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Forbidden nuclear reactions
Abstract
Exothermal nuclear reactions that become forbidden due to Coulomb repulsion in the ɛ→0 limit [limɛ→0σɛ=0] are investigated. [σɛ is the cross section and ɛ is the center of mass energy.] It is found that any perturbation may mix states with small but finite amplitude to the initial state resulting in finite cross section (and rate) of the originally forbidden nuclear reaction in the ɛ→0 limit. The statement is illustrated by modification of nuclear reactions due to impurities in a gas mix of atomic state. The change of the wave function of reacting particles in nuclear range due to their Coulomb interaction with impurity is determined using standard time-independent perturbation calculation of quantum mechanics. As an example, cross section, rate and power densities of impurity-assisted nuclear pd reaction are numerically calculated. With the aid of astrophysical factors cross section and power densities of the impurity-assisted d(d,n)He23, d(d,p)t,d(t,n)He24, He23(d,p)He24, Li36(p,α)He23, Li36(d,α)He24, Li37(p,α)He24, Be49(p,α)Li36,Be49(p,d)Be48,Be49(α,n)C612,B510(p,α)Be47, and B511(p,α)Be48 reactions are also given. The affect of gas mix-wall interaction on the process is considered too.
... Schwinger a meghatározó tudományos körök negatívés szerinte tudománytalan hozzáállása miatt az Amerikai Fizikai Társulatból (APS) kilépett. 2011-ben történt az a felismerésünk, ami az elméleti munkának hatalmas lökést adottés ami végül elvezetett a tiltott magreakciók kérdésköréhez [9], [10]. Egy az Innovációsés Technológiai Minisztértiumban 2019őszén tett látogatás során vetődött fel, hogy a Krasznahorkay Attila vezette debreceni csapat [11] - [13], eredménye közvetetten ugyan, de minket igazol.Ígyés ezért született az ezt azállítást igazoló dolgozat [14]. ...
... A perturbációszámítás segítségével tehát több lényeges kérdésre is választ tudtunk adni [10], [9]. ...
... Mivel bármilyen perturbáció kicsi, de véges amplitúdójú ε = 0állapotok hozzákeverésével az ε = 0 energiájú Coulombállapoton lényeges változást okozhat, ezért kaphatunk a perturbációszámítás magasabb (esetünkben már másod-) rendjében a tiltott magreakciók hatáskeresztmetszetére ε → 0 esetén is végesértéket [1], [9]. Tehát a perturbációszámítás magasabb rendjével leírható folyamatok ilyen esetben nem hagyhatók figyelmen kívül. ...
Ebben dolgozatban egy a 20.-21. századi modern fi-zikából kimaradt-a címben fehér foltnak nevezett-lényeges területtel (vagy inkább szemléletmóddal, [1]-hez illetve [2]-höz kapcsolódva) foglalkozom, mely a fizika több, egymástól látszólag függetlenágára hatással vań es melynek lehetséges gyakorlati vonzata hallatlanul fon-tos lehet. A természettudományok, de főleg a fizika különböző területein-pl. alacsony energiás magfizika, asztrofizi-ka, elektrokémia-olyan jelenségek merültek fel, amelyek hibás szemléletmódbeliés elhibázott, hiányos elméleti megközelítés miatt 'fekete listára' kerültek, egy részüket pedig divatos magyarázatokkal próbálták-eddig sikerte-lenül-tisztázni. Ezeket a problémákat szeparáltan ke-zelve nem tűnik olyan egyértelműnek a helyzetértékelés, mint amilyenné akkor válik, ha a vizsgálódás horizontját szélesre nyitjuk. A TÁGYHOZ TARTOZÓ TÉNYEK Fizikus diplomámat 1974-ben az ELTE-n szereztem, ahol elméleti fizikát főleg Marx Györgytől hallgattam, aki ekkortájt tartott egy kozmológiával foglalkozó spe-ciális előadást is. Szakdolgozatomat "Rövid felezési idejű izomérnívók gerjesztése 14.7 MeV energiájú gyors-neutronokkal" címmelírtam KissÁdám témavezetésével. A kísérletekhez a 14.7 MeV-es neutronokat az ELTE Puskin utcában működő neutrongenerátoraállította elő egy 200 keV-es deuteron nyaláb trícium targettel történő d(t, α)n magreakciójában. 1977-ben az "Egy elektront tartalmazó ionok 1/2 im-pulzusmomentumúállapotainak Lamb shiftje" címmel adtam be az ELTE-reés védtem meg sikeresen sokkoló tartalmú dolgozatomat, melyben a Lamb-shiftet-ami köztudottan kvantumelektrodinamikai effektus-klasszi-kusan számoltam [3], [4]. Darmstadtban ekkortájtállítottak elő az elektron-jaitól egy híján megfosztott vagyis hidrogén szerű urán iont is, aminek a Lamb shiftjét később meg is mérték. Eredményeimet pedig később a [5]-ban található [6] későbbi eredményeivel isösszevetettemés eközbeń ertesültem az anomális párkeltésről. 1979-ben a BME-re kerülve kezdődött, szoros, azóta is tartó szakmaiés baráti kapcsolatom Keszthelyi Tamással, akivel azóta számtalan közös munkánk született, ebből az alacsonyenergiás magfizika (LENR) szűkebb témájában, az utóbbi majd kétévtized alatt 25. 1989-ben jelent meg Fleischmannés Ponns nagy vihart kavart közleménye [7] a másokáltal "hidegfúziósnak" 1.ábra. Julian Schwinger nevezett jelenségről. Nekem is ekkor indult el eb-ben a témában most már több mint harmincéves tevékenységem. A 90-esévek elején olyan tekintély is, mint Julian Schwinger elfogadta a jelenségetés kísérletet tett annak magyarázatára [8]. Schwinger a meghatározó tudományos körök negatívés szerinte tudománytalan hozzáállása miatt az Amerikai Fizikai Társulatból (APS) kilépett. 2011-ben történt az a felismerésünk, ami az elméleti munkának hatalmas lökést adottés ami végül elvezetett a tiltott magreakciók kérdésköréhez [9], [10]. Egy az In-novációsés Technológiai Minisztértiumban 2019őszén tett látogatás során vetődött fel, hogy a Krasznahor-kay Attila vezette debreceni csapat [11]-[13], eredménye közvetetten ugyan, de minket igazol.Ígyés ezért szüle-tett az ezt azállítást igazoló dolgozat [14]. Amint azt [2]-ben már jeleztük, a nehézion utközésekben fellépő anomáliák [15]-[18] kvali-tatív módon szintén magyarázhatók, mivel ezekben a kísérletekben az e − e + pár keltését a mag-gerjesztés után bekövetkező folyamatként kezelték, vagyis a kísérletek kiértékelésénél csak kétlépcsős folyamattal számoltak [19] azaz azáltalunk hiányolt magasabb rendű folyamatokat nem vették figyelembe. Egyéb területeken is találtunk minket igazoló bi-zonyítékokat. Ilyenek a 2020-asés 2021-es munkák, mint a tiltott magreakciók asztrofizikai vonzatait kimu-tató közlemény [20]és [2]-nek ide vonatkozó része, az elektromágneses (lézer) tér esetén jól ismert tétel [21] fo-non térre adaptált alkalmazása, valamint az abból kapott eredmények [22], [23]és [2]-nek ide vonatkozó része.
... Erőfeszítés anyagi támogatás szerzésére 2011-ben történt az a felismerésünk, ami az elméleti munkának hatalmas lökést adottés ami végül elvezetett a tiltott magreakciók kérdésköréhez [9]. Ez indított minket arra, hogy 2019őszén levéllel forduljunk Palkovics László innovációsés technológiai miniszterhez.Így történt, hogy Bódis József az ITMállamtitkára 2019 decemberében fogadott bennünket. ...
... A perturbációszámítás segítségével tehát több lényeges kérdésre is választ tudtunk adni [8], [9]. ...
... Mivel bármilyen perturbáció kicsi, de véges amplitúdójú ε = 0állapotok hozzákeverésével az ε = 0 energiájú Coulombállapoton lényeges változást okozhat, ezért kaphatunk a perturbációszámítás magasabb (esetünkben már másod-) rendjében a tiltott magreakciók hatáskeresztmetszetére ε → 0 esetén is végesértéket [1], [9]. Tehát a perturbációszámítás magasabb rendjével leírható folyamatok ilyen esetben nem hagyhatók figyelmen kívül. ...
Ebben dolgozatban egy a 20.-21. századi modern fi-zikából kimaradt-a címben fehér foltnak nevezett-lényeges területtel (vagy inkább szemléletmóddal) foglal-kozom, mely a fizika több, egymástól látszólag függet-lenágára hatással vanés melynek lehetséges gyakorla-ti vonzata hallatlanul fontos lehet. Megközelítésem aź erthetőségés a hitelesség kedvéértönéletrajzi elemeket is tartalmazés [1]-hez illetve [2]-höz kapcsolódik. Allítás: a természettudományok, de főleg a fizika különböző területein-pl. alacsony energiás magfizika, asztrofizika, elektrokémia-olyan jelenségek merültek fel, amelyek hibás szemléletmódbeliés elhibázott, hiányos elméleti megközelítés miatt 'fekete listára' kerültek, egy részüket pedig divatos magyarázatokkal próbálták-ed-dig sikertelenül-tisztázni. Ezeket a problémákat sze-paráltan kezelve nem tűnik olyan egyértelműnek a hely-zetértékelés, mint amilyenné akkor válik, ha a vizsgálódás horizontját szélesre nyitjuk. Ezt próbálom ebben a cikk-ben megtenni. RELEVÁNSÉLETRAJZI ADATOK Fizikus diplomámat 1974-ben az ELTE-n szereztem, ahol elméleti fizikát főleg Marx Györgytől hallgattam, aki ekkortájt tartott egy kozmológiával foglalkozó spe-ciális előadást is. Szakdolgozatomat "Rövid felezési idejű izomérnívók gerjesztése 14.7 MeV energiájú gyors-neutronokkal" címmelírtam KissÁdám témavezetésével. A kísérletekhez a 14.7 MeV-es neutronokat az ELTE Puskin utcában működő neutrongenerátoraállította elő egy 200 keV-es deuteron nyaláb trícium targettel történő d(t, α)n magreakciójában. Végzés után 1974 augusztusában tanársegédiállást kaptam a BME Kísérleti Fizika Tanszékén, ahonnét 1975 decemberében kerültem a KFKI-ba doktorï osztöndíjasnak Jánossy Lajos mellé. 1977-ben az "Egy elektront tartalmazó ionok 1/2 impulzusmomentumú allapotainak Lamb shiftje" címmel adtam be az ELTE-reés védtem meg sikeresen sokkoló tartalmú dolgozato-mat, melyben a Lamb-shiftet-ami köztudottan kvan-tumelektrodinamikai effektus-klasszikusan számoltam [3], [4]. Kimutattam, hogy hidrogén szerű rendszerekben a töltésésáramsűrűségből klasszikusan számított elekt-romágneses tömeg a mag töltés növekedtével egyre job-ban megközelíti a Lamb-shiftet. Darmstadtban ekkortájtállítottak elő az elektron-1.ábra. Keszthelyi Tamás jaitól egy híján megfosztott vagyis hidrogén szerű urán iont is, aminek a Lamb shiftjét később meg is mérték. Eredményeimet pedig később a [5]-ban található [6] későbbi eredményeivel isösszevetettemés eközbeń ertesültem az anomális párkeltésről. A számítógépekés a numerikus munka Aktív számítógép használatom első periódusában, az 1973-1984 közötti időszakban R-22-es, Siemensés R-32 gépeket használtam. Az R-22-nél végzett munkában volt evfolyamtársam, Faragó István hallatlanul sok segítséget nyújtott. A programozást Fortran nyelvenűztem. A numerikus munka során egyértelmű, hogy mindentéś allandóan ellenőrizni kell azért, hogy megbizonyosodjunk arról, hogy a gép valóban azt számolja, amit mi aka-runk. Nagyés hosszú számolások esetén kulcsfontosságú a hibák terjedésének a vizsgálata valamint az optimális számábrázolás alkalmazása. A környezetnek atommagfolyamatokat befolyásoló hatását számolva gyakran rótták fel hibánkul, hogy nem numerikusan oldottuk meg a feladatot. Az ilyen bírálatok figyelmenkívül hagyják azt a tényt, hogy az atomiés a nukleáris lépték között több mint négy nagyságrend a különbség ami a csak numerikus megközelítést-pl. a vo-natkozó Schrödinger egyenlet ilyen célú numerikus meg-oldását-igen megnehezíti, szinte ellehetetleníti.
... A KFKI-beli tartózkodásomnak -az Agro-és Bio-Analitikai osztályon tett kitérő után, ahol Török Szabínával Biológiaiés talajminták röntgenfluoreszcenciás analízisérőlírtunk egy terjedelmes tanulmányt -a BME Kísérleti Fizika Tanszékére történő 1979-es visszamenetelem vetett véget. Ebben a választásban -ami akkor fizikus szempontból nem volt vonzó -a város, ıgy a próba-és a budapesti koncert-helyek viszonylagos 11.ábra. Keszthelyi Tamás 12.ábra. ...
... A "hidegfúzióval" kapcsolatban sok negatívállítás kering pletyka szintenés ezekkel [10] illetve a probléma elméleti lehetőségével [11] AzÁFB-beédesapám révén kerültem, aki az ott lévő, akkor az országban második legnagyobb gépetüzemeltette azÁFBüzemeltetési igazgatójaként. A Φ 4 mezon modellben a három dimenziós szolitonállapotok numerikus megoldásával mezon nyugalmi tömegeket próbáltam számítani. ...
... 2011-ben történt az a felismerésünk, ami az elméleti munkának hatalmas lökést adottés ami végül elvezetett a tiltott magreakciók kérdésköréhez [11]. Ez indított minket arra, hogy 2019őszén levéllel forduljunk Palkovics László innovációsés technológiai miniszterhez.Így történt, hogy Bódis József az ITMállamtitkára 2019 decemberében fogadott bennünket. ...
... Yet, in our opinion the fundamental question in LENR is to find a mechanism that helps nuclei of positive charge overcome the Coulomb barrier in order to react. In our quest for such a mechanism, it was recently pointed out in [21] that there is a close similarity between the forbidden optical transitions in quantum mechanics, and the way the cross section of nuclear reactions goes to zero at low energies due to Coulomb repulsion. It was found that any additional perturbation can resolve this forbidding of nuclear reactions, i.e., the disappearance of the cross section with decreasing energy. ...
... That mechanism must considerably alter the contact probability density (1) due to the presence of the surroundings in order to explain LENR. Although it was shown only recently [21] that the effect of any perturbation provides the fundamental understanding of LENR, several studies were done in which this general statement was implicitly used, before full recognition of its importance. The concepts and results from these studies are reviewed in this section, along with our current understanding. ...
... The investigations revealed that recoil [65] and, in particular the f 2 jk factor (see (1) and (2)) have a crucial role for understanding LENR [70]. Recently, the investigation of the effect of impurities on nuclear reactions in plasma-like systems [71] led to the general understanding of forbidden nuclear reactions [21]. The discussion of these seemingly sporadic investigations is ordered systematically now. ...
This paper reviews a theoretical program to understand the field of low energy nuclear reactions (LENR), initially called cold fusion, which was a puzzle of the last three decades. A series of concepts, which were raised and partly elaborated, are presented. The key concept is a three-body mechanism, where one of the nuclei serves as a catalyst for the reaction of the other two. In these reactions, a single fusion product or two outgoing nuclei are created, along with the recoiled catalytic nucleus. They carry off the nuclear energy released, and heat the surrounding materials by multiple collisions. Importantly, they produce high energy γ radiation with negligible probability. So, this three-body idea solves the two major riddles of LENR, that nuclear reactions can occur at ordinary temperatures and without emitting γ radiation. Cross sections and rates are calculated using standard quantum mechanics, and accepted nuclear and solid-state physics. Their dependence on relevant densities, and on the reacting and catalytic nuclei, are explicit. The theoretical ideas and the results of their elaboration are compared with diverse data from LENR experiments with considerable success.
... If ε → 0 then σ (ε) and the rate of the reaction disappears. Nuclear reactions of σ (ε) with lim ε→0 σ (ε) = 0 can be considered forbidden nuclear reactions [4]. The forbiddenness is a consequence of the vanishing contact probability density in the nuclear range that follows from the vanishing amplitude of the wavefunction of the reacting particles. ...
... However, in a recent paper [4] it was shown that the forbiddenness of nuclear reactions can be resolved by any perturbation and the rate of the originally forbidden nuclear reaction can be calculated in accordance with the rules of standard second order perturbation calculation of quantum mechanics [6]. In [4] a simple model was given for impurity assisted nuclear reactions that is applicable in the case of astrophysical conditions. ...
... However, in a recent paper [4] it was shown that the forbiddenness of nuclear reactions can be resolved by any perturbation and the rate of the originally forbidden nuclear reaction can be calculated in accordance with the rules of standard second order perturbation calculation of quantum mechanics [6]. In [4] a simple model was given for impurity assisted nuclear reactions that is applicable in the case of astrophysical conditions. The model consists of three particles which are in atomic, atom ionic, or fully ionic states with a screened Coulomb interaction between them. ...
Based on our recent theoretical findings (Phys. Rev. C 99, 054620 (2019)) assisted nuclear capture reactions and assisted reactions with two and three final fragments that may have importance in nuclear astrophysics are discussed. It is found that great number of nuclear reactions can have assisted version of considerable cross section if the product of number densities of the initial (reacting and assisting) particles reaches appropriately high value. PACS numbers: 26.90.+n, 24.90.+d, 95.30.-k
... Yet, in our opinion the fundamental question in LENR is to find a mechanism that helps nuclei of positive charge overcome the Coulomb barrier in order to react. In our quest for such a mechanism, it was recently pointed out in [21] that there is a close similarity between the forbidden optical transitions in quantum mechanics, and the way the cross section of nuclear reactions goes to zero at low energies due to Coulomb repulsion. It was found that any additional perturbation can resolve this forbidding of nuclear reactions, i.e., the disappearance of the cross section with decreasing energy. ...
... That mechanism must considerably alter the contact probability density (1) due to the presence of the surroundings in order to explain LENR. Although it was shown only recently [21] that the effect of any perturbation provides the fundamental understanding of LENR, several studies were done in which this general statement was implicitly used, before full recognition of its importance. The concepts and results from these studies are reviewed in this section, along with our current understanding. ...
... The investigations revealed that recoil [65] and, in particular the f 2 jk factor (see (1) and (2)) have a crucial role for understanding LENR [70]. Recently, the investigation of the effect of impurities on nuclear reactions in plasma-like systems [71] led to the general understanding of forbidden nuclear reactions [21]. The discussion of these seemingly sporadic investigations is ordered systematically now. ...
Based on our recent theoretical findings (Phys. Rev. C 99, 054620 (2019)) it is shown that proton and deuteron capture reactions of extremely low energy may have accountable rate in the case of all elements of the periodic table. Certain numerical results of rates of nuclear reactions of two final fragments of extremely low energy are also given. New way of thinking about low-energy nuclear reactions (LENR) phenomena is suggested. Possible explanations for the contradictory observations announced between 1905-1927 and possible reasons for negative results of 'cold fusion' experiments published recently by the Google-organized scientific group (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1256-6) are given.
... In [12,13], the authors have explored the possibility that low energy fusion may arise at second order in perturbation theory. A similar idea has also been proposed in [14]. At this order we need to sum over all the intermediate state energies and hence the Coulomb barrier may not be very prohibitive. ...
... We conclude that nuclear fusion reactions may be possible at low energies inside a medium through the mechanism of second order perturbation theory [12,13,14]. We find that the rate in free space turns out to be very small, in agreement with earlier results [12,13]. ...
We study the fusion of a proton with a nucleus with the emission of two photons at low incident energy of the order of eV or smaller. We use a step model for the repulsive potential between proton and the nuclei. We consider the reaction both in free space and inside a medium. We make a simple model for the medium by assuming a hard wall potential beyond a certain length scale. This essentially leads to discretization of the energy spectrum which is expected inside a medium and is seen both for a crystalline lattice structure and for amorphous materials. We use second order perturbation theory to compute the transition rate. We find that the rate in free space is very small. However in medium, the rate may be substantial. Hence, we conclude that nuclear fusion reactions may take place at low energies at observable rates.
... In earlier papers [1,2], the authors have explored the possibility that low energy fusion may arise at second order in perturbation theory. A similar idea has also been proposed in [3]. At this order we need to sum over all the intermediate state energies and hence the Coulomb barrier may not be very prohibitive. ...
We study the fusion of a proton with a nucleus with the emission of two photons at low incident energy of the order of eV or smaller. We use a step model for the repulsive potential between the proton and the nuclei. We consider the reaction both in free space and inside a medium. We make a simple model for the medium by assuming a hard wall potential beyond a certain length scale. This essentially leads to discretisation of the energy spectrum which is expected inside a medium and is seen both for a crystalline lattice structure and for amorphous materials. We use second-order perturbation theory to compute the transition rate. We find that the rate in free space is very small. However, in the medium, the rate may be substantial. Hence, we conclude that nuclear fusion reactions may take place at low energies at observable rates.
... Recently, some notable works have emerged in this area: nonlocal Kondo effect and quantum critical phase in heavy fermion metals [24], heavy fermion thin films [25], and heavy fermions in Kondo lattice models [26]. However, in [27], the authors have also used the concept of heavy electron to explain the theory of low-energy nuclear reaction (LENR) [28][29][30][31][32][33][34]. According to the LENR, the electrons in the metallic hydride surfaces are subjected to the localized condensed matter electromagnetic fields. ...
Mass renormalization of the electron in configurations such as metallic hydride surfaces due to electromagnetic field fluctuations leads to mass enhancement of the electron, which is known as the heavy electron . The effective mass renormalization has substantial consequences in the theory of electromagnetic field interaction with matter (QED). One of the fascinating effects appears when an external photon interacts with the heavy electron. In this case, the wavelength of the scattered photon from the electron increases and the hard photon turns into a soft photon. In this paper, we present a novel mechanism to show how the heavy electron results in hard photon absorption.
... In [2] the modification of rate of nuclear reactions due to the appearance of classical vibrations was presented. Since the induced rate of nuclear reactions is proportional to the number densities of free atoms or atom-ions [5] which carry the reacting nuclei, the breaking up process of diatomic gas molecules interacting with surface of vibrating solid is studied here. ...
The breaking up process of diatomic gas molecules at the surface of vibrating solid is studied. Introduction.-In a recent paper the effect of coherent phonon states on certain physical processes, e.g. nuclear reactions and bound-free transitions of interstitially bound particles, was discussed. Following the method worked out in quantum electrodynamics [1] the transformation of phonon field of coherent state to an external classical field was carried out in [2]. It was obtained that in the new representation charged particles are coupled , on the one hand, to the quantized phonon field initially in the vacuum state and, on the other hand, to a classical external field the amplitude and phase of which are determined by the eigenvalue of the coherent phonon state. The interaction Hamiltonian, which is switched on due to the creation of the coherent phonon field, between a charged particle and the vibrating crystal is determined. By analogy with the photon dressed states [3], [4], which are used to the description of many photon absorption and emission from a classical electromagnetic (laser) field, the phonon dressed states are introduced to describe the many phonon processes of absorption and emission. In [2] the modification of rate of nuclear reactions due to the appearance of classical vibrations was presented. Since the induced rate of nuclear reactions is proportional to the number densities of free atoms or atom-ions [5] which carry the reacting nuclei, the breaking up process of diatomic gas molecules interacting with surface of vibrating solid is studied here. Hamiltonian and phonon-dressed states due to lattice vibration.-The interaction Hamiltonian H I (r s , t) which is switched on between a charged particle of coordinate r s (with s = 2, 3 in the case of a diatomic molecule to be discussed) and a crystalline material due to the creation of one mode of coherent state is
... Nevertheless, the authors describe their own efforts, which could provide new insights into highly hydride metals and low-energy nuclear reactions because still a number of underexplored parameters remain. In one more recent work, 22 the researchers theoretically study exothermal nuclear reactions, which forbidden due to Coulomb repulsion and show that any perturbation may mix states with small but finite amplitude to the initial state resulting in finite cross section (and rate) of the originally forbidden nuclear reaction in the ε → 0 limit. ...
Technologies to assist in the energy transition to the next century - Volume 7 - Volodymyr Krasnoholovets, Viktor Zabairachnyi
We propose a new mechanism for inducing low-energy nuclear reactions (LENRs). The process is initiated by a perturbation which we assumed to be caused by absorption or emission of a photon. Due to the electromagnetic perturbation, the initial two-body nuclear state forms an intermediate state to make a transition into the final nuclear state through the action of another perturbation. In the present paper, we take the second perturbation to be also electromagnetic. We need to sum over all energies of the intermediate state. Since the upper limit on this sum is infinity it is possible to get contributions from very high energies for which the barrier penetration factor is not too small. By considering a specific reaction, we determine the conditions under which this mechanism may lead to significantly enhanced reaction rates. We find that the mechanism leads to very small cross-sections in free space. However, in a condensed medium, there exist several possibilities leading to enhanced cross-sections, which may lead to observable reaction rates even at relatively low energies. Hence we argue that LENRs are possible and provide a theoretical set-up which may explain some of the experimental claims in this field.
Twenty-five years ago in March 1989, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons announced their success in initiating fusion between deuterons in palladium used as the cathode in an electrolytic cell. Since then, a battle has waged between skeptics who reject the claim and people who observe behaviour that is consistent with the claim. This article briefly summarizes the major experimental observations. A companion article in this special section provides insight into how the observations might be explained.
Low-energy cross section data for 86 charged-particle induced reactions involving light (1 ⩽ Z ⩽ 14), mostly stable, nuclei are compiled. The corresponding Maxwellian-averaged thermonuclear reaction rates of relevance in astrophysical plasmas at temperatures in the range from 106 K to 1010 K are calculated. These evaluations assume either that the target nuclei are in their ground state, or that the target states are thermally populated following a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, except in some cases involving isomeric states.Adopted values complemented with lower and upper limits of the rates are presented in tabular form. Analytical approximations to the adopted rates, as well as to the inverse/direct rate ratios, are provided.
The Li-6(Li-6,alpha alpha)He-4 three-body reaction has been studied in a kinematically complete experiment at E-6Li = 6 MeV, from which indirect information on the H-2(Li-6, alpha)He-4 two-body reaction at 13 less than or equal toE(c.m.) less than or equal to 750 keV has been extracted by applying the Trojan horse method. The method used a recent improved formulation. The derived astrophysical S(E) factor for the two-body process is compared with that obtained from direct experiments.
The phenomenon called cold fusion has been studied for the last 21 years since its discovery by Profs. Fleischmann and Pons in 1989. The discovery was met with considerable skepticism, but supporting evidence has accumulated, plausible theories have been suggested, and research is continuing in at least eight countries. This paper provides a brief overview of the major discoveries and some of the attempts at an explanation. The evidence supports the claim that a nuclear reaction between deuterons to produce helium can occur in special materials without application of high energy. This reaction is found to produce clean energy at potentially useful levels without the harmful byproducts normally associated with a nuclear process. Various requirements of a model are examined.
One of the most important discoveries of this century - cold fusion - was summarily rejected by science and the media before sufficient evidence had been accumulated to make a rational judgment possible. Enough evidence is now available to show that this rejection was wrong and that the discovery of a new source of clean energy may help solve some serious problems currently facing mankind. The book catalogues and evaluates this evidence and shows why the initial reaction was driven more by self-interest than fact. This book is essential reading for anyone who wants to understand the history and science behind the cold fusion controversy. In addition to the technological importance of the effect, the discovery of new ways to initiate nuclear reactions without producing significant radiation reveals an entirely new mechanism operating at the nuclear level in solid material. This new mechanism has important implications for an understanding of many other phenomena. © 2007 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved.
This paper reports how D+ was compressed galvanostatically into sheet, rod and cube samples of Pd from 0.1 M LiOD in 99.5% D2O+0.5% H2O solutions. Experiments of several kinds were performed: (1) calorimetric measurements of heat balances at low current densities; (2) calorimetric measurements at high current densities; (3) determination of γ-rays emitted from the water both, as well as that of the neutron flux; and (4) determination of the generation/accumulation of tritium. It was found that enthalpy generation can exceed 10 W cm-3 of the palladium electrode; this is maintained for experiment times in excess of 120 h, during which typical heat in excess of 4 MJ cm-3 of electrode volume was liberated. The authors believe it inconceivable that this could be due to anything but nuclear processes.
Recent measurements of the reaction H2(d,p)H3 in metallic environments at very low energies performed by different experimental groups point to an enhanced electron screening effect. However, the resulting screening energies differ strongly for diverse host metals and different experiments. Here, we present new experimental results and investigations of interfering processes in the irradiated targets. These measurements inside metals set special challenges and pitfalls that make them and the data analysis particularly error prone. There are multiparameter collateral effects that are crucial for the correct interpretation of the observed experimental yields. They mainly originate from target surface contaminations owing to residual gases in the vacuum as well as from inhomogeneities and instabilities in the deuteron density distribution in the targets. To address these problems an improved differential analysis method beyond the standard procedures has been implemented. Profound scrutiny of the other experiments demonstrates that the observed unusual changes in the reaction yields are mainly due to deuteron density dynamics simulating the alleged screening energy values. The experimental results are compared with different theoretical models of the electron screening in metals. The Debye-Hückel model that has been previously proposed to explain the influence of the electron screening on both nuclear reactions and radioactive decays can be clearly excluded.
One of the simplest, and most completely treated, fields of application of quantum mechanics is the theory of atoms with one or two electrons. For hydrogen and the analcgous ions He+, Li++, etc., the calculations can be performed exactly, both in Schrödinger’s nonrelativistic wave mechanics and in Dirac’s relativistic theory of the electron. More specifically, the calculations are exact for a single electron in a fixed Coulomb potential. Hydrogen-like atoms thus furnish an excellent way of testing the validity of quantum mechanics. For such atoms the correction terms due to the motion and structure of atomic nuclei and due to quantum electrodynamic effects are small and can be calculated with high accuracy. Since the energy levels of hydrogen and similar atoms can be investigated experimentally to an astounding degree of accuracy, some accurate tests of the validity of quantum electrodynamics are also possible. Finally, the theory of such atoms in an external electric or magnetic field has also been developed in detail and compared with experiment.
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.28.432
We use the R-matrix theory to fit low-energy data on nuclear reactions involved in Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Special attention is paid to the rate uncertainties which are evaluated on statistical grounds. We provide S factors and reaction rates in tabular and graphical formats.
This paper presents a new look at low-energy nuclear reaction research, a field that has developed from one of the most controversial subjects in science, "cold fusion." Early in the history of this controversy, beginning in 1989, a strong polarity existed; many scientists fiercely defended the claim of new physical effects as well as a new process in which like-charged atomic nuclei overcome the Coulomb barrier at normal temperatures and pressures. Many other scientists considered the entire collection of physical observations-along with the hypothesis of a "cold fusion"--entirely a mistake. Twenty years later, some people who had dismissed the field in its entirety are considering the validity of at least some of the reported experimental phenomena. As well, some researchers in the field are wondering whether the underlying phenomena may be not a fusion process but a neutron capture/absorption process. In 2002, a related tabletop form of thermonuclear fusion was discovered in the field of acoustic inertial confinement fusion. We briefly review some of this work, as well.
Recent theoretical progress in gas-surface reaction dynamics, a field relevant to heterogeneous catalysis, is described. One of the most fundamental reactions, the dissociative chemisorption of H2 on metal surfaces, can now be treated accurately using quantum mechanics. Density functional theory is used to compute the molecule-surface interaction, and the motion of the hydrogen atoms is simulated using quantum dynamics, modeling all six molecular degrees of freedom. Theory is in good quantitative agreement with molecular beam experiments, offering useful interpretations, and allowing reliable predictions. The success of the approach calls for extensions to larger systems, such as dissociative chemisorption of polyatomic molecules.
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