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English Literacy
Instruction for
Chinese Speakers
Edited by
Barry Lee Reynolds · Mark Feng Teng
English Literacy Instruction for Chinese Speakers
Barry Lee Reynolds · Mark Feng Teng
Editors
English Literacy
Instruction for
Chinese Speakers
Editors
Barry Lee Reynolds
University of Macau
Taipa, Macau
Mark Feng Teng
Hong Kong Baptist University
Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
ISBN 978-981-13-6652-9 ISBN 978-981-13-6653-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6653-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2019932936
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microlms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
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publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specic statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied,
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maps and institutional afliations.
Cover credit: pablohart
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore
189721, Singapore
3
CHAPTER 1
English Foreign and Second Language
Literacy Development for Chinese Speakers:
What Do We Know?
Mark Feng Teng and Barry Lee Reynolds
INTRODUCTION
The twenty-rst century witnessed discussions of greater scope and
depth in the teaching and reform of English literacy. At rst glance,
“literacy,” referring to a skill in reading and/or writing, is easy to under-
stand. But at the same time, literacy is both a complex and dynamic
concept. Literacy is continuing to be interpreted and dened in a mul-
tiplicity of ways (Helman, 2016). The notion of literacy is inuenced by
not only institutional agendas, national contexts, educational policies,
and cultural values, but also inuenced by instruction, assessment, and
classroom practices. In teaching English as a second language (L2) or
a foreign language (FL), theories of literacy have evolved from those
© The Author(s) 2019
B. L. Reynolds and M. F. Teng (eds.),
English Literacy Instruction for Chinese Speakers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6653-6_1
M. F. Teng
Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
e-mail: markteng@life.hkbu.edu.hk
B. L. Reynolds (*)
University of Macau, Taipa, Macau
e-mail: barryreynolds@um.edu.mo
4 M. F. TENG AND B. L. REYNOLDS
focused solely on changes in individual practices to more complex views
encompassing broader social contexts (the “literate environment” and
the “literate society”). These views encourage and enable literacy activi-
ties and practices to occur. As a result of these and other developments,
understandings in the policy and practices associated with literacy have
expanded. Literacy is no longer viewed as a simple process of acquiring
basic language skills. Instead, literacy also encompasses the development
of cognitive skills and the application of these skills in ways that contrib-
ute to socioeconomic development and critical reection as a basis for
personal and social change. Academics from a wide range of disciplines
have engaged in an ongoing and, at times, highly contested debate over
the meaning and denition of the term “literacy” and how it is related to
the broader notions of education and knowledge acquisition.
Following UNESCO (2006), literacy is delineated as including four
discrete elements: literacy as an autonomous set of skills (e.g., reading,
writing, and oral skills); literacy as an applied, practiced, and situated pro-
cess; literacy as a learning process; and literacy as text. However, as deni-
tions of literacy have shifted, literacy is no longer exclusively understood as
an individual transformation, but as a contextual and societal one. There
is a need to build an international awareness of a specic social context,
e.g., for rst language Chinese Speakers, in which literacy is encouraged,
acquired, developed, and sustained. “Chinese Speakers” is a term we use
to refer to English learners in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and
Taiwan. The four geographic locations, although different, share con-
nected cultural and economic ties. A broader understanding of literacy
for Chinese Speakers can provide fertile ground for further research in the
four locations, as well as fostering an international awareness of innovation
and progress toward the development of effective English literacy pro-
grams for all rst language (L1) Chinese speakers across the world.
For Chinese Speakers, English has been an integral component of
school curricula. English literacy has been highlighted for academic pur-
suit and pragmatic needs of learners. The increasing reform in English
literacy instruction has brought about learning opportunities but also
posed challenges for learners who need to develop English literacy
skills. Researchers and classroom practitioners have paid continuous
effort to English curriculum reform at different levels. For example,
teaching and learning English literacy for Chinese Speakers tends to
draw on “the earlier, the better” ideology, suggesting that an early start
on English learning will enhance learners’ literacy skills. It is hoped that
1 ENGLISH FOREIGN AND SECOND LANGUAGE LITERACY DEVELOPMENT … 5
starting English instruction in primary school will bring more learning
opportunities to learners. To meet the needs of educational reform, new
syllabi have also been continuously issued to guide English teaching for
the secondary school level of education. The purpose of these rene-
ments is to address the changing situation of English language teach-
ing (ELT) and the higher demand for English literacy skills among
secondary school learners. In addition, literacy instruction in university
helps learners better prepare for the competitive job market after they
graduate.
However, policy-makers, school administrators, and ELT classroom
practitioners have doubted the effectiveness of English literacy instruc-
tion in China (Hu, 2005). Many challenges raised by researchers include
the lack of pedagogical innovations in language policy, the traditional
teacher-centered language instruction, and the lack of effective language
assessment methods. Many learners, having studied English for many
years, still could not read and write in English. The unsatisfactory out-
come made language educators reect on the existing curricula. An effec-
tive instruction mode for English literacy was also called for to address
public concerns and social needs. In addition, EFL/L2 literacy instruc-
tion research agendas for Chinese Speakers have become increasingly
cognizant of various learner needs. For example, EFL/L2 learners in
under-resourced communities may be academically vulnerable because of
their limited exposure to academically enriched environments, compared
to those learners in socioeconomically advantaged regions. As argued
by Ruan and Leung (2012), the provision of enhanced opportunities
to develop language literacy skills at an earlier age is one mechanism of
an EFL education setting. This has been shown to predict positive aca-
demic development among EFL learners from under-resourced commu-
nities. The development of language and/or literacy skills provides the
groundwork necessary for the success of English education. For these
reasons, English education researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers
have long been concerned with identifying and replicating high-quality
instructional practices that support the teaching and learning of English
literacy. These practices are particularly important for Chinese Speakers
as they not only constitute the largest EFL market in the world but also
are vulnerable learners who need literacy instruction for numerous rea-
sons. However, the region lacks a synthesis of research ndings related to
English literacy for various educational levels: pre-primary/primary, sec-
ondary, and tertiary levels of instruction.
6 M. F. TENG AND B. L. REYNOLDS
Therefore, we may need to rethink the practices for teaching English
literacy to EFL/L2 learners, e.g., the way we go about reading interven-
tions, teaching vocabulary, and writing assessment. English language lit-
eracy is traditionally thought of as the ability to read and write in English
to an appropriate level. However, in the modern age, literacy tends to
encompass more elements whilst increasing diversity and complexity.
Thus, teaching literacy must satisfy the needs of learners at various educa-
tional levels (ibid.). Concerning the denition of literacy, Mackey (2004)
argued that literacy has never been a set of xed skills and that it must
be dependent on the context. Meek (1991) described literacy as a part
of history, and literacy changes as societies change. Edwards and Potts
(2008) dened literacy not as a static and impersonal state, but rather
one which is individuated and enacted as social practice. In the case of
EFL/L2 settings, English literacy can be conceived as a set of actions
and transitions in which EFL/L2 learners are allowed to use reading
and writing for personal and social purposes. From this perspective, the
basic foundational skills in learning to be literate in English for EFL/
L2 learners are the skills to read and write in English in different situa-
tions for different purposes. In addition, EFL/L2 learners need to build
upon these skills for higher order thinking, cognitive awareness, negotiat-
ing meaning, adapting to conventions, and familiarizing themselves with
new discourses. Given that literacy is not a set of basic competences to be
taught and learned based on a pattern of instruction, there is a need to
explore current changes in English literacy practices and instruction.
Recent initiatives related to literacy have been undertaken. For exam-
ple, the National Matriculation English Test (NMET) reform in main-
land China, the “Biliterate and Trilingual” policy in Hong Kong, the role
of EFL as a subject and English as a medium of instruction (EMI) with
implementation of Taiwan’s 12-year basic education, and the “triliterate”
and “tetra-lingual” policy in Macau. Attention has been paid to practices,
instruction, and measuring levels of literacy and in the seriousness with
which the outcomes from curriculum reform are regarded. The process
of literacy development is complicated. This process requires an extensive
knowledge base and repertoire of strategies. While reading texts, learn-
ers need to overcome greater conceptual demands and barriers, gure
out more detailed graphics, and possess a greater ability to manipulate
and synthesize information across a broad array of text genres. A call for
reframing pedagogical practices for literacy instruction is not an ending
fad (Lems & Miller, 2017). Responding to this call, this book attempts
1 ENGLISH FOREIGN AND SECOND LANGUAGE LITERACY DEVELOPMENT … 7
to provide teachers with strategies and new ideas to enhance L2 literacy
development through a collection of studies targeted at pre-primary and
primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of education in mainland China,
Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. The region and the learners from
this region deserve attention for a number of reasons. First, L1-Chinese
speakers are the largest group of English language learners around the
world. Second, along with this wide acceptance of the English language,
education policies for Chinese Speakers have further increased learners’
exposure to English through compulsory lessons at all stages of educa-
tion. Third, the introduction of EFL/L2 literacy is happening at an ever
increasingly earlier age, resulting in the need for ELT researchers and
practitioners to seek routes to enhance L2 literacy instruction at all levels
of education.
While it can be argued that much has already been written about L2
instruction at the tertiary level, the literature published has not directly
addressed the numerous issues related to L2 literacy instruction and
learning for other levels of education and the attention that has been
given to tertiary education has not been equally divided among the four
geographic locations. Given the limited research on the literacy develop-
ment of English language learners at all levels of education for Chinese
Speakers, this book is of great value for both academic and practical rea-
sons. In terms of academic reasons, rst, literacy provides a good foun-
dation for learning English in an L2 or EFL context. For example, when
L2/EFL students are literate in key literacy-related skills, including
phonological awareness, print concepts, decoding skills, and extended
discourse, they possess funds of knowledge about various aspects of read-
ing and writing, and this knowledge provides an experiential base for
furthering their English literacy development (McKenna & Robinson,
2013). Second, the ability to acquire literacy skills is the core of lifelong
learning. That means students need literacy to enable lifelong learn-
ing. For example, our knowledge environment changes fast and higher
education today is much more in the mode of providing basic informa-
tion literacy along with the skills needed to pursue lifelong learning and
keep up with our changing world (Crawford & Irving, 2013). In other
words, obtaining basic English reading and writing skills allows learners
to locate and apply the right information for the right purpose through-
out life. In terms of practical reasons, there is little doubt that the study
of English is extremely popular with Chinese Speakers. The teaching and
learning of English in Hong Kong and Macau occupy a high position.
8 M. F. TENG AND B. L. REYNOLDS
Language schools are also increasingly ourishing in mainland China and
Taiwan. Furthermore, the time has come to discuss ways of supporting
ELT practitioners in bridging the gap between literacy instruction during
the early years to those of higher and adult education.
However, discussing how to develop an effective approach to lan-
guage teaching should not be undertaken lightly and will surely pose
future challenges. It has been compared to a muscle that needs the
constant constraining discipline of exercise to strengthen individuals’
innovative thinking and problem-solving. In this case, we need to con-
sider ways of diffusing good practice, and perhaps most important of
all, ways of integrating modern approaches across the curriculum and
across institutions so that professional innovation can inuence L2 liter-
acy instruction for Chinese Speakers. This includes critical issues in the
teaching of basic literacy skills, e.g., reading and writing, covering the
pre-primary, primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of education. Thus,
this edited volume provides suggestions for helping learners at all levels
of prociency and academic levels. This volume is a practical resource
designed to help English language educators incorporate literacy- related
approaches into their content classrooms by applying a core set of
instructional techniques that are evidence-based. Drawing upon studies
in different contexts, this book provides an up-to-date outlook which
focuses on teaching literacy skills to L2/FL learners. Each chapter is
contextualized and hands-on, featuring:
• Critical discussion of basic literacy skills, e.g., reading and/or
writing;
• Practical tips, ideas, and suggestions which teachers can adapt/
adopt for L2 literacy instruction, practices, and assessment;
• Primary research relevant to school teachers (either pre-primary/
primary-level, secondary-level, or tertiary-level teachers); and
• Easily applied principles and techniques.
Literacy, traditionally dened as reading and writing, is often
regarded as a simple notion. However, it opens up a world of complex-
ity in modern society. Still, there is no up-to-date general agreement
on the denition of literacy. With a focus on L2/EFL literacy, we may
conceptualize literacy as the development of literacy skills for L2/EFL
learners in terms of reading, writing, assessment, and word building,
1 ENGLISH FOREIGN AND SECOND LANGUAGE LITERACY DEVELOPMENT … 9
which in a deep way may affect both the substance and style of educa-
tional programs. From a functionalist perspective, a focus should also
be placed on teaching skills that learners need for complex demands
of a changing technological and economic environment. However,
literacy also goes beyond basic skills and includes a capacity of higher
order thinking, even some discernment for practical language use. In
addition, literacy should be benecial for learners’ personal growth.
This advocates for inclusion of enjoyable reading and writing materials,
and other ways to engage learners who are not procient in English to
ready them for independent lifelong learning through the English lan-
guage. This requires language educators and policy-makers to approach
literacy in a new way. In particular, we need to consider critical literacy,
a type of literacy which needs a critical consciousness of the social con-
ditions in which learners nd themselves. Finally, literacy is constructed
through three ways: adaptation (for real-world survival), power (cul-
tural and economic advancement), and a state of grace (self-knowing)
(Donehower, Hogg, & Schell, 2011).
According to UNESCO (2008), one who is literate is a learner who
can read and write a short simple statement on his or her everyday life.
The UNESCO denition of literacy is problematic for English language
learners, particularly those EFL/L2 learners who require extensive sup-
port because they often do not read and write in conventional ways as
L1 English speakers. From our perspective, literacy for EFL/L2 learn-
ers is required for effective functioning in their learning community and
also for enabling them to continue to use reading and writing for their
own and their community’s further development. We argue that literacy
is highly dependent on the context of the learner’s community. Thus,
we may need a specic focus, where different methods and practices
in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan may inform each
other. In doing so, we have aimed for the book to be balanced in terms
of geographical distribution (mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and
Taiwan) as well as learning context (pre-primary/primary, secondary,
tertiary).
To address critical issues in EFL/L2 literacy, we need to provide an
interface between applied linguists and ELT practitioners—to provide a
link between theory and pedagogical practice. The utility of skill-based lit-
eracy for EFL/L2 students with an extensive need for support has been
challenged over the past two decades. With each section of the book,
10 M. F. TENG AND B. L. REYNOLDS
there is a focus on pre-primary/primary, secondary, higher education, and
policy for all four geographic locations: mainland China, Hong Kong,
Macau, and Taiwan. This book will provide a systematic and comprehen-
sive overview of the critical issues in teaching and learning literacy for all
four of the geographic locations. The book goes beyond providing support
on how to aid learners in reading and writing a second language but also
delves into what it means for learners to be literate in a second or a foreign
language. While previous studies have been conducted on the four geo-
graphic locations—mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan—
previous research has not discussed and compared the four regions in an
integrated way. This book serves as our attempt to do just that.
This book is of practical interest to language teachers, language
teacher educators, EFL/L2 classroom practitioners, and English educa-
tion researchers in search of new teaching ideas, techniques, and liter-
acy practices. Additionally, this book will also provide insight for future
researchers and scholars as a reference for conducting literacy research
with Chinese Speakers, as well as in similar contexts.
OVERVIEW OF THE VOLUME
As is evident in EFL/L2 literacy research, reading and writing is
impossible to separate. To be literate necessitates and supports a good
level of reading and writing, not one or the other. The work in this
volume brings together the effort of scholars whose goal is to improve
learners’ reading and writing, as well as basic skills. The instruc-
tion practices that are discussed in the chapters can support concep-
tual learning and aid learners in the comprehension of various text
genres. We have organized this body of research into four sections
that can help readers of the book—for example, those responsible
for educational policy and practice at primary, secondary, and ter-
tiary levels—frame policies and practices related to EFL/L2 literacy
development.
Part I the introduction and Part VI the conclusion serve as book-
ends to the four main parts of the volume. Upon reading the two chap-
ters, readers will understand an overview of what literacy is and why it
is important, along with being introduced to some critical issues related
to English literacy teaching and learning targeting Chinese Speakers.
Recommendations are also provided for teachers and teacher trainers to
deepen their understanding of literacy and to facilitate planning effective
English literacy instruction for Chinese Speakers.
1 ENGLISH FOREIGN AND SECOND LANGUAGE LITERACY DEVELOPMENT … 11
Part II focuses on English literacy instruction for the pre-and primary
school levels. Teaching English to young learners is different from adult
learners (Teng, 2019). Topics in this section include the development of
a school-based reading program, measuring the vocabulary knowledge of
young English learners, literacy instruction through stories, songs, and
games, employing tailor-made learning materials, and investigating how a
government-funded award scheme on instructional design affects primary
school students’ literacy development. We can see that although initiatives
were made to improve literacy instruction, developing English literacy
skills for pre- and primary school students was challenging. The chapters
in this section show that English literacy skills can be developed through
extensive reading programs, stories, songs, games as well as creating con-
tent and language integrated learning (CLIL) materials or through gov-
ernment-funded initiatives. These chapters show how English teachers
can tap into students’ understanding of reading and vocabulary strategies
to help learners make meaning of texts, and vocabulary knowledge can be
enhanced through young learner reading programs.
Part III focuses on English literacy instruction for secondary school
students. The topics cover formulaic language, spaced multi-draft com-
posing and feedback, evolution of writing assessments, critical thinking
skills, the use of English as a lingua franca, and critical issues in teaching
reading. While the topics in this section are varied, the insights gained
for literacy instruction are focal. Secondary school students already have
acquired English learning experiences. However, there is a need to max-
imize on these learning experiences while catering to their diverse needs
and abilities. Doing so will prepare them for their future academic studies.
Research in this section supports that secondary school students learn by
doing and literacy activities are acquired through meaningful participation.
More specically, enhancement of literacy skills requires practice of those
skills: Secondary school learners need to participate in vocabulary (e.g.,
formulaic language and lexicon), reading, and writing activities (e.g., feed-
back). While developing English literacy skills through language practice
is important, learners and educators alike still have some tough issues to
consider. Genuine dialog among stakeholders are vital for internalizing
assessment for learning and assessment as learning. The research reported
in this section of the book also highlights the need of secondary school
students to begin the practice of becoming reective learners. Educators
and learners alike must acknowledge the effects of English having become
a lingua franca in the global community and how critical thinking must
start to take a central focus in secondary school classrooms.
12 M. F. TENG AND B. L. REYNOLDS
Part IV focuses on literacy development for university students. Topics
include critical language awareness and intercultural literacy, innovating
writing instruction, focused feedback, writing assessment, and assign-
ment design. Academic literacy in university contexts has been the focus
of numerous investigations for years. However, the outcome is not as
expected because Chinese-speaking university students entering the
university context lack sufcient English prociency to take advantage of
language learning practices, e.g., feedback, assessment, and project-based
assignments, to cope with different reading and writing activities required
in the higher education context. Literacy in academic reading and writ-
ing requires students to be competent readers and writers of different aca-
demic genres. This process involves students’ intercultural awareness, for
which teaching English should be recognized as a global lingua franca.
Part V focuses on literacy development from the perspective of pol-
icy in different regions. Policy-makers nowadays exert much more inu-
ence over English literacy practice than ever before. The four chapters in
this section show that literacy development is related to policy- makers’
interests and is inuenced by the political decisions of the government.
Policies that have been implemented indicate that expectations have
been high, carrying the assumption that students’ English literacy can
be enhanced. However, in practice, there is a gap between policy and
outcomes. We can still notice some asymmetries in agenda-setting and
in forms of accountability. We need to value all stakeholders’ opinions,
but we also need to listen especially to frontline teachers’ and students’
voices. Research supports that more effort and support from local and
national governments and education ministries or bureaus are needed to
achieve the desired outcomes outlined by regional policy.
Concluding this volume in Part VI with the topic of developing
EFL/L2 literacy demonstrates that a substantial amount of research
continues to be needed. By the same token, as is evident in the chap-
ters in this book, much is known about the need for reading and writing
instruction and the features of such instruction. However, the develop-
ment of EFL/L2 literacy, as discussed in this book, is not only related to
reading and writing, but also students’ vocabulary, thinking skills, inter-
cultural literacy, and language policy. If a higher level of English literacy
is to be achieved, then EFL/L2 literacy instruction and practice requires
intensive and extensive attention. Recommendations for future English
literacy studies and EFL/L2 literacy development are presented in the
concluding chapter.
1 ENGLISH FOREIGN AND SECOND LANGUAGE LITERACY DEVELOPMENT … 13
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