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Dogs in Schools: The Impact of Specific Human–Dog Interactions on Reading Ability in Children Aged 6 to 8 Years
Abstract
Dog-assisted educational programs, including reading programs, are becoming an area of research focus, based on claims of various advantages for children. However, while available findings typically indicate benefits for the children involved, the low quality of evidence makes it difficult to draw valid inferences. In the current study three dog-assisted programs with clearly defined parameters were developed and evaluated. Sixty-three children, aged 6 to 8 years, were matched on age and gender and pseudo-randomly allocated to one of the three conditions. In one condition the children participated in eight 15–20 minute sessions over a four-week period, in which they worked in pairs to train a dog to complete obstacle course tasks. In a second condition the children spent the same amount of time reading out loud, in pairs, to a stationary dog. In the third condition children participated in normal classroom activities with a dog present in the classroom. This intervention ran for up to four hours per week over the four-week period. Validated measures were used to assess reading abilities pre- and post-intervention. From the results it appeared that children showed significant improvements across time for reading ability for all three conditions, including the condition with minimal dog contact, with no significant group or interaction effects. Exploratory analyses unexpectedly indicated that children who had lower starting abilities displayed the greatest levels of reading improvement. While it cannot be determined that these findings are the result of the presence of the dog alone, they nonetheless may indicate that dog-assisted reading programs are an effective means of benefitting those children who most need help to become fluent readers.
... Authors call for more robust studies, which include direct causal links between RTD/effects and theory, larger sample sizes, measuring of sustained changes, better design and reporting, and clear specifications of interventions and participants to understand who RTD might be most beneficial for (individual differences in participants are likely to mediate RTD outcomes [Hall et al., 2016], so involving animals where only evidence of benefits exists would ensure best practice, and support animal welfare by minimising interactions [Brelsford et al., 2017]). Since Hall et al.'s (2016) and Brelsford et al.'s (2017) seminal SRs, various additional studies have been published, many which have adhered to their calls for greater methodological rigour (Connell et al., 2019;Kirnan et al., 2016;Kirnan & Ventresco, 2018;Lewis & Nicholas, 2018;Rousseau & Tardif-Williams, 2019;Steel, 2023;Syrnyk et al., 2022). ...
... In addition to study design variance, methodological weaknesses exist. While improved rigour is evident in recent years (Connell et al., 2019;Kirnan et al., 2016Kirnan et al., , 2018Lewis & Nicholas, 2018;Rousseau & Tardif-Williams, 2019;Steel, 2023;Syrnyk et al., 2022), several concerns remain (Rodriguez et al., 2021). These include a lack of quality measures (and/or failure to clearly specify measures), small sample sizes, the absence of control groups, and a failure to specify methods and intervention parameters such as setting, animal type, extent of animal involvement, participant demographics and goal of the AAI, across interventions and studies (Beetz, 2017;Brelsford et al., 2017;Gee et al., 2017;Hall et al., 2016;Rodriguez et al., 2021;Steel, 2022). ...
... These include a lack of quality measures (and/or failure to clearly specify measures), small sample sizes, the absence of control groups, and a failure to specify methods and intervention parameters such as setting, animal type, extent of animal involvement, participant demographics and goal of the AAI, across interventions and studies (Beetz, 2017;Brelsford et al., 2017;Gee et al., 2017;Hall et al., 2016;Rodriguez et al., 2021;Steel, 2022). Except for a few studies that have adopted both large sample sizes and control/comparison groups (Kirnan et al., 2016;Lewis & Nicholas, 2018;Steel, 2023 [all mixed methods]; Connell et al., 2019;Kirnan et al., 2018;Le Roux et al., 2014 [all quantitative methods]), the field lacks robust systematic evaluation. Collectively, the shortage of quality studies, and an overreliance on anecdotal evidence, casts uncertainty over purported benefits (Beetz, 2017;Brelsford et al., 2017;Fine et al., 2019;Gee et al., 2017;Hall et al., 2016;Reilly et al., 2020;Serpell et al., 2017). ...
Reading to Dogs (RTD) in schools, a form of animal‐assisted education (AAE), is growing in popularity and prevalence. RTD involves children reading to a registered dog with benefits to well‐being and reading outcomes thought to arise because of the unconditional positive regard and non‐critical listening bestowed on the child by the dog. Yet RTD research is underdeveloped, and the practice lacks a substantial evidence base, casting dubiety over RTD's suitability for adoption in schools. This paper examines the research to date, exploring methodological factors and the potential efficacy of RTD for improving children's reading outcomes. Building on Hall et al.'s (2016) systematic review of RTD, related reviews, in addition to individual studies of relevance, are explored, followed by a brief discussion of further pertinent issues in RTD research. Cautious optimism about RTD as an impactful intervention to support reading outcomes is suggested, providing impetus for further research of increased quality.
... Dogs specifically offer many positive benefits to children including -but not limited to -emotional, social, and psychological gains (Wohlfarth et al., 2014). Research suggests that dogs can also increase attentiveness and engagement in a variety of settings (Connell et al., 2019). Human-Animal Interactions (HAI) may also provide an outlet for learning to cope with pressures that otherwise may have been curtailed by giving children an opportunity to interact in a way that is free of judgment and possibly feeling understood (Connell et al., 2019). ...
... Research suggests that dogs can also increase attentiveness and engagement in a variety of settings (Connell et al., 2019). Human-Animal Interactions (HAI) may also provide an outlet for learning to cope with pressures that otherwise may have been curtailed by giving children an opportunity to interact in a way that is free of judgment and possibly feeling understood (Connell et al., 2019). Compared to talking with an adult, children ...
... Existing research illustrates a pattern of improved behavioral skills and literacy, but there is a shortage of research with larger sample sizes or random selection. Most of the current research with young children reading to dogs has been with trained therapy dogs due to safety concerns, as these dogs were trained to stay still, be kind to children, and not bark loudly (Connell et al., 2019;Rousseau & Tardif-Williams, 2019;Lamkin, 2017;Steel et al., 2021;Wohlfarth et al., 2014). Therapy dogs are trained to provide psychological or physiological therapy to others and must have stable temperaments (Alliance of Therapy Dogs, 2021). ...
Literacy is the foundation of education and supporting young children’s early literacy opportunities prepares them for a variety of learning experiences, both in traditional and non-traditional settings. Reading to shelter dogs in non-traditional settings may offer a space that is judgement-free and inviting for the development of motivation and confidence. This case study examines the experiences and perceptions of those involved in a Reading with the Dogs program at an animal shelter in Southwest Florida. Multiple sources of data were collected, including video observations, field notes, and individual and focus group interviews. The direct observations occurred monthly during the Reading with the Dogs sessions and these allowed for the researchers to interact with the children and families in a more informal setting, building rapport with them. The data analysis resulted in the identification of three themes: (1) more confident, motivated readers, (2) supporting social and emotional development, and (3) removing the stigma. Overall, the themes indicated that the Reading with the Dogs program provided a variety of benefits for the children and families involved, in addition to providing benefits for the dogs and the shelter. Programs such as the one explored in this study may be expanded or replicated in other shelters or in more traditional educational settings.
... The concept of play appears to have an important role in education. In Connell et al.'s [32] study, 'play' was specifically mentioned. In addition, several studies from the literature review mentioned the casual, playful, and relaxed nature of the intervention [24,27,29,31]. ...
For some students, school success is not a simple matter. A growing, innovative approach that supports students’ functioning at school is programs in which animals are involved in education. The involvement of animals, especially dogs, in education is known as animal-assisted education (AAE). A literature review of AAE indicated a positive influence of AAE programs on the quality of learning and social emotional development in children. This study explored whether AAE positively impacts the social and emotional outcomes of elementary school students aged between 8 and 13 years through mixed methods. The methods used were a survey and an observational study. The survey section of the study showed that students participating in the program with the dogs rated themselves, after the intervention period, significantly higher in terms of self-confidence and had a more positive score for relationships with other students after the intervention. As rated by their teachers, after the intervention period, students scored significantly higher in relation to work attitude, pleasant behavior, emotional stability, and social behavior. In the observational study, we analyzed the video material of students who participated in an AAE program with dogs. We concluded that all verbal and non-verbal behaviors of the students increased, except eye contact. The current study indicates future directions for theoretical underpinnings, improved understanding, and the empirical measurement of the underlying variables and mechanisms.
... With the exception of Kirnan et al.'s (2016) study, in recent years interventions have tended towards a lower dose of around 4-6 weeks in length with RTD offered once or twice a week. Some 4-week interventions have shown improvements to skills (Connell et al., 2019) and reading affect (Noble & Holt, 2019;Steel, 2022). ...
This study evaluated an online multi-component Reading to Dogs (RTD) intervention named Paws and Learn (PAL). Designed as a controlled feasibility study (i.e., comparing an intervention and a control group, as well as evaluating the intervention's practicality for the classroom), this research examined the intervention's impact on children's wellbeing, reading affect and frequency (RAF), children and teachers’ perceptions and experiences of PAL; and implementation considerations for the classroom. PAL consists of five components, one of which is RTD, complemented by four additional components designed to increase connection to the dog (whom they only meet virtually) and increase and consolidate benefits. RTD in schools is growing in international popularity and prevalence yet concerns about the practice exist. Online PAL was informed by a survey of teachers’ perspectives of RTD, and a co-design process combining research and practice. A pre-post-test control group design, with a mixed method evaluation was adopted. In total,N=106 pupils (aged 9) and their teachers from 3 schools participated in the 4-week study. Measures included wellbeing and RAF questionnaires, and interviews with intervention class teachers (N = 3) and a sub-sample of children (n = 33). In general, no statistically significant differences were found in wellbeing, reading affect or frequency, however qualitative insights revealed positive perceptions and experiences of online PAL, specifically in relation to wellbeing and reading affect. Online PAL was deemed feasible for classroom use, particularly if technological challenges can be overcome. Implications for the delivery of RTD interventions are discussed.
... Ever since, these animals have been living around our households, providing the vital protein source and economic prosperity for our civilizations, and having multi-purpose interactions with us (Siddiq, 2019). However, despite the growing interest on our relations and interactions with pets, mainly of dogs and cats (e.g., Alba & Haslam, 2015;Anderson & Olson, 2006;Connell et al., 2019;Evans-Wilday et al., 2018;Gosling et al., 2010;Gosse & Barnes, 1994;Kobayashi et al., 2017;Liu et al., 2019;Mertens, 1991;Minke, 2017;Mitchell & Sinkhorn, 2014;Perrine & Osbourne, 1998;Stammbach & Turner, 1999;Taylor et al., 2004), our complex relations and interactions with food animals -in particular, sheep, goat, cow and pig -is still a neglected field in the anthrozoological projects. This study aims to explore human-food animal relationships in traditional pastoral societies. ...
Lynn et al., (2019) accused fellow scientists of misrepresenting free-roaming cats
(Felis catus) by framing them as a global threat to biodiversity, rather than a
localised threat to specific ecosystems. These authors asserted that the narrative
created a ‘moral panic’ over free-roaming cats, which is escalated by emotive
journalistic pieces read by audiences around the world. To test this empirically, I
performed a thematic discourse analysis of user comments responding to five
news articles, a magazine, and a YouTube video related to the topic of freeroaming cats. The discourses examined flow between conservationists, the media,
and the public, and reflect the confused and convoluted ways in which people think
about cats. Here I discuss how well the data fits the moral panic theory. I analyse
how labels such as ‘feral’ serve to ‘other’ cats, rendering them objects of distain
and creating ‘folk devils’ that are deemed more killable than beloved companion
animals of the same species.
... Ever since, these animals have been living around our households, providing the vital protein source and economic prosperity for our civilizations, and having multi-purpose interactions with us (Siddiq, 2019). However, despite the growing interest on our relations and interactions with pets, mainly of dogs and cats (e.g., Alba & Haslam, 2015;Anderson & Olson, 2006;Connell et al., 2019;Evans-Wilday et al., 2018;Gosling et al., 2010;Gosse & Barnes, 1994;Kobayashi et al., 2017;Liu et al., 2019;Mertens, 1991;Minke, 2017;Mitchell & Sinkhorn, 2014;Perrine & Osbourne, 1998;Stammbach & Turner, 1999;Taylor et al., 2004), our complex relations and interactions with food animals -in particular, sheep, goat, cow and pig -is still a neglected field in the anthrozoological projects. This study aims to explore human-food animal relationships in traditional pastoral societies. ...
Humans and food animals have been in a mutual relationship for over 10 millennia. For a variety of purposes (e.g., livelihood, food, labor) humans are more dependent on food animals than on pets. Today, there is also empirical evidence for complex emotional, social and cognitive functioning among common food animals such as sheep, pigs, goats, cows and chicken. Yet, most of the anthrozoological projects have been focused on pets so far. Here, we present individual case studies on emotional bonds and the complex relationship between humans and food animals (mainly sheep, goats and cows). Through ethnographic fieldwork in pastoral villages of southeastern Turkey, we demonstrate human–food animal emotional bonds, which are similar to pet–human bonds in urban societies. Shepherds sometimes name certain sheep and goats after their own children. Some shepherds feel considerably depressed and suffer from prolonged–grief after the loss, death or selling of their animals. Many shepherds often dream about their favorite animals, and many become emotional remembering the memories of certain animals with which they had close bonds. Some never slaughter any animals from their own herds, as they cannot endure seeing the pain, suffering, and the blood of the animals they raised with love and care. Some frame and keep the photographs of particular sheep, goats and cows, as if they were photographs of people. Certain sheep, goats or cattle also show deep affections towards their shepherds. Due to their bond with shepherds, they also achieve higher rank, often act as leaders in their herds, share food, and listen to the lullaby, flute or songs of their shepherds. As shepherds raise their herds knowing that these animals will eventually be sold and slaughtered, they often form friendship and bond with some of their animals seeking for true companionship in their hard-working life. This way, the human–food animal relationships in rural southeastern Turkey become complex, conflicting, and dualistic.
... Feelings of wellbeing and an improved class ethos induced not only by the physical presence of the dog but by anticipation of the dogs visits, seemed to catalyse affective (improved feelings of enjoyment), cognitive (improved application and attentiveness), behavioural (increased effort and frequency) and social (sharing in reading experiences) engagement in reading. It is interesting that the teacher found the greatest benefits for the most vulnerable children, as some research suggests that RTD is most effective for children at earlier stages of their reading development (Connell et al. 2019). ...
Wellbeing and effective engagement in reading are critical to successful learning and achievement throughout school and beyond. Reading to Dogs in schools is an increasingly popular way of supporting both wellbeing and reading engagement yet limited educational research has been conducted. This small-scale study took place in a Scottish Primary 1 classroom with N = 21 participants aged 5–6 years. A 4-week intervention, adopting an inclusive approach for the whole class, was evaluated. A qualitative study design incorporated observations and semi-structured interviews. Results suggest improved wellbeing and engagement in reading for all, however the greatest improvements were found in the most vulnerable.
... (1) pairs of children trained a dog to complete an obstacle course, (2) children read aloud to a stationary dog, and (3) routine classroom activities occurred with a dog present in the classroom. Children in all three groups showed significant improvements on pre/post reading tests and those with lower starting abilities displayed the greatest levels of reading improvement (Connell et al., 2019) Preschoolers with a dog present made fewer errors on an object categorization task (Gee et al., 2010a(Gee et al., , 2010b) than the control group Dogs can focus attention and encourage task persistence A calm dog can help a child to be less fearful about making a mistake ...
A facility dog in a school is a comparatively recent category of working dog. These dogs typically are trained at the assistance, or service dog, level and are thoroughly prepared for their role. The school facility dog accompanies an owner/handler, who is a professional employee of the school, to work on a regular basis. Research on human-canine interaction indicates that positive interactions between young children and dogs can improve learners’ academic performance, their attitudes toward school, the relationships they build with others, and their emotional wellbeing. This article begins with a definition for a facility dog, describes an exemplary dog training program that prepares facility dogs for schools, and explains the interprofessional partnerships that are essential for success. Next, we review the research to provide a rationale for bringing children and dogs together in educational contexts. The remainder of the article guides educators in planning for the facility dog’s arrival and involving the facility dog in a wide range of activities that support the school’s mission and goals.
... During these programs, students make fewer mistakes and have a feeling of better self-efficacy (Bassette & Taber-Doughty, 2016;Kirnan et al., 2016;le Roux et al., 2014;Moore et al., 2013;Treat, 2013). The dog acts as a social motivator, which is especially helpful when partnered with students demonstrating low motivation, particularly those who do not respond well to traditional teaching techniques (Connell et al., 2019). In the long term, there is greater attention and engagement toward their teacher (Kotrschal & Ortbauer, 2003). ...
As the academic and social-emotional needs of students in schools continue to increase, so too does the presence of dogs in educational spaces. This article aims to present an overview of past and present animal-assisted intervention practices in school settings. This comprehensive literature review examines the current state of research within this field of study. Data from 29 publications were selected according to strict inclusion and exclusion criteria. The results highlight three categories in which the presence of dogs in schools have an impact: social-emotional, cognitive, and physiological. Challenges to program implementation include health risks, cultural context, and negative effects on the animal. Due to the lack of school-based research, more study is needed, especially in order to understand the effect of dogs on the social-emotional learning of students. Finally, the welfare and training of the animals involved should be taken into consideration, and regulations regarding handler and animal training should be enforced.
A growing body of research has linked the inclusion of dogs in Animal-Assisted Activities (AAA) for children and young adults to a diverse range of positive social emotional and cognitive outcomes. However, many studies have focused exclusively on aspects directly related to dog-client interactions. There is a need to gain a better understanding of how dog-handler teams have been described, conceptualized and incorporated into the analysis in previous research. In addition, few studies have investigated the mutual adjustments inherent to dog-handler-client triadic relationships. This paper explores if and how the unique characteristics of dog-handler teams have been conceptualized and measured in previous studies. First, this paper undertakes a scoping review to map what, if any, characteristics of dogs, handlers, and dog-handler teams have been described and incorporated into the assessment of AAAs from 2004 to 2019 including: demographic characteristics, formal training and certification, handlers’ or dogs’ behavioral and physiological responses to AAAs, handlers’ roles during activities, and configuration of AAA teams. This scoping review also highlights key features of AAA teams requiring further investigation. In addition, this paper proposes the incorporation of a transdisciplinary framework to the analysis of AAAs. Such a holistic framework can inform the field of human-animal interactions by prioritizing a relational and contextual focus to the study of AAAs.
In this multiple case study, the researchers examined the impact of a short-term canine-assisted literacy program on reading engagement and literacy growth for seven second-grade students. Current research findings on canine-assisted literacy programs are promising. Reading to a dog is perceived as an enjoyable and motivating experience for young readers and contributes to improved reading skills. To recruit participants, the researchers asked every second-grade teacher to identify one student who was struggling as a reader. All participants struggled with confidence as readers. The program was limited to one school term and consisted of weekly sessions in which the students brought a self-selected book to read to a therapy dog in the presence of a trained handler. Data sources were comprised of pre and post student interviews, teacher interviews, parental questionnaires, and systematic observations of the child-animal interactions and reading behaviors. A student interview and parental questionnaire were also completed four months after the program. The varied data sources suggested that the program supported children’s literacy development by providing sustained time for students to engage in appropriate and meaningful reading activities. Specifically, the students developed self-confidence as readers. Although the children interacted with the dog in different ways, all sources revealed a positive, emotional response to the animal and the overall experience, which extended beyond the duration of the program. The promising results of this study contribute to the growing body of evidence asserting the advantages of canine-assisted reading programs.
This study explores animal-assisted interventions, informing readers about the current
strengths and weaknesses of associated research. It aims to provoke discussion around
reading to dogs programmes, helping practitioners to evaluate what the animal-assisted
interventions can support and where they might achieve positive outcomes for dyslexic learners.
This study explored children’s perceptions of a canine-assisted social-emotional learning program developed within the framework of a canine therapy program at a mid-sized Canadian university. Data collection made use of interviews, field notes, and observations. Children (N = 8, 5 – 11 years) from an after-school program participated in a six-week intervention after which participants were interviewed about their experiences in the program, their learning of social and emotional competencies, and the role of the therapy dogs in facilitating their socioemotional development. Using conventional content analysis, salient themes reflecting participants’ experiences were identified. A within-case analysis was conducted followed by a cross-case analysis to identify what participants collectively saw as important. Salient themes to emerge through cross-case analysis were: 1) the dogs were meaningful and essential to the program, 2) it was an enjoyable and positive experience, and 3) participants reported evidence of social-emotional learnings. Evidence from this study suggests that the therapy dogs might have provided behavioral and emotional support. Findings suggest that integrating therapy dogs into social and emotional learning initiatives can provide unique advantages and improve children’s engagement and learning of social and emotional skills. Findings are discussed within the context of human-animal interactions and social and emotional education.
Literacy is a key factor in occupational success and social integration. However, an increasing number of children lack appropriate reading skills. There is growing evidence that dogs have positive effects on reading performance. We investigated the short-term effects of dogs on reading performance in 36 third-graders and monitored physiological parameters [heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), and salivary cortisol] as well as behavioral variables. Each child took part in two test sessions at the presence of a tutor, in one of which a dog and its handler were present. To assess reading performance two reading tests were used: two subtests of the standardized “Ein Leseverständnistest für Erst- bis Sechstklässler”, where the children have to carry out time-limited reading tasks, to assess sentence and text comprehension, and repeated reading (RR), where the children have to read the same text twice, to assess reading speed and short-term improvement. Although the dog had no effect on reading performance scores, within the first test session the children improved from the first to the second run of RR when a dog was present but not without dog. The behavior of the children indicated a calming effect of the dog in the first test session with less nervous movements and the children being less talkative. We found no impact of the dog on HR and HRV. However, the excitement about the dog in combination with the unknown situation in the first test session was reflected in a higher difference in the mean HR difference between the two test sessions for the children, who in the first test session had a dog present, compared to the children, who had the dog in the second test session. In the second test session, the children were more aroused with a dog present than with no dog present, as indicated by the area under the curve increase (AUCi) of salivary cortisol values. We conclude that the presence of a dog had a minor short-term positive effect on the children’s motivation and reading performance. More substantial effects could probably be achieved with repeated sessions.
Reading skills are an important component of academic success for school-age youth, and are associated with increased academic performance and positive attitudes about school. The presence of an animal appears to reduce stress during reading. Therefore, the goal of this study was to assess the feasibility and effects of a 6-week after-school canine-assisted reading program in a public elementary school setting. Second-grade students were randomized to either an intervention group (n = 14) in which they read to a registered therapy dog for 30 min once weekly for 6 weeks or a control group (n = 14) with a standard classroom curriculum. Children’s reading skills were assessed biweekly and attitudes about reading were assessed pre- and post-intervention. The 6-week after-school canine-assisted reading program was feasible. Reading skill scores did not change significantly for either group. Although scores on recreational reading attitudes also did not change significantly for either group, the academic reading attitudes scores increased significantly in the intervention group (p = .002), but not in the control group (p = .06). These results support the benefits of an animal-assisted intervention for child literacy on children’s attitudes about reading and can inform future programs evaluating reading programs that include dogs.
There is scientific evidence that the presence of a therapy dog can positively impact on the performance of cognitive tasks (e.g. Gee et al., 2010). The aim of this study was to examine the effects of a therapy dog on reading performance. Twelve children in second grade, aged 6 to 7 years old, were randomly assigned to two groups in a cross-over design. Six boys and six girls read a text in the presence of a dog and, in another session, a similar text in the presence of a human confederate. Several parameters of the reading performance and human-dog interaction were assessed. In our study a therapy dog rather than a friendly female student improved the reading performance of children in three out of four task parameters: correct word recognitions, correct recognitions of punctuation marks, and correct line breaks. There was no significant influence of the dog on reading time. The four reading parameters did not show significant correlations with the total length of eye or body contact with the dog. Results in this study are consistent with previous research that documented a positive impact on the performance of cognitive tasks in preschoolers due to the presence of a therapy dog (e.g. Gee et al., 2012). Our results add two new aspects. Firstly, data indicate that the presence of a dog can also be beneficial for older children. Secondly, the promotion of performance also applies to reading.
Background
Despite growing interest in the value of human-animal interactions (HAI) to human mental and physical health the quality of the evidence on which postulated benefits from animals to human psychological health are based is often unclear. To date there exist no systematic reviews on the effects of HAI in educational settings specifically focussing on the perceived benefits to children of reading to dogs. With rising popularity and implementation of these programmes in schools, it is essential that the evidence base exploring the pedagogic value of these initiatives is well documented.
Methods
Using PRISMA guidelines we systematically investigated the literature reporting the pedagogic effects of reading to dogs. Because research in this area is in the early stages of scientific enquiry we adopted broad inclusion criteria, accepting all reports which discussed measurable effects related to the topic that were written in English. Multiple online databases were searched during January-March 2015; grey literature searches were also conducted. The search results which met the inclusion criteria were evaluated, and discussed, in relation to the Oxford Centre for Evidence Based Medicine levels of evidence; 27 papers were classified as Level 5, 13 as Level 4, 7 as Level 2c and 1 as Level 2b.
Conclusion
The evidence suggests that reading to a dog may have a beneficial effect on a number of behavioural processes which contribute to a positive effect on the environment in which reading is practiced, leading to improved reading performance. However, the evidence base on which these inferences are made is of low quality. There is a clear need for the use of higher quality research methodologies and the inclusion of appropriate controls in order to draw causal inferences on whether or how reading to dogs may benefit children’s reading practices. The mechanisms for any effect remain a matter of conjecture.
An existing school program in which therapy dogs are integrated into the reading curriculum was analyzed to determine the effect on student reading. Previous literature suggests an improvement in both reading skills and attitudes towards reading when students read in the presence of a therapy dog. Using a mixed method model, the researchers analyzed standardized reading test scores of 169 students in kindergarten through fourth grade and conducted interviews with educators and dog owners. A series of t tests conducted by grade indicated a significant difference, but only in kindergarten where the children in the dog reading group achieved higher end-of-year reading scores than a control cohort. A follow-up analysis of covariance controlling for mid-year reading scores confirmed that these differences were not related to preexisting reading levels. Interview results agreed with earlier studies noting improvements in reading and writing skills as well as attitude and enthusiasm for reading across all grade levels but with greatest gains for Special Education, ESL, and children who struggle with reading. Archival data from subsequent years is being collected and will seek to replicate the findings in kindergarten and to examine the cumulative effect of the reading program.
Background Animal-assisted therapy has been widely used with students. This study is
the first known investigation into the impact of an animal-assisted reading program on
reading skills, employing an experimental pre-test/post-test control group design and
controlling for the effects of extra attention to student’s reading.
Objective The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of an animal-assisted
reading program on the reading rate, accuracy and comprehension of grade 3 students.
Method Students identified by the ESSI Reading Test as poor readers (N = 102) were
randomly assigned to three experimental groups and one control group. Twenty-seven
students read to a dog in the presence of a Pets as Therapy volunteer, 24 students read
directly to an adult, while 26 students read to a teddy bear in the presence of an adult.
Students in the control group (n = 25) were not part of the program and continued with
their normal school activities. Data collection took place before the start of the program
(Time 1), directly after completion of the 10-week reading program (Time 2), and again
8 weeks after the completion of the program (Time 3).
Results Mixed method analysis of variance revealed significant interaction between
group and time on the Neale reading comprehension scores with the ‘‘dog group’’ scoring
higher than the three other groups.
Conclusion The animal-assisted reading program had an impact on some of the reading
skills of the students who read to a dog. The program is flexible and can be applied in a
variety of settings.
Animals have an anxiety-reducing effect on humans. However, in the search for which 27 interventions are the most effective one notices that studies in this field are not comparable as they all use 28 different designs. Hereby, we investigated the anxiety reducing abilities of different animals and a plant 29 using a public speaking task with identical set-ups and measures in all conditions. After speech anxiety was 30 induced in university students (N=71), they were presented with either a dog, a fish or a plant or were left 31 alone (control condition) for an intervention phase of five minutes duration. Anxiety measures were taken at 32 five different points throughout the testing procedure. When comparing the participants’ levels of anxiety 33 before and after the intervention, we found that all student participants showed reduced anxiety levels in the 34 experimental conditions with no differences among the types of intervention, while no such effect was found 35 for participants in the control condition. Our results not only demonstrate a new perspective in the research 36 of animal-assisted activities by presenting a more systematic and analytic approach to research in this field; 37 but more importantly, they confirm the necessity of research guidelines for animal-assisted activities across 38 the different disciplines involved, and question the unique importance and necessity of the involvement of 39 animals in interventional practice.
Background
Children with emotional and behavioral disabilities (EBD) struggle with behavioral problems during reading activities in school. One way to address these concerns may be through dog reading programs which are increasing in popularity in schools and libraries. Preliminary anecdotal research suggests dog reading programs may improve academic engagement behavior for students with EBD who struggle with reading.
Objective
The purpose of this pilot study was to systematically evaluate the effects of a dog reading visitation program on academic engagement behaviors of elementary aged children with emotional and behavioral disabilities.
Methods
Participants included three elementary aged students with emotional behavioral disabilities. A multiple probe single case design across students was used to examine the impact of the dog reading program on on-task-reading aloud behaviors. During baseline and maintenance conditions, students read aloud to themselves while during intervention, students read aloud to a therapy dog.
Results
The results indicated that all three students experienced increases in on-task behaviors during intervention and maintained improvements over time.
Conclusion
Students indicated they enjoyed the dog reading program and increased on-task behavior was observed. Social validity was conferred by the teacher who observed improvements in behavior during intervention. Suggestions for future research include expanding the study with more participants, examining the students reading skills in addition to behavior, incorporating dogs or other animals into other reading activities, and examining the impact of animals in other academic interventions.
Recent advances in research have furthered understanding of the many roles that emotions play in fostering effective learning.
This editorial argues, against fashion, that the affective domain is neither separate from nor less significant in the learning
process than the cognitive domain. It begins with a vignette of a struggling reader. It then defines emotions and explains
their role in learning, using cognitive psychology and neuroscience as the research base. Next, it examines the influence
of the affective domain on learning to interpret symbols. The editorial concludes with an analysis of reading anxiety and
recommendations for practice.
KeywordsLearning-Emotions-Reading anxiety-Affective domain-Brain research
This investigation compared language use and social interaction in children with autism receiving two forms of occupational therapy: occupational therapy using standard techniques, and occupational therapy incorporating animals. Twenty-two children between the ages of 7 and 13 received both forms of therapy in a school-based occupational therapy program for children with autism. Results suggest that the children demonstrated significantly greater use of language and significantly greater social interaction in sessions incorporating animals when compared to sessions using exclusively standard occupational therapy techniques. Findings are discussed in the context of recent research that has highlighted the importance of enhancing the motivation of children with autism to engage actively in therapeutic and learning processes.
Reading Education Assistance Dogs (R.E.A.D.) is a reading program that uses therapy dogs to increase a child's desire and ability to read. However, more data is needed to demonstrate the effectiveness of such programs. A five-week R.E.A.D. program was implemented to assess feasibility and effectiveness. Participants included 18 children entering the 2nd grade (9 assigned to read to dogs and 9 assigned to read without dogs present). Fifteen children completed the study (9 in the Dog Group and 6 in the Control Group; p = 0.058). To detect changes in reading ability and in attitudes toward reading, a Curriculum Based Measurement (CBM) for reading and an Elementary Reading Attitude Survey (ERAS) was given at week 0 and week 5. There were no significant differences over the course of the study in ERAS scores for the Dog Group, but the Control Group had significant reductions in the ERAS academic score (p = 0.04) and a trend for a reduction in the ERAS total score (p = 0.06). There was a numerically larger but not statistically different reduction in CBM in the Control Group compared to the Dog Group (p = 0.16). Further studies are warranted to determine if these trends represent statistically significant effects of the R.E.A.D.
Program:
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the presence of a dog would have an impact on object recognition memory performance of preschool children. This work represents an extension of previous research which found that preschoolers require fewer instructional prompts to complete
this type of memory task when in the presence of a dog. If children require fewer instructional prompts it is possible that they are better able to focus on the task itself and as a result, improved memory performance is likely. Because the earlier experiment utilized a very simple version
of the task that was readily completed by the preschool children, the overall performance data were at ceiling. The current study, involving 20 preschool children, included a manipulation of task difficulty through varying the number of distracters (one versus four) present at test. Increasing
the number of distractors in a simple recognition task is known to make that task more challenging, and thus performance was expected to be slower and less accurate in the four distracter conditions relative to the one-distracter conditions. The collaborators in the study were either a therapy
dog or a human. A two-way repeated measures design was used such that each child served as his/her own control and was tested in each of four separate conditions: dog present (one and four distracters) and human present (one and four distracters). The results showed that the preschool children
performed the object recognition task faster and more accurately in the presence of the therapy dog relative to a human and also in the one-distracter versus four-distracter condition. The authors conclude that these effects result from increased focus and/or motivation resulting from the
presence of the dog.
This study explored the use of animal-assisted therapy with students identified with a learning disability and limited reading success. Initially, reading progress was defined as the participants' comprehension rate obtained from an oral Informal Reading Inventory (IRI) passage. The nature of the Informal Reading Inventory requires the introduction of more difficult reading passages as the student's comprehension rate increases, potentially masking the overall effect of the intervention. Due to this factor and erratic student performance, which is a common characteristic of students with learning disabilities, obtaining consistent comprehension rates was difficult. Therefore, progress was defined only as total amount of time the student was engaged in reading under each condition. A reversal replication, single case design was implemented to determine the effects of reading to the therapy dog on the students' reading progress as measured by total amount of time read. The analysis indicated a statistically significant increase in the total amount of reading time as determined by the participants in the presence of the therapy dog. Positive student feedback about their experience reading with the therapy dog supported the effect of the intervention on reading progress.
Previous research has shown that the presence of a dog can positively impact the speed at which preschoolers perform motor skills tasks and also their ability to adhere to instructions. The current study focused on the execution of a cognitive task-object categorization-by developmentally delayed and typical preschool children in the presence of a real dog, a stuffed dog, or a human. The real dog involved in this study was a Miniature Poodle. The children (n = 12) were asked to complete a match-to-sample task in which they had to choose a picture of an object that "goes with" another. Three categories of object exemplars were used: taxonomic, thematic, and irrelevant. The presence of the real dog resulted in significantly fewer irrelevant choices than either the stuffed dog or the human conditions. Additionally, results in this experiment were consistent with previous research, showing a developmental shift where younger children were more likely to make taxonomic than thematic choices, with the reverse true of the older children. These results indicate that the presence of the real dog does not appear to alter typical performance patterns seen in object categorization, but the fact that fewer errors were made in the presence of the dog indicates that the presence of the dog does have a positive impact on performance of this cognitive task. The authors discuss several possible explanations for this outcome.
An increasing amount of research has emerged in recent years regarding the benefits that household pets have for individuals, much of which focuses on child–pet relationships. A number of studies have explored the role of pets in elementary classroom settings and what advantages their presence might have. Current curricula aimed at promoting humane education are also related to the use of animals as teaching tools in classrooms. This study examined teachers' attitudes and experiences regarding the use of pets in the classroom. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected from approximately 75 elementary classroom teachers, revealing the way in which animals were used in their teaching practices, as well as their views on some of the advantages of using pets in the classroom. The majority of teachers surveyed believed that the use of live pets in the classroom contributed positively to increased empathy, as well as socio‐emotional development, in students, much of which is supported by current research. Implications for further research are considered.
Interests and goals have been identified as two important motivational variables that impact individuals' academic performances, yet little is known about how best to utilize these variables to enhance childrens' learning. We first review recent developments in the two areas and then examine the connection between interests and goals. We argue that the polarization of situational and individual interest, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, and performance and mastery goals must be reconsidered. In addition, although we acknowledge the positive effects of individual interest, intrinsic motivation, and the adoption of mastery goals, we urge educators and researchers to recognize the potential additional benefits of externally triggered situational interest, extrinsic motivation, and performance goals. Only by dealing with the multidimensional nature of motivational forces will we be able to help our academically unmotivated children.
The action research project report began when the teacher researchers determined that students at Sites A and B struggled with reading achievement. The purpose of the project was to improve students' reading achievement through increased motivation, specific skill instruction, and additional practice time. The project involved 26 students: 17 second-grade students, 4 first-grade students, 4 third-grade students, and 1 fifth-grade student. The project began January 21st, 2008 and ran through May 16th, 2008 with 12 weeks of intervention. Students' low reading achievement was demonstrated by a lack in reading practice time, low motivation to read, limited access to appropriately leveled books, and low literacy skills appropriate to their grade level. The teacher researchers used a Student Attitude Survey, Teacher Questionnaire, Accelerated Reader scores, and data from the Measure of Academic Progress reports to document evidence of the problem. The Accelerated Reader scores and Measure of Academic Progress report tools showed that reading achievement was low compared to grade level peers. The Student Attitude Survey showed that motivation and interest in reading were areas in need of improvement. The Teacher Questionnaire showed that a teacher's years of experience correlated to confidence and ability in the area of reading instruction. The teacher researchers chose Reading Parties, specific skill instruction, and self-to-text connections for intervention. The Reading Parties were a block of time once a week where students could read books at their level in a comfortable atmosphere. Specific skill instruction consisted of mini lessons on phonics, comprehension, and vocabulary that gave students the tools they needed to read books. The final intervention was teaching students how to make self-to-text connections. This enabled them to further comprehend and enjoy the books they were reading. One of the most notable changes was the increase students that chose reading as their preferred activity. Another notable change was that all students showed growth in the Accelerated Reader scores. Students approached reading and books in a different, more positive, manner after the interventions. The teacher researchers saw positive results in the data as well as in daily interactions with students. Students were more apt to pick up a book, enjoyed their silent reading time, applied skills to read more difficult books, and shared their readings with peers. (Nine appendixes are included: (1) Student Attitude Survey; (2) Teacher Questionnaire; (3) Sample Accelerated Reader Report; (4) Measure of Academic Progress Class Report Sample; (5) Reading Party Rating Cards; (6) Reading Party Passport; (7) Phonic Charts; (8) Comprehension Quickie; and (9) Text-to-Text Connections. (Contains 8 tables and 22 graphs.) [Master of Arts Action Research Project, Saint Xavier University.]
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the presence of a therapy dog would affect the performance of a set of gross motor skills tasks for a mixed group of language-impaired and typical preschool children. The 14 children in the group were between four and six years old (four female and ten male); the two dogs were Miniature Poodles. The design was a two-way mixed model factorial, where a series of 10 gross motor skills tasks (e.g., long jump, high jump—labeled Type of Task) performed by the children served as one variable, and the presence or absence of the therapy dog (labeled Dog Presence) served as the other variable. In the dog-present conditions, the dog either performed the task immediately prior to, or at the same time as, the child. Time to complete each task and the accuracy of task performance as determined by a rating scale were determined from a review of experiment videotapes. The main effect of Dog Presence was significant (F(1,36) = 7.471, p < 0.05, R2 = 0.17). As predicted, the children completed the tasks faster when the dog was present (M = 10.88 s, SD = 9.84) than when the dog was absent (M = 13.86 s, SD = 12.64), but this effect was not present in the ratings data. This indicates that the presence of a therapy dog served as an effective motivator for the children, who performed faster, but without compromising accuracy, in all tasks but one. The interaction between dog presence and type of task was also significant (F(9,71) = 3.67, p < 0.05, R2 = 0.32) in the ratings data, indicating that the presence of the dog increased performance accuracy in some types of tasks, while decreasing it in others. Based on these results and the strong connection between motor skills and language development, the authors recommend a role for therapy dogs in speech and language development programs for preschool children.
This study examined the effects of different training methods on social behavior, empathy, and aggression (open and relational) in children (third-graders) at several intervals. There were three experimental conditions: “Social training without dogs,” “Social training with dogs,” and “Dog attendance without social training.” The project was carried out in three elementary schools— three classes per school (total of 230 children)—over a period of 10 weeks. The assignment of experimental conditions to classes within each school was random. There were ten training sessions (90 minutes each): one session per week. The class teachers and pupils filled in questionnaires before the start of training and after the completion of the 10-week program, and the pupils did so once again three weeks after that. Data were analyzed using analysis of covariance for repeated measures on one factor. The respective initial values were incorporated into the computation as covariates. The teacher's survey revealed a significant improvement in pupils' social behavior, irrespective of program. The pupils showed a significant increase in empathy, irrespective of program; however, the effect was not stable over time. A significant advantage with respect to open and relational aggression was demonstrated by the “Social training with dogs” program over the other two alternatives.
Therapy using animals is now a widespread phenomenon, but some authorities have argued that there is insufficient evidence either to justify or to guide animal-assisted therapy. This reflects a paucity of adequate quantitative methodology for investigations in this area. The little research that has been carried out suggests that animal presence may increase general social behavior. Our study aimed to develop a methodology to investigate the effects of a dog on the behavior of children with severe learning disabilities. A repeated measures design was used to observe eight children with Down's syndrome in controlled sessions, under the direction of an adult. Each session consisted of seven minutes of interaction with a real dog, and seven minutes with an imitation dog. Differences in visual attending, and verbal and non-verbal initiation and response behaviors indicated that the real dog provided a more sustained focus for positive and co-operative interactions with itself and the adult, than did the imitation dog.
To test the idea that dogs have a positive influence on the social behavior of school children, one of three dogs was introduced alternately into a class at an elementary school in Vienna, attended by 24 children (mean age: 6.7 years). Most of the 14 boys and ten girls came from first-generation immigrant families. With parental consent, their behavior was videotaped for two hours every week, during “open teaching situations,” first during a one-month control period in the absence of dogs, followed by an experimental period of similar duration, when a dog was present in the classroom. Frequency and duration of all observable behaviors of individuals and their interactions were coded from these tapes. Although major individual differences were found in the children's interest in the dog and their behavioral responses, the group became socially more homogenous due to decreased behavioral extremes, such as aggressiveness and hyperactivity; also, formerly withdrawn individuals became socially more integrated. Effects were more pronounced in the boys than the girls. Even though the children spent considerable time watching and making contacting with the dog, they also paid more attention to the teacher. We conclude that the presence of a dog in a classroom could positively stimulate social cohesion in children and provide a relatively cheap and easy means of improving teaching conditions.
This paper presents two experiments that examined memory performance and adherence to instructions for a group of preschool children (n = 12) in the presence of a well-behaved real dog, a stuffed dog, and a human confederate. The children were shown 10 objects in each condition. At test, the children were shown each original object along with a distracter and asked to select the one they had seen before. As we expected, object recognition performance was at ceiling and no effects were significant. Instructional prompts were recorded in two ways: General prompts included general instructions like "Face this way," whereas Task Specific prompts directed the child to perform specific aspects of the task like "Pick one of these objects." The first experiment involved the use of three-dimensional objects and we found that for both types of prompts, fewer prompts were needed in the Real Dog condition, followed by the Stuffed Dog condition, and the greatest number of prompts was needed in the Human condition. The second experiment involved the use of pictures of three-dimensional objects. Again, for both types of prompts, fewer prompts were needed in the Real Dog condition relative to the other two conditions. The results of these experiments indicate that the presence of a well-trained dog reduces the need for instructional prompts in a traditional cognitive task— object recognition—for preschool children. The common assumption that the presence of a dog can be distracting for children during the execution of cognitive tasks appears to be false.
This paper charts our thinking about engagement in reading. It begins where we began, which is inside a single classroom. The paper ends where we have arrived now, with a model of context for engaged reading. During this pursuit, we asked three major questions. Those questions serve as a framework for this paper, and are the following: (1) How can we increase long-term reading engagement in the classroom? (2) Is our approach for increasing reading engagement and motivation more effective than traditional reading instruction? (3) What are the critically important features of a classroom context that fosters long-term reading engagement?
Animal-Assisted programs with children are becoming increasingly popular in school and therapeutic settings. This article
provides an overview of the benefits accrued by children as well as the concerns with programs which involve animals, and
therapy dogs in particular, in these environments. Research over the past 30years indicates that therapy dogs may offer physiological,
emotional, social, and physical support for children. The distinguishing features of Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) are characterized
by the supplemental inclusion of a trained therapy dog in reaching an intervention goal in therapeutic environments, and as
a supplement to an educational objective in school contexts. The general assumptions underlying AAT with children are that
although therapy dogs are interactive, children seem to perceive them as non-judgemental participants who are outside of the
complications and expectations of human relationships. This unique interaction may offer children a valuable form of social
and emotional support in educational and therapeutic settings.
This investigation studied the impact of registered therapy dogs assigned to students in order to improve reading skills. The purpose of this study was to determine if children assigned to registered therapy dogs improve significantly in reading achievement and related school performance such as attendance and discipline when compared to students of similar characteristics not assigned to registered therapy dogs. Specifically, the study used data to ascertain whether students assigned to registered therapy dogs improved their reading skills and if these students demonstrated more or less growth than students of similar characteristics not assigned to registered therapy dogs. This study analyzed data from the Canine Assisted Reading Education (C.A.R.E. to Read) program, data collected from the teacher responses to the C.A.R.E. to Read Teacher Questionnaire, and data provided by Brevard Public School District. Repeated measures analyses and descriptive statistics clearly revealed that students assigned to registered therapy dogs demonstrated more reading growth than their peers who were not assigned to registered therapy dogs. Additionally, students assigned to the registered therapy dogs had a more positive attitude toward schoolwork, were more willing to participate in classroom activities, were more successful with higher level thinking skills, and were more self-confident after being assigned to the registered therapy dogs. Recommendations were made to address teacher training concerning classroom environment, higher level thinking skills, and identifying hesitant and resistant learners. Recommendations also were made for additional research on other uses for registered therapy dogs in the educational setting.
Sit Stay Read is a unique literacy intervention program that uses dogs in the classroom to improve student reading and writing outcomes in select, disadvantaged Chicago Public Schools. The goal of this research study was to analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the Sit Stay Read program in improving student engagement and reading outcomes. As evaluated during the 2008/2009 school year, through mixed methods research, the Sit Stay Read program was effective in improving second grade students’ oral reading fluency scores with students in the program group (N=152) gaining 8 words per minute more on average, but up to 14 words per minute more in some cases, than students in a comparison group (N=98). This represents a 20 percent improvement in the program group over the comparison group in oral reading fluency gain. No significant gender differences were noted, though girls responded somewhat more favorably to the program than did boys. No significant difference was noted in attendance rates between the two groups, though attendance data were limited.Qualitative analysis of interview data with teachers, students, and the program’s executive director suggests that all groups have very favorable perceptions of the program and that Sit Stay Read supports the three key components of the construct of engaged learning with the program positively impacting students’ competence level in reading and writing, supporting the development of a community of learners, and exposing children to authentic work that is meaningful to them.
This study assessed young children's understanding of the effects of emotional and physiological states on cognitive performance. Five, 6-, 7-year-olds, and adults (N= 96) predicted and explained how children experiencing a variety of physiological and emotional states would perform on academic tasks. Scenarios included: (a) negative and positive emotions, (b) negative and positive physiological states, and (c) control conditions. All age groups understood the impairing effects of negative emotions and physiological states. Only 7-year-olds, however, showed adult-like reasoning about the potential enhancing effects of positive internal states and routinely cited cognitive mechanisms to explain how internal states affect performance. These results shed light on theory-of-mind development and also have significance for children's everyday school success.
The BaRK (Building Reading Confidence for Kids) canine assisted reading program: One child's experience. Literacy Learning: The Middle Years
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Animal-assisted literacy instruction for students with identified learning disabilities: Examining the effects of incorporating a therapy dog into guided oral reading sessions (Doctoral dissertation)
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Young people's reading and writing: An in-depth study focusing on enjoyment, behavior, attitudes and attainment. London: The National Literacy Trust
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eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED521656.pdf.
York assessment of reading comprehension (YARC)
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Impact of animal-assisted therapy on oral reading fluency of second-graders (Doctoral dissertation)
- Anthrozoös Walsh
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Walsh, A. E. (2014). Impact of animal-assisted therapy on oral reading fluency of second-graders (Doctoral
dissertation). State University of New York, Fredonia, USA. Retrieved from https://dspace.sunyconnect.
suny.edu/bitstream/handle/1951/64521/Alison_Eckert_Masters_Project_May2014.pdf.
Minor immediate effects of a dog on children's reading performance and physiology. Frontiers in Veterinary Science
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