapid growth of demand for agricultural land is putting pressure on property rights systems, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, where customary tenure systems have provided secure land access. Patterns of gradual, endogenous change toward formalization are being challenged by rapid and large-scale demands from outsiders. Little attention has focused on the gender dimensions of this transformation. Based on a study of land tenure in Uganda, this paper analyzes how different ways of defining landownership—based on household reports, existence of ownership documents, and rights over the land—provide very different indications of the gendered patterns of landownership and rights. Although many households report that husbands and wives jointly own the land, women are less likely to be listed on ownership documents, especially titles, and women have fewer land rights. A simplistic focus on title to land misses much of the reality regarding land tenure and could especially have an adverse impact on women's land rights.
Climate variability presents different challenges for men and for women in their efforts to ensure household food security. However, despite their central role, gender issues have received only cursory attention in adaptation studies. This article looks at causes of gender vulnerability to climate variability and household food insecurity in one sub-Saharan African country: Malawi. Data were collected through a household questionnaire survey, focus group discussions and key informants' interviews in Chikhwawa and Ntcheu districts, located in the southern and central areas of Malawi. Results revealed that exposure and sensitivity to climate risks vary between men and women; therefore, each gender responds differently to climate risks, with men having more opportunities than women. The results highlight the need for policies and interventions to empower women in the access to resources that can strengthen households' resilience to climate variability.
In Uganda, weather-related events such as prolonged dry seasons, floods, storms, mudslides, extreme rainfall, and delayed/early rains have become more frequent and/or intense. This has left most of the rural poor farmers’ food insecure and their livelihoods threatened. A total of 192 sweetpotato farmer households distributed in six agro-ecological zones were interviewed to assess how farmers perceive the effects of changes in climatic variables, and how they have adjusted their farming practices to cope with the changes in climate. Gender of the household head and size of land owned significantly affected adaptation. Ninety nine percent of all households interviewed had observed a change in the climate in the last 10 years. Drought and floods had the highest impact on crop production across agro-ecological zones. Coping strategies towards extreme events included storing food, income diversification and digging drainage channels. Other strategies were planting trees; high-yielding, early-maturing, drought-tolerant, disease and/or pest-resistant varieties; planting at onset of rains; increased pesticide/fungicide application among others. The smallholder farmer households studied have a high awareness of changes in rainfall and temperature and have taken measures to cope with effects of a changing climate.
The present study employed the Heckman sample selection model to analyse the two- step process of adaptation to climate change, which initially requires farmers' perception that climate is changing prior to responding to changes through adaptation. Farmers' perception of climate change was significantly related to the age of the head of the household, wealth, knowledge of climate change, social capital and agro-ecological settings. Factors significantly affecting adaptation to climate change were: education of the head of the household, household size, whether the head of the household was male, whether livestock were owned, the use of extension services on crop and livestock production, the availability of credit and the environmental temperature.
While there is a recognised need to adapt to changing climatic conditions, there is an emerging discourse of limits to such
adaptation. Limits are traditionally analysed as a set of immutable thresholds in biological, economic or technological parameters.
This paper contends that limits to adaptation are endogenous to society and hence contingent on ethics, knowledge, attitudes
to risk and culture. We review insights from history, sociology and psychology of risk, economics and political science to
develop four propositions concerning limits to adaptation. First, any limits to adaptation depend on the ultimate goals of
adaptation underpinned by diverse values. Second, adaptation need not be limited by uncertainty around future foresight of
risk. Third, social and individual factors limit adaptation action. Fourth, systematic undervaluation of loss of places and
culture disguises real, experienced but subjective limits to adaptation. We conclude that these issues of values and ethics,
risk, knowledge and culture construct societal limits to adaptation, but that these limits are mutable.
Given that women are engaged in more climate-related change activities than what is recognized and valued in the community, this article highlights their important role in the adaptation and search for safer communities, which leads them to understand better the causes and consequences of changes in climatic conditions. It is concluded that women have important knowledge and skills for orienting the adaptation processes, a product of their roles in society (productive, reproductive and community); and the importance of gender equity in these processes is recognized. The relationship among climate change, climate variability and the accomplishment of the Millennium Development Goals is considered.
Existing studies on adaptation to climate change mainly focus on a comparison of male-headed and female-headed households. Aiming at a more nuanced gender analysis, this study examines how husbands and wives within the same household perceive climate risks and use group-based approaches as coping strategies. The data stem from a unique intra-household survey involving 156 couples in rural Kenya. The findings indicate that options for adapting to climate change closely interplay with husbands' and wives' roles and responsibilities, social norms, risk perceptions and access to resources. A higher percentage of wives were found to adopt crop-related strategies , whereas husbands employ livestock-and agroforestry-related strategies. Besides, there are gender-specific climate information needs, trust in information and preferred channels of information dissemination. Further, it turned out that group-based approaches benefit husbands and wives differently. Policy interventions that rely on group-based approaches should reflect the gender reality on the ground in order to amplify men's and women's specific abilities to manage risks and improve well-being outcomes in the face of accelerating climate change.
Climate scholars are increasingly recognizing the importance of gender in climate change vulnerability, but often either dichotomize men and women as homogeneous categories or limit themselves to comparing male-and female-headed households. We use an intersectionality framework to examine how the adaptive strategies of Tanzanian farmers are mediated through their gender and marital statuses. Drawing on focus group discussions and using logistic regression to analyze questionnaire data, we compare the relative adoption of the different adaptive strategies of single, married, divorced, and widowed men and women. Our study shows that, while a woman's marital status is a vital factor in determining her access to adaptive strategies, it is a less important factor in the case of men. We show that, compared with other women, widows and female divorcees are disadvantaged in the field of agricultural water management, and divorced women assume relatively more income-earning activities outside the farming sector. Finally, we find evidence of livelihood diversification at the household level through specialization by individual household members. Based on the empirical evidence, we develop a typology with which to synthesize the linkages between gender, marital status, and adaptive strategies; and we subsequently emphasize the importance of an intersectionality approach to gender and climate change policy and practice.
Using a unique dataset which collected individual‐level asset ownership data and women's life histories regarding assets, this article examines the relationships between inheritance, marriage and asset ownership in Uganda. Land is the most important asset in rural Uganda. The majority of couples (both married and those in consensual unions) report owning land jointly. Men who report owning a parcel of land are much more likely than women to say they inherited the land. Inheritance is not an important means of acquisition of other assets, including livestock, business assets, financial assets and consumer durables. These items are acquired through purchase, by both men and women.
Gender-related inequalities are pervasive in the developing world. Although women account for almost 80 per cent of the agricultural sector in Africa, they remain vulnerable and poor. Seventy per cent of the 1.3 billion people in the developing world living below the threshold of poverty are women. It is important that the consequences of climate change should not lead already marginalised sections of communities into further deprivation. But key development issues have been at best sidetracked, and at worst blatantly omitted, from policy debates on climate change. The threats posed by global warming have failed to impress on policy-makers the importance of placing women at the heart of their vision of sustainable development. This article argues that if climate change policy is about ensuring a sustainable future by combining development and environment issues, it must take into account the interests of all stakeholders. The Global Environment Facility and the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol can play a role in ensuring sustainable development, provided they are implemented in a way that does not disadvantage women and the poor.
Since achieving independence from Great Britain in 1962, the East African country of Uganda has been ravaged by political turmoil and the more recent crisis of the AIDS epidemic, but is now in the process of rebuilding and democratizing.Culture and Customs of Ugandais a fascinating overview of the current state of Ugandan society, where largely rural ethnic groups are experiencing the pull of urban centers, while the changes brought about by Western influences bear on practically every aspect of people's lives. Examples from the main ethnic groups are used to explain traditional culture and adaptations to modern life in religion, gender roles, courtship and marriage, work, education, family life, ceremonies, the arts, media, and more. This is the essential reference source to turn to for solid insight into Uganda.
The wealth of detail in the coverage of the subjects above plus the land, people, history, literature, architecture/housing, cuisine, dress, gender roles, social customs and lifestyle, provides readers with broad sense of the country and its inhabitants. The sensitive narrative conveys the nuances between old and new, urban and rural, elite and poor for each topic. In addition, the evolution of Ugandan peoples is superbly demonstrated. Highlights include a discussion of the ways in which adherents of world religions such as Christianity and Islam mix these with traditional African religious belief in spirits, diviners, and rainmakers. The book also explores patriarchy and the social and inheritance system that has hindered women's education and prospects and exposed them to HIV/AIDS. Finally, there is a celebration of the various forms of artistic expression, such as drumming, ceremonial dance, and handicrafts, particularly ceramic pottery, that have won accolades, as well as a look at artists who excel in writing poetry, producing hip-hop, and painting batiks for popular consumption.
In this article, we discuss how two interpretations of vulnerability in the climate change literature are manifestations of different discourses and framings of the climate change problem. The two differing interpretations, conceptualized here as ‘outcome vulnerability’ and ‘contextual vulnerability’, are linked respectively to a scientific framing and a human-security framing. Each framing prioritizes the production of different types of knowledge, and emphasizes different types of policy responses to climate change. Nevertheless, studies are seldom explicit about the interpretation that they use. We present a diagnostic tool for distinguishing the two interpretations of vulnerability and use this tool to illustrate the practical consequences that interpretations of vulnerability have for climate change policy and responses in Mozambique. We argue that because the two interpretations are rooted in different discourses and differ fundamentally in their conceptualization of the character and causes of vulnerability, they cannot be integrated into one common framework. Instead, it should be recognized that the two interpretations represent complementary approaches to the climate change issue. We point out that the human-security framing of climate change has been far less visible in formal, international scientific and policy debates, and addressing this imbalance would broaden the scope of adaptation policies.
Dans cet article, nous discutons de la façon dont deux interprétations de la « vulnérabilité », telle qu’elle est couverte dans la littérature sur les changements climatiques, représentent deux manières différentes d’aborder le sujet du problème climatique. Les deux interprétations, définies ici en tant que « vulnérabilité liée aux conséquences » et « vulnérabilité liée au contexte » relèvent, respectivement, du point de vue scientifique et celui de la sécurité humaine. Chaque point de vue donne priorité à la formation de différents types de savoir, et mettent en valeur différents modèles de politiques de réponses aux changements climatiques. Cependant, les différentes études précisent rarement quelle définition est appliquée. Une méthode d’évaluation permettant de distinguer les deux interprétations est avancée ici et appliquée pour illustrer leurs conséquences réelles sur les politiques et réponses, au Mozambique. Les deux interprétations étant ancrées dans deux discours différents et étant fondamentalement différentes quant à la conceptualisation du caractère et des causes de la vulnérabilité, elles ne peuvent être intégrées dans un cadre d’analyse commun. Il s’agit plutôt de reconnaitre que les deux interprétations représentent des approches complémentaires au problème des changements climatiques. Le point de vue de la sécurité humaine a été jusqu’alors moins couvert dans le débat international officiel en matière de science et de politiques : un rééquilibrage agrandirait le champ des politiques d’adaptation.
This article examines the strategies of widows in Maragoli (in the 1940s and 1950s) to show how they compelled men to adhere to particular gender roles so that they could better meet the widows' needs. In this rural part of western Kenya men could achieve 'ideal' masculinity by publicly acknowledging and (at least partially) fulfilling the broader socio-economic and political needs of the widows. Through the public proclamation of these needs-what they called their kehenda mwoyo-widows solicited help from men in their communities and thus put them in the difficult and sometimes embarrassing position of having to publicly defend their 'ideal' masculinity. Afraid of being labeled inadequate, most men were forced to assist widows with raising and educating their daughters and ensuring that they contracted lucrative and stable marriages. In the end, however, widows immediate dependency on men was only temporary. Many of them managed to get what they wanted by invoking traditional gender roles and ensuring that men adhered to these roles.
Do we always know the reasons for our actions? Or is our behavior sometimes unknowingly and unintentionally influenced by what we have recently perceived? It has been traditionally assumed that the automatic influence of knowledge in memory is limited to people's interpretation of the world, and stops short of shaping their actual behavior. Researchers in experimental social psychology have begun to challenge this assumption by documenting how people's behaviors can be unknowingly influenced by knowledge that is incidentally activated in memory during social perception. We review findings that suggest that the social knowledge that is incidentally activated while reading words or imagining events subsequently affects participants' behaviors across a range of ostensibly unrelated domains.
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