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English Foreign and Second Language Literacy Instruction for Chinese Speakers: Future Directions and Implications
Abstract
This chapter provides implications to consider in the development of second-language (L2) English literacy for pre- and primary, secondary, and tertiary learners in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Reflection on the chapters in this volume suggest the importance of (1) enhancing literacy instruction with a focus on lexical knowledge and focused feedback practices, (2) developing content knowledge for reading comprehension, (3) using assignment design as a way to promote extensive language practice outside the classroom, (4) giving attention to writing assessment, (5) allocating attention to different aspects of reading and writing programs, (6) becoming aware of cultural knowledge and norms associated with literate language use, (7) fostering thinking skills, and (8) adopting appropriate policies for developing language skills.
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Within instructed second language research, there is growing interest in research focusing on primary school vocabulary learning. Research has emphasized classroom-based learning of vocabulary knowledge, with growing focus on the potential for using captioned videos and increased word encounters. The present study investigated the effects of various captioning conditions (i.e. full captioning, keyword captioning, and no captions), the number of word encounters (one and three), and the combinations of these two variables on incidental learning of new words while viewing a video. Six possible conditions were explored. A total of 257 primary school students learning English as a second language (ESL) were divided into six groups and randomly assigned to a condition in which 15 target lexical items were included. A post-test, measuring the recognition of word form/meaning and recall of word meaning, was administered immediately after participants viewed the video. The post-test was not disclosed to the learners in advance. The group viewing the full captioning video scored significantly higher than the keyword captioning group and the no-captioning group. Repeated encounters with the targeted lexical items led to more successful learning. The combination of full captioning and three encounters was most effective for incidental learning of lexical items. This quasi-experimental study contributes to the literature by providing evidence which suggests that captioned videos coordinate two domains (i.e. auditory and visual components) and help ESL learners to obtain greater depth of word form processing, identify meaning by unpacking language chunks, and reinforce the form-meaning link.
This study investigated a learner-based approach of applying online reading to improve learner autonomy and lexical knowledge. Learner autonomy was operationalized as learners’ self-initiation and self-regulation. A total of 90 students at a Chinese university were divided equally into three groups. Participants in the Experimental Group One (EG1) read online after receiving a package of nine hourly sessions in metacognitive strategy training. Participants in the Experimental Group Two (EG2) read online without receiving any strategy training. Participants in the Control Group (CG) only read printed versions of the target materials. Students in the EG1 outperformed those in the other two groups in terms of their ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate reading. Planning became the most exercised skill, followed by evaluating and monitoring. A significant difference between EG2 and CG with respect to their abilities was not detected. Students in the EG1 also improved the most in lexical knowledge, and although students in the EG2 showed higher lexical knowledge scores than those in the CG, the difference was not significant. In addition, improvements in lexical knowledge were maintained best by EG1 on a delayed test. Overall, this study suggests that providing students with metacognitive strategy training for online reading is an effective approach. https://benjamins.com/catalog/resla.15071.ten
The research on incidental vocabulary acquisition through reading has claimed that repeated encounters of unfamiliar words and the context in which these words occur facilitate word learning. However, so far both variables have been investigated in isolation. This study was conducted to explore the impact of context types, word occurrence frequencies and the combination of these variables on learning and retention of unknown words. The context types included both more and less informative contexts. The word occurrence rates were 1, 5 and 10 times. A total of 180 Chinese university students participated in the study, with 30 in each of the 6 conditions. Learners in each condition were exposed to the same 15 target words. The more informative context was found to have significant effects on productive and receptive knowledge of meaning while an increase in word occurrences was found to produce significant effects on productive and receptive knowledge of word form. With regard to acquisition of word meaning, the cumulative effect of repeated encounters with new words was found only in the more informative context. Providing learners with 10 encounters of new words in an informative context is realistic for triggering the incidental vocabulary acquisition.
Lack of knowledge in the conventional usage of collocations in one’s respective field of expertise cause Taiwanese students to produce academic writing that is markedly different than more competent writing. This is because Taiwanese students are first and foremost English as a Foreign language (EFL) readers and may have difficulties picking up on the regularly encountered patterns of collocating words found in texts, since nothing on the page highlights collocations as such. As one step in determining a solution to this problem, this paper reports on action research that took place in an EFL writing classroom where undergraduate Taiwanese medical students (n = 25) were encouraged to self-edit their academic writing for verb-noun collocation errors through the use of a web-based English/Chinese bilingual parallel corpus collocational concordance. Statistical analysis of students’ drafts revealed the use of the collocational concordance resulted in verb-noun collocation accuracy increasing steadily with each subsequent draft for two essay types (i.e. descriptive and opinion). However, qualitative analysis of student feedback regarding their experience in using the collocational concordance to self-edit their academic writing showed a difference in acceptance and success. Furthermore, students expressed negativity towards the EFL writing teacher requesting students to self-edit academic writing. The collocational concordance functions, nuanced statistical results in terms of collocation accuracy, and pedagogical implications of the action research results are discussed.
Think-Pair-Share, a cooperative discussion strategy developed by Frank Lyman and colleagues (1981), is often utilized in first language contexts but rarely in second language (L2) contexts. To investigate its usefulness in the L2 context, a traditional English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading class was transformed by integrating think-pair-share with reading strategy instruction. An intervention class was compared to a traditionally taught class to determine whether any differences in terms of motivation towards learning English and reading strategy use would be found. In addition, it was further investigated whether adolescent students are accepting of a think-pair-share integrated reading strategy method of English instruction. Results indicate that think-pair-share integrated reading strategy instruction seems to be more effective in increasing motivation than the traditional approach. However, when examined in terms of motivation type, both the traditional and intervention groups showed a statistically significant increase in intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, statistical results indicate that the think-pair-share technique combined with reading strategy instruction did not change the participants’ perceptions regarding their reading strategy use. Still, based on the responses from the closed- and open-ended questions, the students appeared to be very receptive to the think-pair-share technique. Based on the findings of this study, the think-pair-share technique combined with reading strategy instruction appears to be a plausible alternative for teaching English reading to adolescents in Taiwanese EFL classrooms. Pedagogical implications of the results and future research directions are discussed.
After 16 weeks of extensive reading and reading strategy instruction in an English as a Foreign Language class (n = 52) at a junior college in Taiwan, three weak and three strong second language readers were recruited to investigate reading strategy use. Strategies were inferred from verbal reports gained through a think aloud methodology as participants read a text equivalent to those encountered during regular classroom instruction. Results indicated strong readers used more global strategies than weak readers. Strong readers had a more diverse reading strategy repertoire while weak readers tended to lean towards the use of a single strategy. In addition, strong readers tended to combine strategies. These and other results are discussed in terms of the translation-based reading instruction currently dominating Taiwanese secondary school classrooms. Suggestions are also provided on how classroom English teachers should implement reading strategy training in the English language classroom.
This paper addresses issues of assessment literacy for foreign and second language teachers.
This article make a case for the importance of background knowledge in children's comprehension. It suggests that differences in background knowledge may account for differences in understanding text for low- and middle-income children. It then describes strategies for building background knowledge in the age of common core standards.
The study reported in this article examined the first language and second language reading and writing abilities of adult ESL learners to determine the relationships across languages (L1 and L2) and across modalities (reading and writing) in the acquisition of L2 literacy skills. Specifically, we investigated relationships (a) between literacy skills in a first language and literacy development in a second language (i.e., between reading in L1 and L2, and between writing in L1 and L2), and (b) between reading and writing in L1 and L2 (i.e., between reading and writing in L1, and between reading and writing in L2). The subjects, Japanese and Chinese ESL students in academic settings, were asked to write an essay and to complete a cloze passage in both their first and second languages. The results indicate that literacy skills can transfer across languages, but that the pattern of this transfer varies for the two language groups. It also appears that reading ability transfers more easily from L1 to L2 than does writing ability, and that the relationship between reading and writing skills varies for the two language groups. These data suggest that L2 literacy development is a complex phenomenon for already literate adult second language learners involving variables such as L2 language proficiency, L1 and L2 educational experience, and cultural literacy practices that may be related to different patterns of L2 literacy acquisition.
The competencies required for conducting assessment in the educational context have recently been reformulated in view of social constructivist perspectives and the acknowledgement of the role of classroom assessment in promoting learning. These changes have impacted the knowledge base language assessors need to obtain, and hence the contents of language assessment courses. This paper considers the possible components of a language assessment literacy knowledge base, and proposes the establishment of a core knowledge framework for courses in language assessment.
THEORIES ABOUT reading have neglected basic differences in the developmental trajectories of skills related to reading. This essay proposes that some reading skills, such as learning the letters of the alphabet, are constrained to small sets of knowledge that are mastered in relatively brief periods of development. In contrast, other skills, such as vocabulary, are unconstrained by the knowledge to be acquired or the duration of learning. The conceptual, developmental, and methodological constraints on different reading skills are described in this essay that identifies various types of constraints on reading constructs and measures. Examples of reading research and assessment are discussed to illustrate (a) how the constraints can help to explain transitory correlational patterns among reading data, (b) how proxy effects surrounding constrained skills influence interpretations of reading development, (c) how prescriptions to teach constrained skills are causal misinterpretations of longitudinal correlations, and (d) why interventions on constrained skills usually lead only to temporary gains on skills aligned with the constrained skill. Because constrained skills are not normally distributed conceptually or empirically, except on special occasions, analyses based on parametric statistics are inappropriate, This essay describes implications for theories of reading development, research methods, and educational policies.
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