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ReardonCL, etal. Br J Sports Med 2019;53:667–699. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2019-100715
Mental health in elite athletes: International Olympic
Committee consensus statement(2019)
Claudia L Reardon, 1 Brian Hainline, 2 Cindy Miller Aron, 3 David Baron,4
Antonia L Baum,5 Abhinav Bindra,6 Richard Budgett,7 Niccolo Campriani,8
João Mauricio Castaldelli-Maia, 9,10 Alan Currie, 11,12 Jeffrey Lee Derevensky, 13
Ira D Glick,14 Paul Gorczynski,15 Vincent Gouttebarge,16,17 Michael A Grandner,18
Doug Hyun Han, 19 David McDuff, 20 Margo Mountjoy, 21,22 Aslihan Polat,23,24
Rosemary Purcell,25,26 Margot Putukian, 27,28 Simon Rice,29,30 Allen Sills,31,32
Todd Stull,33 Leslie Swartz, 34 Li Jing Zhu,35,36 Lars Engebretsen37,38
Consensus statement
To cite: ReardonCL,
HainlineB, AronCM,
etal. Br J Sports Med
2019;53:667–699.
For numbered affiliations see
end of article.
Correspondence to
Dr Claudia L Reardon,
Department of Psychiatry,
University of Wisconsin School
of Medicine and Public Health,
Madison, WI 53719, USA;
clreardon@ wisc. edu
Received 14 February 2019
Revised 3 April 2019
Accepted 3 April 2019
Published Online First
15May2019
© Author(s) (or their
employer(s)) 2019. No
commercial re-use. See rights
and permissions. Published
by BMJ.
ABSTRACT
Mental health symptoms and disorders are common
among elite athletes, may have sport related
manifestations within this population and impair
performance. Mental health cannot be separated from
physical health, as evidenced by mental health symptoms
and disorders increasing the risk of physical injury and
delaying subsequent recovery. There are no evidence
or consensus based guidelines for diagnosis and
management of mental health symptoms and disorders
in elite athletes. Diagnosis must differentiate character
traits particular to elite athletes from psychosocial
maladaptations.
Management strategies should address all contributors
to mental health symptoms and consider biopsychosocial
factors relevant to athletes to maximise benefit
and minimise harm. Management must involve
both treatment of affected individual athletes and
optimising environments in which all elite athletes
train and compete. To advance a more standardised,
evidence based approach to mental health symptoms
and disorders in elite athletes, an International
Olympic Committee Consensus Work Group critically
evaluated the current state of science and provided
recommendations.
BACKGROUND
The International Olympic Committee (IOC)
convened a consensus meeting on 12–14 November
2018 in Lausanne, Switzerland, at which experts
reviewed the scientific literature addressing mental
health symptoms and disorders in elite athletes.
The participants analysed the current best evidence
to provide a consensus statement for clinical prac-
tice and individual and systemic interventions to
improve mental health among elite athletes. We
define elite athletes as those competing at profes-
sional, Olympic or collegiate levels. Collegiate
athletes often train and compete at levels similar to
professional athletes, and including them expands
the research we can draw on for this paper.
The group was charged with the following tasks:
►to review the literature describing prevalence,
diagnosis and impact on athletic performance
of mental health symptoms and disorders
within elite athletes
►to review the literature describing and estab-
lishing recommendations for non-pharmaco-
logical and pharmacological management of
mental health symptoms and disorders in elite
athletes
►to provide recommendations on how to mini-
mise negative impacts of the sport environment
on mental health symptoms and disorders in
elite athletes.
This consensus paper fulfils the IOC charge
by addressing the multifaceted aspects of mental
health symptoms and disorders in elite athletes. The
intended audience includes sport and exercise medi-
cine physicians and other clinicians (including phys-
iotherapists and athletic trainers), psychiatrists and
other licensed mental health providers, other mental
health and performance professionals who work with
elite athletes, researchers in the fields of elite athlete
mental health and clinical or institutional leaders/
administrators who are stakeholders in sport.
METHODS
Planning for the consensus meeting began in June
2017 (figure 1). The initial organising group
included IOC leadership (RB and LE) and the
meeting co-chairs (CLR and BH). They identified
members of an expert panel, comprised of 23 indi-
viduals from 13 nations with expertise in the mental
health of elite athletes. Panellists were identified
based on their publications in the past 5 years, as
determined by a literature search, and invited based
on their clinical and/or scientific understanding of
specific topics concerning mental health symptoms
and disorders in elite athletes.
The meeting work group included the invited
panel of experts, the organising committee
members, four representatives from the IOC
Medical and Scientific Department and two elite
athlete representatives. Of the expert panel invited,
one did not reply to the invitation and thus was not
included, and one was removed after initial inclu-
sion due to lack of follow-up. The final work group
included psychiatrists, psychologists, primary care
and orthopaedic sports medicine physicians, exer-
cise scientists, a neurologist, a neurological surgeon
and a social worker, and the work group repre-
sented Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, India, Italy,
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Consensus statement
Figure 1 International Olympic Committee (IOC) consensus process
for literature review, meeting and publication.
The Netherlands, Norway, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey,
the UK and the USA.
The following methods sections describe the steps taken to
plan and prepare for the meeting, the conduct of the meeting
and the writing of the consensus statement.
Systematic reviews
The organising group initially identified 20 topic areas for the
consensus statement (Figure 1). For each, a lead author and
sometimes secondary author(s) were identified based on their
scientific and clinical expertise.
An experienced librarian conducted a systematic review of
each topic area using the PubMed, SportDiscus, PSycINFO,
Scopus and Cochrane databases, and any additional databases
felt relevant by individual topic leaders, for each topic. Searches
were limited to the English language, and all study designs were
included. An initial search strategy was developed with input
from the expert panel to ensure that all relevant search terms
were captured. Searches were revised by the librarian as needed.
The expert panel screened 14 689 published articles. Results and
input from the expert panel led to revision of research ques-
tions asked within the 20 topic areas. Leaders of topics without
a recent published systematic review were invited to write sepa-
rate, more detailed, subspecialty papers on their topics; these
will be published separately.
Each topic team was asked to summarise the key informa-
tion from their review and share it with the expert panel before
presenting it at the consensus meeting. A draft of these summa-
ries was circulated to all participants prior to the meeting.
Consensus meeting
The consensus meeting was a 2.5 day series of presentations
in which topic leaders presented their systematic review find-
ings. Group discussion followed each presentation, and meeting
co-chairs took notes during the discussions to capture all
comments.
Writing the consensus statement
The initial draft systematic review summary document was edited
based on agreement at the meeting. Key statements agreed on
during the meeting were not changed during the drafting of the
final document. To ensure inclusion of the most recent literature,
the systematic literature reviews were re-conducted 3 months
before submission of the manuscript, using the same search strat-
egies as initially used. The updated search results were provided
to topic leaders, and additional edits made accordingly. The
edited final document was circulated for review and further
editing by the full expert panel.
GENERAL PREVALENCE OF MENTAL HEALTH SYMPTOMS
AND DISORDERS IN ELITE ATHLETES
Increasing numbers of epidemiological studies address mental
health symptoms and disorders in elite athletes. Reporting prev-
alence compared with that in the general population is particu-
larly difficult for the following reasons: (a) most studies in elite
athletes have lacked reference groups from the general popula-
tion; (b) different instruments have been used to assess mental
health symptoms and disorders in athletes compared with the
general population; (c) studies do not necessarily consider cross
cultural differences in meanings and manifestations of mental
health symptoms and disorders; and (d) studies vary in whether
they describe self-reported specific mental health symptoms
or physician diagnosed disorders. Regarding the latter, mental
health disorders are typically defined as conditions causing
clinically significant distress or impairment that meet certain
diagnostic criteria, such as in the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders 5 (DSM-5)1 or the International
Classification of Diseases,2 whereas mental health symptoms are
more common, may be significant but do not occur in a pattern
meeting specific diagnostic criteria and do not necessarily cause
significant distress or functional impairment.
The reported prevalence of mental health symptoms and disor-
ders among male elite athletes from team sports (cricket, football,
handball, ice hockey and rugby) varies from 5% for burnout and
adverse alcohol use to nearly 45% for anxiety and depression.3–13
Prospective studies have reported that mental health disorders
occur in 5% to 35% of elite athletes over a follow-up period of up
to 12 months.13–19 Among female elite athletes, mental health disor-
ders—especially eating disorders—are also prevalent.20–23 Among
collegiate athletes, the prevalence of mental health disorders ranges
from 10% to 25% for depression and eating disorders.24–30
During an elite sport career, generic and sport specific factors
may combine to increase the risk of mental health symptoms and
disorders.31 32 Elite athletes may experience a greater overall risk
of mental health symptoms and disorders compared with their
athletic counterparts if they suffer severe musculoskeletal injuries,
undergo multiple surgeries, suffer from decreased sport perfor-
mance or tend toward maladaptive perfectionism.7 16 22 33–38 In
other circumstances, sport participation might protect against
mental health symptoms and disorders,39 since exercise has
antidepressant effects.40 Finally, an athlete might have mental
health symptoms or suffer with a mental health disorder with no
apparent association between elite sport participation and the
mental health condition.39
GENERAL APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT OF MENTAL
HEALTH SYMPTOMS AND DISORDERS IN ELITE ATHLETES
Management of mental health symptoms and disorders in elite
athletes should take a comprehensive, integrative approach
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Consensus statement
Box 1 Guidelines to overcome common obstacles that
can interfere with psychotherapy with elite athletes
►Clinicians should:
–be flexible about timing of sessions (although without
allowance of persistent cancelling of sessions)55
–urge couples or family therapy when relational issues
impact functioning or performance55
–recommend psychotherapy plus pharmacological therapy
when indicated for cases of moderate to severe mental
health symptoms or disorders
–obtain collateral information from close informants, with
appropriate consent, for athletes with severe mental
health symptoms or disorders55
–insist that the athlete undergo substance use disorder
treatment if needed55
►Clinicians should not:
–agree to see a surrogate (such as a coach or trainer) for
psychotherapy sessions55
–provide experimental treatments, which may give false
hope to athletes55
that puts the athlete at the centre and addresses the full range
of emotional, mental, physical, social, spiritual and environ-
mental influences that may affect a person’s mental health. A
personalised management strategy should be used to address
mental health symptoms and disorders while striving to maintain
optimum well being. The strategy should take into consideration
the elite athlete’s particular needs and circumstances, utilise the
most appropriate consensus or evidence based interventions
from a variety of scientific disciplines, and recognise differences
across countries and cultures.
A core challenge in developing this consensus statement was
that the evidence comes predominantly from high income coun-
tries, which have more health services compared with low and
middle income countries41–43 where many athletes reside. There
is debate concerning the range of ways in which mental health
symptoms and disorders can be managed in culturally appro-
priate ways, drawing on resources from other health sectors and
community carers, for example,44–46 with increasing evidence
that intervening in ways that support existing community
strengths may be of benefit to people with these conditions.47 48
It is important to consider this global context throughout this
statement.
Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is defined as the treatment of mental health
symptoms or disorders or problems of living, and/or facilitation
of personal growth, by psychological means; it is often based
on therapeutic principles, structure and techniques. Psycho-
therapy, with or without pharmacologic therapy, is effective
for the treatment of mental health symptoms and disorders but
is commonly underprescribed.49 Moreover, studies on specific
types of psychotherapy in elite athletes are lacking. Individual
psychotherapy, especially cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT),
is efficacious for treating depression and anxiety disorders in the
general population.50 In many situations, psychoeducation and/
or counselling (broadly defined) are considered the treatment of
choice for athletes.51 Depending on the sport, the athlete and
the family dynamics, family therapy may be helpful.52 Further,
although substance use may be problematic in elite athletes, little
research exists on different psychotherapeutic treatments for
substance use disorders in this population.53 54
Compared with non-athletes, elite athletes may present with
sport related issues that may pose a challenge in psychotherapy
and make it more difficult to tailor therapeutic interventions.
These issues can include the following: diagnostic challenges (eg,
overtraining syndrome vs major depression); aggression; narcis-
sism; and entitlement.52 Insight oriented therapy, such as time
limited psychodynamic psychotherapy, may be indicated for elite
athletes with challenging personality and behavioural issues.55
In these situations, therapy should first focus on maladaptive
behaviour patterns because personality traits tend to be more
resistant to change.55
When engaging elite athletes in the psychotherapeutic
process, the clinician must be mindful of how the athlete’s char-
acteristics may impact treatment. For instance, elite athletes may
anticipate receiving preferential treatment from their healthcare
providers.55 While a degree of flexibility may be needed to main-
tain patient privacy and accommodate travel schedules, perpetu-
ating a pattern of preferential treatment may lead to unintended
boundary violations.49 Box 1 guides clinicians as to how to over-
come common obstacles that can interfere with treatment in elite
athletes.
Clinicians should not compromise on delivering other appro-
priate treatment, including medications and hospitalisation as
necessary, during psychotherapy with elite athletes.55 While
barriers exist that may prevent elite athletes from seeking,
accepting or effectively using psychotherapy, elite athletes also
possess skills and personality characteristics—notably discipline
and compliance with recommended regimens—that make them
especially good candidates for psychotherapeutic interventions.49
Pharmacological treatment
Although psychotherapy is generally regarded as the firstline
treatment for those with mild to moderate symptoms of mental
illness,51 medications may be needed in those with more severe
psychopathology.56 Box 2 outlines four important considerations
particular to elite athletes when prescribing psychiatric medica-
tions. Common side effects that may negatively impact athletic
performance include: sedation; weight gain; cardiac side effects
(including orthostatic hypotension, hypertension, tachycardia,
palpitations, arrhythmias and electrocardiographic changes
such as QTc prolongation); and tremor.56 57 Other relevant side
effects include: impaired concentration; muscle rigidity; motor
changes (including akathisia and bradykinesia); weight loss;
blurred vision or dizziness; anxiety or agitation; and insomnia.56
The distinction between therapeutic and ergogenic perfor-
mance enhancement that may result from a medication is
important for all classes of medication.58 For example, an athlete
who is performing poorly because of uncontrolled anxiety may
gain a therapeutic performance enhancing effect by taking sero-
tonin selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). However, there is no
evidence that they provide ergogenic performance enhancement,
and thus they are not prohibited substances in elite sport.57 59 60
Indeed, stimulants are the only class of psychiatric drugs clas-
sified as prohibited substances, and they are prohibited only in
competition; research suggest they could enhance performance
beyond a pharmacological therapeutic effect.59
Finally, safety risks are paramount with certain psychiatric
medications, as elite athletes commonly exercise at much higher
intensity than the general population.61 For example, medica-
tions with blood levels that must be tightly regulated, such as
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Consensus statement
Box 2 Four key considerations relevant for elite athletes
when prescribing psychiatric medications57
►Potential negative impact on athletic performance
►Potential therapeutic performance enhancing effects (ie,
based on improvement in the condition the medication is
designed to treat)
►Potential non-therapeutic performance enhancement effects
(ie, ergogenic effects)
►Potential safety risks
lithium, can be difficult to manage in elite athletes whose levels
might be influenced by hydration status.56 57
The four considerations of prescribing medications to elite
athletes listed in Box 2 may vary by the particular sport and its
demands,56 level of performance required,56 time frame within
the athletic training/competition cycle and anticipated duration
of treatment. Ultimately, medication choices must be informed
by the need to provide effective clinical care for mental health
symptoms and disorders.56 Although there are athlete specific
considerations within each category of psychiatric medications,
there is a paucity of applicable research on the topic.56 60 Available
studies have methodological flaws, including small sample sizes;
medications are not used in real world dosages or time frames;
populations studied are not representative of elite athletes; few
female athletes are studied; performance measures used to deter-
mine if a medication has a negative impact on athletic perfor-
mance may not represent actual performance impact; and study
subjects often lack the mental health disorder that the medica-
tion is intended to treat.60–62 We acknowledge these limitations.
Nevertheless, some research is available regarding psychiatric
prescribing for athletes, and details are shared as relevant below.
SPECIFIC MENTAL HEALTH SYMPTOMS AND DISORDERS IN
ELITE ATHLETES
In this section we detail the assessment and management of:
►sleep disorders and sleep concerns
►major depressive disorder and depression symptoms
►suicide
►anxiety and related disorders
►post-traumatic stress disorder and other trauma-related
disorders
►eating disorders
►attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
►bipolar and psychotic disorders
►sport-related concussion
►substance use and substance use disorders
►gambling disorder and other behavioural addictions
Note that we have published separate review papers for several
of these conditions.
Sleep disorders and sleep concerns
Insufficient sleep is defined as less than 7 hours of sleep for a
healthy adult;63–68 adolescents and younger adults need 9–10
hours of sleep.67–70 National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) surveys indicate that over half of collegiate athletes in
the USA report regularly getting insufficient sleep; 50% report
less than 7 hours of sleep per night in season and 79% report 8
hours or less.71 Data among large samples of elite athletes are
sparse, although 49% of Olympic athletes would be classified
as 'poor sleepers'4 (a term that includes multiple sleep prob-
lems). Elite athletes are particularly unlikely to get sufficient
sleep the night prior to competition.72 Sleep deprivation impairs
athletic performance across many sports73–96 and sleep improve-
ment leads to improved performance.78 83 97–100 Sufficient sleep
is important to avoid overtraining82 87 92 101 102 and maximise
training gains by regulating adaptive release of hormones such as
testosterone103–106 and growth hormone.107–111 Conversely, sleep-
iness and fatigue are associated with poor athletic outcomes.83 85
Circadian dysregulation—a misalignment between the individ-
ual’s sleep–wake pattern and the desired pattern or the pattern
regarded as the norm—is common in athletes, especially those
who frequently travel across time zones. Circadian rhythms
are important for metabolism,112–114 performance,91 115–121
and psychological function.122–126 Disrupted circadian rhythms
decrease athletic performance.127–129 The timing of sport
training, especially in the early morning, can impair sleep72
and lead to suboptimal performance outcomes. Because of an
athlete’s chronotype (degree to which an individual is naturally
a 'morning' or 'evening' person), timing of training or compe-
tition may not align with their personal time of peak perfor-
mance.130–132 Persistent circadian dysregulation may contribute
to neurodegeneration and mental health disorders.133–135
Insomnia disorder—a persistent difficulty initiating or main-
taining sleep at least 3 nights per week for at least 3 months (in
the context of adequate sleep opportunity and accompanied by
daytime impairments)—136 is a major risk factor for mood and
other mental health disorders137–139 and impaired physical func-
tion.140 Insomnia disorder may be very common among athletes;
approximately 64% of Olympic athletes reported significant
insomnia symptoms.79 Insomnia is associated with impaired
athletic performance.141
Sleep apnoea involves periodic reduction or cessation of
breathing during sleep.136 Due to its relationship with higher
body mass, sleep apnoea is especially common among Amer-
ican football players142–145 and many are at high risk for sleep
apnoea.142 146 However, high body mass is not required for
sleep apnoea, and many with the disorder remain undiag-
nosed.147 Additionally, training at altitude can produce central
sleep apnoea.148 Untreated sleep apnoea, regardless of aeti-
ology, increases fatigue and dramatically impairs athletic perfor-
mance149–155 if untreated.
Addressing sleep problems in elite athletes requires screening
for primary sleep disorders (such as circadian dysregula-
tion, insomnia disorder or sleep apnoea), since solely treating
comorbid mental health symptoms or disorders (such as depres-
sion or anxiety) will likely be unhelpful unless any primary sleep
disorders are properly treated.156 A questionnaire validated for
use in athletes may help identify athletes who need further sleep
assessment.157 At the team level, the sports medicine team can
promote healthy sleep by: (i) ensuring coaches model healthy
sleep and schedule training around sleep and circadian rhythms;
(ii) encouraging healthy sleep as part of the training protocol;
(iii) promoting sleep health education; and (iv) engaging in
proactive tracking and monitoring of sleep.
Non-pharmacological treatments are often recommended to
treat sleep disorders in athletes because many medications are
associated with increased injury risk and may cause side effects
(eg, slowed reaction time, cognitive impairment) that may impair
athletic performance.158 159 Non-pharmacological treatments
(collectively described as 'behavioural sleep medicine') are avail-
able for many sleep disorders.160 The recommended treatment
for insomnia is CBT for insomnia (CBTI); its effects are at least
as good as those of medications,161 162 without the associated
side effects. Further, CBTI is effective in the presence of comor-
bidities, such as chronic pain, depression and sleep apnoea.163
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Consensus statement
Table 1 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 diagnostic criteria for a major depressive episode1
At least 5 symptoms must be present for at least 2 weeks (at least 1 of the symptoms must be depressed mood, or decreased interest or pleasure):
►Depressed mood or (in children) irritable most of the day, nearly every day, as indicated by either
subjective report (eg, feels sad or empty) or observation made by others (eg, appears tearful)
►Decreased interest or pleasure in most activities, most of each day
►Significant weight change or change in appetite ►Insomnia or hypersomnia
►Change in activity: psychomotor agitation or retardation ►Fatigue or loss of energy
►Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt ►Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness
►Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide
Sleep hygiene alone is often insufficient for more complex prob-
lems.83 164
Athletes taking any sleep aids should be advised of the impor-
tance of allowing a full night of restorative sleep.60 Melatonin,
which may be prescribed or purchased over the counter, is a
preferred choice of sports psychiatrists for insomnia.57 Addition-
ally, it is the best studied sleep aid in athletes.57 Neither imme-
diate release nor extended release melatonin adversely impact
performance.56 60 165 166 Rarely, melatonin may cause hypoten-
sion.167 However, although melatonin often helps to ameliorate
sleep problems, it may have limited utility for those with more
extreme sleep difficulties, including insomnia disorder.168 Addi-
tionally, over the counter melatonin may contain impurities and
unknown quantities of melatonin; athletes should purchase it
only from a reputable company.60 If a supplement such as mela-
tonin includes any prohibited substances, and an athlete ingests
them unknowingly, the athlete will be held accountable if found
to have an adverse analytical finding for a prohibited substance.
Ignorance of ingredients or improper labelling of supplements
is not excusable under the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)
code.60
If melatonin does not help an athlete with insomnia, trazodone
and gabapentin are sometimes used, although they have not been
studied specifically in athletes,57 and there is no evidence base
to support their efficacy for insomnia disorder.168 Imidazopyr-
idines (eg, zolpidem and zopiclone) may be options if needed57
and are effective medications for insomnia disorder.168 They
have less of an impact on next day physical performance than
benzodiazepines.169–173 Among the benzodiazepines, agents with
longer half lives have a more detrimental impact on next day
physical performance compared with shorter acting agents.174
This finding must be considered alongside the knowledge that
benzodiazepines with shorter half lives are more likely to cause
physical dependence and substance use disorders.175
For sleep apnoea, the recommended treatment is usually posi-
tive airway pressure therapy.176 Oral appliances are also recom-
mended for some individuals,177 and in rare cases, airway surgery
may be required.178 For circadian rhythm disturbances, mela-
tonin is the treatment of choice and has established efficacy in
many populations,179 although its dose and timing for schedule
shifting are different than for sleep promotion. Typically, this
involves lower doses timed earlier in the evening (for advancing
sleep) or the end of the night (for delaying sleep).180 181 Timed
bright light exposure is also routinely used to shift circadian
rhythms. Bright light at night can delay sleep onset, and early
morning light can advance sleep onset the next night.181 182
Major depressive disorder and depression symptoms
Individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD) experience
depressed mood and/or little interest or pleasure from activi-
ties on most days over at least a 2 week period, in addition to
associated physical, psychological and cognitive symptoms.1 A
diagnosis requires at least five symptoms and a negative impact
on functioning, but individuals may also experience depressive
symptoms without meeting the criteria for MDD (table 1).1 An
athlete specific screening tool for depression is reliable and valid
(Box 3).183 184
The prevalence of depressive symptoms in elite athletes ranges
from 4%185 to 68%.35 When the research is considered in its
entirety, the prevalence of depressive symptoms in elite athletes
and the general population appears to be similar.186 However,
elite athletes may not recognise or acknowledge depressive symp-
toms or may not seek support,187 in part related to stigma.188
Female athletes may be twice as likely to report depressive
symptoms as male athletes.186 Rates of adjustment disorder with
depressed mood (defined as experiencing more depressive symp-
toms than would normally be expected in response to a stressful
life event, but not to the point of those symptoms meeting
criteria for MDD)1 and persistent depressive disorder/dysthymic
disorder (defined as a chronic course of depression lasting at
least 2 years)1 in elite athletes are unknown.
Different sports are associated with different risks for depres-
sive symptoms and MDD. French athletes who took part in
aesthetic or fine motor skills sports were at greater risk of expe-
riencing depressive symptoms than those who took part in team
ball sports.185 Among North American athletes, track and field
athletes had the highest rates of MDD compared with those in
other collegiate sports.29 Depressive symptoms may be more
prevalent in individual sport athletes compared with team sport
athletes.12 29 189
Risk factors associated with depressive symptoms and MDD
in elite athletes include: genetic factors (eg, family history);
environmental factors (eg, poor quality relationships, lack of
social support);61 190 injury;39 competitive failure;39 retirement
from sport;191 pain;192 and concussion.193 After athletes retire
from elite sport, those with lower levels of physical activity have
higher rates of MDD.194
Non-functional overreaching (NFO) and overtraining should
be considered as possible relevant factors in athletes who present
with depressive symptoms. There are no generally accepted diag-
nostic criteria for NFO and overtraining. NFO is often defined
as the accumulation of training load without compensatory
recovery, with resultant performance decrement and the need
for more prolonged recovery.195 196 Overtraining is an extreme
form of NFO that results in a prolonged performance decre-
ment (usually longer than 2 months) and more severe psycho-
logical and/or neuroendocrinological manifestations.197 198 Both
are associated with depressed mood.199 Symptoms that overlap
with MDD may include fatigue, insomnia, appetite change,
weight loss, amotivation and diminished concentration.200 In an
11 year study of 400 competitive collegiate swimmers, mood
state disturbance increased with training stimulus during the
season, and then fell to baseline as training load diminished.201
One possible difference between NFO/overtraining and MDD
in some athletes may be the nature of the dysfunction—athletic
performance in NFO/overtraining versus social, cognitive and
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Consensus statement
Table 2 Risk factors for suicide27 217–219
►History of childhood trauma ►Anxiety
►Agitation ►Aggression
►Impulsivity ►Hopelessness
►Interpersonal conflict ►Drug and alcohol
use
►Physical illness/injury ►Prior suicide
attempts
►Sleep disturbance
Table 3 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 diagnostic criteria for generalised anxiety disorder1
►Excessive anxiety and worry, occurring most days for at least 6 months, about a number of events or activities, with the individual finding it difficult to control the worry
►At least 3 additional symptoms must be present:
Restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge Being easily fatigued
Difficulty concentrating or mind going blank Irritability
Muscle tension Sleep disturbance (difficulty falling or staying asleep, or restless, unsatisfying sleep)
►The anxiety, worry or physical symptoms cause significant distress or impairment in important areas of functioning
►Symptoms are not better explained by another medical condition, including another mental disorder, or by a substance
work performance in MDD.193 Cessation of training in athletes
with NFO or overtraining often improves mood and associated
symptoms, whereas depressed athletes who do not exercise may
experience worsened mood and lose the antidepressant effect of
exercise.61
Depressive symptoms and MDD may result in decreased
performance, adverse effects on personal life or an exit from
sport.192 MDD is also highly associated with suicide and suicidal
ideation.202 203 Treatment of depressive symptoms and MDD
depends on the severity of symptoms but usually consists of
psychotherapy, often with medication.
In an international survey of sports psychiatrists, most of
whom treat elite athletes, bupropion was described as a top
choice for use in athletes with depression without comorbid
anxiety.57 Bupropion’s relatively energising properties and lack
of weight gain as a side effect may have contributed to its top
selection.57 However, it is not available worldwide,56 and should
not be prescribed in athletes with an eating disorder because it
increases the risk of seizure—a potential complication of eating
disorders.204 Preliminary evidence suggests that bupropion
potentially enhanced performance in endurance athletes who
used a single, high dose (600 mg) in warm climates.205 Perfor-
mance enhancement was not observed with longer term ther-
apeutic bupropion treatment.206 Performance enhancement has
been noted with 300 mg dosing the night before and morning
of a cycling time trial in warm climates, but not at doses less
than 300 mg.207 The research on bupropion suggests that it may
allow athletes to push themselves to higher core body tempera-
tures and heart rates (thus improving performance) when used
at higher doses and in acute rather than chronic doses.205 Bupro-
pion is currently on WADA’s Monitoring Programme list in
competition.59 At present, however, it can be prescribed without
a therapeutic use exemption (TUE), which is a process that
allows athletes to request permission to take a medication that is
on the WADA prohibited list.
SSRIs are also often prescribed to treat depression in
athletes.56 57 In particular, fluoxetine has no demonstrated
negative impact on performance,208 209 and has emerged as an
antidepressant of choice for athletes.56 57 210 211 Serotonin and
norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants
(eg, nortriptyline, amitriptyline) and mirtazapine have not been
studied in athletes.60 Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake
inhibitors are sometimes regarded as relatively energising,60 but
one small study suggested that a norepinephrine reuptake inhib-
itor may be performance limiting.212 Tricyclic antidepressants
and mirtazapine may cause sedation and weight gain.60 Further-
more, supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias have been
described in young, healthy people taking tricyclic antidepres-
sants.213 Blood levels of tricyclic antidepressants could become
toxic in athletes who sweat heavily, although this concern has
not been confirmed in research among elite exercisers.214 In
summary, the evidence suggests that tricyclic antidepressants
should be avoided as firstline medications in athletes56 60 and, if
prescribed, blood levels should be monitored.60
Suicide
In the largest study of suicide in elite collegiate student athletes
in the USA, 7.3% of all deaths were attributed to suicide.215
Overall, the rate of suicide was 0.93/100 000 in collegiate
athletes per year. The mean age of suicide was 20 years, and male
collegiate athletes who participated in American football were at
greatest risk. However, collegiate athletes still had a lower rate
of suicide than individuals of the same age in the general US
population (11.6/100 000 per year).216
Suicide prevention interventions should be multimodal,
evidence based and range from interventions to manage stress
and distress to addressing symptoms of MDD and overt suicidal
ideation.202 203 Risk factors (table 2) should be assessed and, where
possible, mitigated.27 217–219 To promote help seeking behaviours
and to potentially reduce the risk of suicide, greater awareness of
risk factors for suicide may be needed among coaches, medical
professionals and others who work with athletes.27 29 215 Strat-
egies to understand and modify environmental stressors for
elite athletes—such as improving social networks, athletic and
personal life balance, team cohesion, and coach and team expec-
tations—should be considered in conjunction with treatment for
mental health symptoms and disorders.215 With retired athletes,
careful consideration must be given to both mental and other
medical aspects of health while addressing social isolation and
other stressful aspects of transition from sport.217
Anxiety and related disorders
Individuals with generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) expe-
rience excessive anxiety and worry, with symptoms noted in
table 3. GAD in elite athletes ranges in prevalence from 6.0%
for a clinician confirmed diagnosis185 to 14.6% using self-re-
port measures.14 Consistent with the general population, GAD
symptom ratings tend to be higher for female athletes than
male athletes.20 24 30 190 220–222 Injured athletes appear to report
more severe GAD symptoms than their non-injured counter-
parts.11 20 30 223 224 From the limited data available regarding
prevalence of other anxiety disorders and related disorders in
elite athletes (table 4), self-reported estimates include 14.7%
for social anxiety,11 5.2% for obsessive–compulsive disorder225
and 4.5% for panic disorder.11 Rates of GAD and these other
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Consensus statement
Table 4 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 diagnostic criteria for selected other anxiety and related disorders1
Social anxiety disorder Obsessive–compulsive disorder Panic disorder
►Marked fear or anxiety about one or more social
situations in which the individual is exposed to
possible scrutiny by others
►Presence of obsessions, compulsions or both:
Obsessions: recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges or
impulses that are intrusive and unwanted, and that typically
cause marked anxiety or distress
Compulsions: repetitive behaviours or mental acts that
the individual feels driven to perform in response to an
obsession or according to rules that must be rigidly applied
►Recurrent unexpected panic attacks, which are
abrupt surges of intense fear or discomfort that
reach a peak within minutes, and during which
several accompanying symptoms occur
►The individual fears that they will act in a way or
show anxiety symptoms that will be negatively
evaluated
►Obsessions or compulsions are time consuming or cause
clinically significant distress or impairment in important
areas of functioning
►At least one attack is followed by 1 month or
more of persistent concern about additional panic
attacks or their consequences, and/or a significant
maladaptive change in behaviour related to the
attacks (eg, avoidance of certain situations)
►The social situations almost always provoke fear
or anxiety
►Symptoms are not better explained by another medical
condition, including another mental disorder, or by a
substance
►Symptoms are not better explained by another
medical condition, including another mental
disorder, or by a substance
►The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual threat posed by the social situation and to the sociocultural context
►Symptoms must be persistent, typically lasting 6 months or more
►The fear, anxiety or avoidance causes significant distress or impairment in important areas of functioning
►Symptoms are not better explained by another medical condition, including another mental disorder, or by a substance
Box 3 Baron Depression Screener for Athletes. The
instrument is designed for athletes to self-report; if the
athlete scores >5 they should be evaluated by a mental
health professional183
Please respond to the following questions utilising the following
scale:
0-Never
1-Some of the time (over a 2 week period)
2-Most of the time (over a 2 week period)
1. I feel sad even after a good practice session or successful
competition.
2. I rarely get pleasure from competing anymore and have lost
interest in my sport.
3. I get little or no pleasure from my athletic successes.
4. I am having problems with my appetite and weight.
5. I do not feel rested and refreshed when I wake up.
6. I am having problems maintaining my focus and
concentration during training and competition.
7. I feel like a failure as an athlete and person.
8. I cannot stop thinking about being a failure and quitting
sports.
9. I am drinking alcohol or taking supplements to improve my
mood.
10. I have thoughts of ending my life.
disorders in elite athletes do not appear to differ markedly from
those in the general population.226 227 Rates of specific phobia,
agoraphobia, obsessive–compulsive personality disorder and
adjustment disorder with anxiety (the latter defined as experi-
encing more anxiety symptoms than would normally be expected
in response to a stressful life event, but not to the point that
those symptoms meet the criteria for another specific anxiety
disorder)1 in elite athletes are unknown. However, adjustment
disorder with anxiety may be more common than other anxiety
disorders in elite athletes.228
Among elite athletes, patterns of symptom onset, duration
and severity should be used to differentiate anxiety disorders
from competition performance anxiety, although state and trait
anxiety domains can overlap.229 230 In addition, other mental
health symptoms and disorders, most notably those of depres-
sion and/or eating disorders, may be coexisting.17 21 39 185 231 232
Pervasive worries or fears that accompany physiological symp-
toms may qualify for a diagnosis of GAD (if it persists for at least
6 months) or panic disorder (if accompanied by an abrupt surge
in panic related symptoms).1 Agoraphobia, social anxiety and
specific phobias occur in the context of specific stimuli, whereas
obsessive–compulsive disorder is characterised by intrusive
and unwanted obsessions and/or compulsions and obsessive–
compulsive personality disorder by preoccupation with orderli-
ness, perfectionism and control in the absence of obsessions and
compulsions.1 Fear of negative evaluation by others may differ-
entiate aspects of social anxiety from competitive performance
anxiety.233 Panic attacks triggered by certain training or compet-
itive situations may indicate a specific phobia; unexpected panic
attacks not triggered by a specific fear more likely signal a panic
disorder.234 Because habitual behaviours are commonplace
for elite athletes,235 236 idiosyncratic mannerisms or repetitive
routines alone do not merit a diagnosis of obsessive–compulsive
disorder in the absence of distress or impairment.1
Anxiety symptoms are reliably associated with both impaired
cognitive performance and overall functioning in general popu-
lations,237 238 although scant research exists for elite athletes.39
Higher ratings of self-reported anxiety (relative to moderate
ratings) are associated with negative performance outcomes
and skill errors in elite athletes.230 239 240 Pre-competitive (ie,
state) anxiety is to be expected among elite athletes competing
at major events, and the athlete’s interpretation of pre-competi-
tive anxiety may mediate the functional impact of symptoms.241
Facilitative, rather than debilitative, perceptions of anxiety
symptoms appear associated with more adaptive coping and
behavioural responses.242 243
Anxiety disorders respond well to evidence based psycho-
therapy (eg, CBT), although treatment mechanisms necessarily
vary by disorder.244 In addition to cognitive strategies addressing
unhelpful thinking patterns or experiential avoidance, treatment
frameworks should emphasise, as needed, graded exposure and
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Consensus statement
behavioural experimentation for cases of social anxiety, response
prevention for cases of obsessive–compulsive disorder and
arousal reduction for those with GAD or panic disorder.245
Anxiolytic medications may be used to treat anxiety disor-
ders in elite athletes, and there are important considerations,
including side effects and performance impairment.61 SSRIs,
specifically escitalopram, sertraline and fluoxetine, are sports
psychiatrists’ top choices for pharmacological treatment of
anxiety in athletes.56 57 Buspirone, an antianxiety medication,
has received little study in athletes; one small study suggested
it impaired performance among recreational athletes, but only a
single 45 mg dose was tested.246
Short acting medications, such as benzodiazepines, are not
usually recommended for performance (situational) anxiety
because they may impair performance.56 165 174 247 Propran-
olol and other beta blockers, sometimes used for performance
anxiety in non-sport settings, should typically be avoided in
sport60 because they may lower blood pressure in athletes who
already may have relatively low blood pressure. In endurance
sports, beta blockers can problematically decrease cardiopul-
monary capacity.248 Because of their effectiveness in reducing
tremor and thereby improving fine motor control, beta blockers
are prohibited at all times for archery and shooting, and are
prohibited in competition for archery, automobile, billiards,
darts, golf, shooting, some skiing/snowboarding and some
underwater sports.59
Post-traumatic stress disorder and other trauma-related
disorders
Trauma-related mental health disorders in elite athletes are
common, with potentially serious consequences.249 These disor-
ders include post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), defined as
exposure to a trauma followed by at least 1 month of mental
health symptoms; acute stress disorder (similar to PTSD, but less
than 1 month in duration); and adjustment disorder (abnormal
reaction to an identifiable life stressor).1 Athletes may encounter
traumatic experiences from inside or outside of sport, and such
experiences may range from sport injuries to life events indepen-
dent of a sport injury.250 251
Research on the prevalence of trauma-related disorders in
elite athletes is limited. This is particularly true regarding trau-
ma-related disorders stemming from traumas other than sports
injuries. Sport-related musculoskeletal injury is associated with
elevated levels of PTSD symptomology.249 Athletes may also
experience PTSD symptoms shortly after a sport-related concus-
sion.252 Traumatic injuries may pose an even greater risk of
progression to a chronic trauma-related mental health disorder
in athletes with pre-existing exposure to trauma of any type.253
Diagnosing PTSD and other trauma-related disorders in
athletes can be challenging. Trauma-related symptoms may
manifest at any time,254 especially during situations reminiscent
of a prior inciting event.249 255 Such symptoms include: hyper-
arousal (commonly experienced as anxiety); avoidance of phys-
ical and psychological reminders; re-experiencing symptoms
(eg, intrusive thoughts, nightmares or flashbacks); dissociation
(feeling detached from one’s surroundings and/or emotions);
and non-specific symptoms, including irritability and depressed
mood.1 250 Athletes may also develop comorbid substance use
disorders or eating disorders.250 Trauma-related disorders may
be associated with inconsistent athletic performance and somatic
complaints without evident injury.250
Athletes may engage in behaviours that can obscure trau-
ma-related symptoms. For example, elite athletes may
compartmentalise to manage emotions, effectively concealing
symptoms of trauma-related disorders.256 Further, dissociative
strategies (eg, blocking of sensory input, as intentionally utilised
by endurance athletes)257 may conceal trauma symptoms. Adap-
tive perfectionism, defined as deriving satisfaction from achieve-
ment from intense effort and tolerating imperfections without
self-criticism,258 is a useful tool against symptom manifestation
in many sports.259 However, it can evolve into maladaptive
perfectionism, characterised by setting consistently unrealistic
personal standards.258 This can include manifestations of obses-
sive–compulsive disorder, which can be a comorbid condition
with trauma-related disorders.259
Symptoms of trauma-related disorders may negatively impact
athletic performance.249 260 261 Additionally, fear of re-injury
increases the risk of subsequent injuries because of avoidance,
inhibited effort or risk seeking behaviours.249 262 Injured athletes
may hesitate to undergo physical therapy because of avoid-
ance, thus interfering with recovery.260 Psychological distress,
commonly seen in trauma-related disorders, reduces immune
function and delays healing, thus impeding the athlete’s ability
to participate in rehabilitation following an injury.261
Early identification of and intervention for suspected trau-
ma-related disorders may mitigate associated morbidity.263
Screening for mental health disorders following a sport-related
traumatic musculoskeletal injury is recommended.264 Although
evidence of impact on ultimate development of PTSD is mixed,
careful, non-compulsory psychological debriefing with a qual-
ified provider for an individual and/or team, with appropriate
follow-up and support, may reduce distress and enhance group
cohesion in the immediate aftermath of trauma.250 Trauma
informed management of a traumatised athlete’s team also can
improve outcomes for the traumatised individual.265 Conversely,
blaming the individual for the traumatic situation may perpet-
uate symptoms of trauma.250 Passive attitudes, non-intervention,
denial and silence by those in power may also compound the
initial trauma.266 Psychotherapeutic modalities recommended
for the treatment of trauma-related disorders include CBT,
cognitive processing therapy, cognitive therapy and prolonged
exposure therapy.267 If medications are needed, SSRIs such as
sertraline and fluoxetine are generally regarded as the agents of
choice268 and overall are reasonable choices for athletes.57
Eating disorders
Eating disorders (including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa
and binge eating disorder) and disordered eating (abnormal eating
behaviours not meeting criteria for an eating disorder) (table 5)
among elite male and female athletes are common.25 269–272
The estimated prevalence of eating disorders and/or disordered
eating among athletes in general ranges from 0% to 19% in men
and from 6% to 45% in women,273 considerably higher than
in non-athletes.274 Data on elite athletes are sparser, but also
show significantly greater risk in elite athletes than in non-ath-
letes.23 241 Elite athletes more commonly meet criteria for disor-
dered eating than for eating disorders.275 Data have largely
relied on self-reports. However, athletes are prone to denial of
symptoms, and are more apt to underreport disordered eating
than are non-athletes.23
Athletes possess some of the same risk factors for eating disor-
ders as the general population, and some that are sport specific
risks (table 6).273 More than 60% of elite female athletes from both
leanness focused and non-leanness focused sports have reported
body shaming pressure from coaches.276 Eating disorders are
common in athletes using performance and image enhancing
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Consensus statement
Table 5 Characteristics of eating disorders versus disordered eating in elite athletes1 274 736
Eating disorders Disordered eating
►Restricting, bingeing or purging often occur multiple times per week ►Pathogenic behaviours used to control weight (eg, occasional restricting, use of diet pills,
bingeing, purging or use of saunas or 'sweat runs') may occur but not with regularity
►Obsessions with thoughts of food and eating occur much of the time ►Thoughts of food and eating do not occupy most of the day
►Eating patterns and obsessions preclude normal functioning in life
activities
►Functioning usually remains intact
►Preoccupation with 'healthy eating' leads to significant dietary restriction ►There may be preoccupation with 'healthy eating' or significant attention to caloric or
nutritional parameters of most foods eaten but intake remains acceptable
►Excessive exercise beyond that recommended by coaches may be
explicitly used as a frequent means of purging calories
►While exercise may not be regularly used in excessive amounts to purge calories, there may be
a cognitive focus on burning calories when exercising
Table 6 General and sport specific risk factors for eating disorders273 296
General risk factors Sport specific risk factors
►Low self esteem ►Weight sensitive sports (eg, weight class sports such as rowing, wrestling and judo; those that may be aesthetic judged such as
gymnastics, artistic swimming, diving, equestrian and figure skating; and gravitational sports in which lower body fat may be
advantageous, such as distance running, cycling and swimming)
►Depression ►Team weigh-ins
►Anxiety ►Sport specific training before the body is fully mature (which might hinder an athlete from choosing a suitable sport for their adult body
type)737
►Genetic vulnerability ►Performance pressure
►Perfectionistic personality style ►Injury299
drugs, including anabolic androgenic steroids, amphetamine-like
substances, coffee and caffeine derivatives, synthetic cathinones
and ephedrine.277 Dissatisfaction with body image may be the
strongest predictor of eating disorders in athletes.278
A diagnosis requires obtaining a detailed current and past
history (including a corroborative history), a thorough phys-
ical examination and laboratory studies.274 Dual energy X-ray
absorptiometry and electrocardiography are sometimes needed
to assess possible adverse effects on bone and cardiac health.274
Rating scales that have been validated in athletes, such as the
Athletic Milieu Direct Questionnaire version 2, the Brief Eating
Disorders in Athletes Questionnaire version 2, and the Physi-
ological Screening Test to Detect Eating Disorders Among
Female Athletes, may be used.279 However, research suggests
that personal interviews may be superior to rating scales in diag-
nosing eating disorders in athletes.280 The usual DSM-5 diag-
nostic criteria1 may be difficult to apply in athletes51 because
the adaptive nature of a disciplined training diet and preoccupa-
tion with body shape and weight in sport may confuse the diag-
nosis.281 Additionally, athletes may present as normal weight,
with very low body fat but high muscle mass.61 Finally, excessive
exercise as an eating disorder behaviour often used to compen-
sate for a perceived excess of calories consumed can be chal-
lenging to assess in athletes.282
In elite training, athletes may present with low energy avail-
ability (LEA), which can occur secondary to inadvertent inade-
quate intake or from disordered eating. The female athlete triad
was historically denoted by LEA, menstrual dysfunction and low
bone mineral density.51 283 284 Male athletes may present with
an analogous condition characterised by LEA, hypogonado-
tropic hypogonadism and low bone mineral density.285 The IOC
convened and redefined these entities under a broader umbrella:
relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S), which addresses the
more global impact of relative energy deficiency on physiolog-
ical function and its psychological consequences and includes all
genders.280 286
The fact that an eating disorder impairs athletic performance
is a powerful motivator for treatment.278 While performance
may not immediately suffer, typically performance decreases
over time, related to factors such as dehydration, electrolyte
disturbances, early glycogen depletion, loss of muscle mass and
injuries such as stress fractures.274 278 287 288
Among the challenges in bringing an athlete to treatment are
concerns about confidentiality,289 finding access to effective
treatment, the athlete's acceptance that there is a problem to
treat, the ability to relate—as an athlete—in treatment and the
possible need to restrict activity on return to play.290 Just as team
culture may engender disordered eating, there may be a role for
teammates to encourage healthy eating behaviours.291
One of the first decision points in treatment is what level of
care is required. Those who are severely nutritionally compro-
mised may need hospitalisation.274 In any setting, an interdis-
ciplinary team is ideal, and may include a psychiatrist, a sports
nutritionist/dietitian, a primary care physician, another licensed
mental health provider, an athletic trainer and a coach.274 Once
a healthy nutritional status is attained, the psychological and
sociocultural underpinnings of the disordered eating may be
addressed through psychotherapeutic modalities in individual,
group or family settings.292 A team may be viewed as a family
structure, or a coach–athlete relationship may benefit from
therapy.293
While there is little evidence that medication is helpful for
anorexia nervosa, the primary pharmacologic treatments in
bulimia nervosa are antidepressants, specifically fluoxetine,
which has no evident adverse impact on performance.1 208 209 294
Lisdexamfetamine may be helpful for binge eating disorder295
but it is a stimulant and thus is prohibited in competition at elite
levels of competition and requires a TUE.59
Although early detection and treatment are critical, preven-
tion of eating disorders is also important.273 296 Overall, the body
of research on eating disorder prevention programmes with elite
athletes is small but promising.296 Elements common to seem-
ingly successful prevention programmes include involvement
of multiple targets for systematic change (eg, athletes, coaches
and sport administration),296–298 and utilisation of interactive
programmes that encourage multiple modes of communication
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Consensus statement
Table 7 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5
diagnostic criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder1
►A persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes
with functioning or development, with 6 or more symptoms of inattention, and/
or 6 or more symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity
►Inattention symptoms: ►Hyperactivity and impulsivity
symptoms:
Often fails to give close attention to
details or makes careless mistakes
Often fidgets or taps hands or feet, or
squirms in seat
Often has difficulty sustaining
attention in tasks or play activities
Often leaves seat in situations when
remaining seated is expected
Often does not seem to listen when
spoken to directly
Often runs about or climbs in
situations where it is inappropriate (in
adolescents or adults, may be feeling
restless)
Often does not follow through
on instructions and fails to finish
school, chores or work
Often unable to play or engage in
leisure activities quietly
Often has difficulty organising tasks
and activities
Is often 'on the go', acting as if 'driven
by a motor'
Often avoids, dislikes or is reluctant
to engage in tasks that require
sustained mental effort
Often talks excessively
►Often loses things Often blurts out an answer before a
question has been completed
►Is often easily distracted by
extraneous stimuli (in adolescents
or adults, may include unrelated
thoughts)
Often has difficulty waiting their turn
►Is often forgetful in daily activities Often interrupts or intrudes on others
►Several symptoms were present prior to age 12 years
►Several symptoms are present in 2 or more settings (eg, home, school, work or in
social settings)
►The symptoms interfere with or reduce the quality of functioning
►The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder, including
substance intoxication or withdrawal.
(eg, with athletes leading some of the session, use of practical
skills assignments and provision of a safe space for athletes to
express their experiences of body shape and weight).296–298
Athletes should be educated to recognise signs and behaviours
that may be associated with eating disorders and RED-S,
including overexercise, rigid eating patterns, amenorrhoea, a
focus on thinness and a competitive comparison of physiques.299
A strong coach–athlete relationship may protect against eating
disorders.300 Coaches need to understand the physiologic
importance of proper nutrition and weight management.301–303
Coaches should feel comfortable discussing eating disorders and
RED-S with athletes.299 One strategy to decrease stigma is to
reframe these disorders as a continuum of sport-related injury
and illness.304
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
The essential features of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) are a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyper-
activity–impulsivity causing dysfunction and present in multiple
spheres since prior to the age of 12 years (table 7). A formal
diagnosis of ADHD may be made based on patient history, using
DSM-5 diagnostic criteria.1 Other data, such as those obtained
from neurocognitive testing, laboratory results and collateral
information, may support a diagnosis, rule out other conditions
or both.305
Using DSM-5 criteria, 30% of those diagnosed with ADHD
in childhood continue to meet ADHD criteria as adults.306 307
There are scant data regarding the prevalence of ADHD in
elite athletes; however, ADHD may be more common than in
the general population, since individuals with ADHD may be
drawn to sport due to the positive reinforcing effects of physical
activity.306 308 However, the sport-related hyperactivity mani-
fest in some athletes must be distinguished from diagnosable
ADHD.309
Athletes with ADHD who suffer concussions should be eval-
uated for comorbid or persistent concussion symptoms, since
there is symptom overlap between concussion and ADHD.310–314
Both conditions affect similar neurocognitive domains, resulting
in possible deficits in memory, attention and concentration.315 316
Collegiate athletes with ADHD are more likely to report a past
history of concussions than those without ADHD, and ADHD
may be associated with prolonged recovery following sport-re-
lated concussion in athletes.317 318
ADHD may negatively affect athletic performance.305 Lack of
focus and concentration, oppositional behaviour, argumentative
attitude, frustration, lowered self-esteem and labile mood may
all interfere with performance.305 ADHD may cause academic
difficulties that could threaten the academic eligibility of student
athletes.305 Additionally, commonly described comorbid condi-
tions such as anxiety, depression and substance use disorders
may negatively impact performance.305 However, some individ-
uals with ADHD naturally excel in sport because of quick and
reactive decision making due to inherent impulsivity.319
In managing ADHD in elite athletes, psychosocial interven-
tions should be used;57 these interventions may be as effective
as—and should be considered an alternative to—stimulant medi-
cation in athletes with mild functional impairment.306 309 320–325
Depending on the age of the elite athlete, treatment may
include: behaviour therapy or CBT; individual education plans;
parent teaching/training and caregiver support; and education
for athletes, families and coaches.308 321 326
Stimulants are a primary pharmacological treatment for
ADHD.62 211 306 309 321 322 324 325 327 Such medications, including
those in the methylphenidate and mixed amphetamine salts
classes, may be ergogenic,328 329 and are misused because of the
perception of performance enhancement.306 322 324 325 327 330 Like
classic stimulants, the psychostimulant modafinil reportedly
may mask symptoms of fatigue.331 Stimulants may be misused
for weight loss as a performance advantage in leanness sports
(eg, distance running) or in sports with weight classes (eg, wres-
tling).309 327 Stimulants are prohibited by WADA in competi-
tion,59 332 so athletes taking them for legitimate medical reasons
must receive a TUE.333
Athletes taking stimulants may be able to exercise to higher
core body temperatures without perceived thermal stress,212
thereby raising concerns about both performance enhancement
and safety.212 Stimulants may cause several side effects, including
insomnia, anxiety, increased heart rate and blood pressure, and
an undesired decrease in appetite, all of which can negatively
impact performance and threaten athlete safety.211 306 309 322 324 325
Given these concerns, if medications are necessary for an
athlete with ADHD, non-stimulant medications should be consid-
ered.309 324 327 334 The non-stimulant atomoxetine is a medication
of choice for ADHD among sports psychiatrists, presumably
owing to the regulatory and safety drawbacks of stimulants.57
However, it has not been studied in elite athletes. In addition,
prescribers and athletes should be aware that it takes much
longer to see full benefit from atomoxetine than from stimu-
lants,309 and gastrointestinal discomfort and sedation are possible
side effects.327 Bupropion, an antidepressant with some stimu-
lant properties, is sometimes used off label for ADHD,306 322 335
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Consensus statement
Table 8 Features that may help distinguish between primary bipolar and psychotic disorders and those secondary to substance use341–343 345 508
Primary disorder Secondary to substance use
History Possible past history of episodes and
family history of disorder and no report of
substance use
Use may be acknowledged with sensitive enquiry and corroborative reports (eg, from
family, friends, etc)
Clinical features ►Symptoms may be similar
►Longitudinal course is more likely to be
of episodes lasting weeks or more
►Symptoms may be similar
►Episodes may self-limit after a few days
►Irritability and aggression are more common
►Sub-syndromal presentations are more likely than full syndromes
►Close temporal relationship to use
►Association with high dose and multiple substance use
Physical exam Signs of increased arousal may be present
(eg, increased pulse and/or blood pressure)
The following signs may be present:
►AAS use – acne, needle marks, female hirsutism, jaundice, gynaecomastia (men),
breast atrophy (women), testicular atrophy or prostatic hypertrophy (men),
clitoromegaly (women)
►Stimulant use – increased arousal, dilated pupils, tics
►Cannabinoid use – characteristic smell, conjunctival injection, drowsy, slowed
responses, impaired short term memory
AAS, anabolic–androgenic steroid.
especially for individuals with comorbid depression. Clonidine
and guanfacine in extended release formulations are approved in
some countries for use in children under the age of 18 years with
ADHD (which could include elite athletes).325 336 These latter
two medications have not been studied in elite athletes, but seda-
tion and cardiac side effects such as hypotension, bradycardia
and QTc prolongation are possible side effects.336 337 Tricyclic
antidepressants may also be used off label for ADHD,325 but side
effects such as sedation, weight gain, cardiac arrhythmias and
dry mouth may preclude their use in elite athletes.305
If stimulants are prescribed and a TUE is approved, it may
be preferable to start with long acting formulations, which are
more convenient and less likely to be abused.57 324 An alternative
potential stimulant prescribing strategy involves use of formu-
lations and timing that allow use only during school, study and
work times—not during practices and competition—thereby
decreasing concerns about safety and impact on perfor-
mance.57 324 327 A final important consideration is that prescribers
must use caution in prescribing stimulant medication if the
athlete is participating in endurance events in hot temperatures
because of the possible increased risk of heat illness.60 306 322 324
Bipolar and psychotic disorders
Bipolar disorders are characterised by major changes in mood
with associated functional impairments (Box 4). Mood changes
may be depressive, hypomanic, manic or occasionally with
mixed symptoms.1 Psychotic symptoms need not be present,
but if so are usually consistent with the individual’s mood.1
Psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia and related condi-
tions are usually characterised by hallucinations and delusions.
In addition, schizophrenia may involve disturbances in speech,
thought, behaviour, affect and cognition, in addition to social
deficits and significant functional impairment.1
Bipolar and psychotic disorders have not been thoroughly
studied in elite athletes;61 although prominent cases have been
reported,338 the prevalence is unknown. Both disorders show a
peak age of onset coincident with the usual age of peak sporting
performance;339 thus it is important for clinicians and other key
professionals in the world of sport to be aware of their symp-
toms. In cases of mania and hypomania, the diagnosis may be
obscured if sport provides a functional outlet for excess energy,
or if overactivity is normalised.340
It is important to distinguish primary mood and psychotic
disorders from the impact of substance use (secondary
disorders), as the latter may be self-limiting or require only
short term treatment (table 8).341 For example, anabolic–an-
drogenic steroid use may be associated with psychotic, hypo-
manic or depressive symptoms.342 343 Other substances used
by athletes, including stimulants, cannabinoids and glucocor-
ticoids, may also be associated with mood or psychotic symp-
toms.344 345
There are scant data on how bipolar and psychotic disorders
affect athletic performance. The long term course of bipolar
disorders is variable, and patients may spend a significant
amount of time in a symptomatic (often depressed) state.346 347
However, some athletes have achieved sporting success despite
this condition.
Cognitive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia cause
significant impairment of function348 349 likely to interfere with
the demands of elite sport.51 Conversely, physical activity may
be beneficial for symptoms of bipolar and psychotic disor-
ders,350–352 although some evidence suggests that vigorous exer-
cise may exacerbate mania in patients with bipolar disorder.351
Supported strategies to exit from an elite sports level, perhaps
to a lower level of participation, should be considered if this
strategy would allow the individual to continue to benefit from
physical activity.
There is limited evidence on the treatment of bipolar disor-
ders and psychosis in athletes,61 and guidance is usually based
on expert opinion and individualised prescribing.56 Long term
medication is often needed alongside psychotherapy interven-
tions,353–358 including family therapy, CBT and, for bipolar
disorder, social rhythms therapy.359
Sports psychiatrists have reported preferences for lamotrigine
and lithium in athletes with bipolar disorders.60 Lamotrigine has
a favourable side effect profile for elite athletes, but does not
always prevent or treat mania.56 57 Lithium is a full spectrum
mood stabiliser, but its levels may fluctuate with intense exercise
and hydration status,360 361 so close monitoring is advised.56 Apart
from lamotrigine, most medications for bipolar disorder can
cause sedation, weight gain and tremor.57 60 Among the atypical
antipsychotics that may be used for bipolar or psychotic disor-
ders, aripiprazole, lurasidone and ziprasidone may be relatively
less likely to cause sedation and weight gain.56 57 Ziprasidone
may cause QTc prolongation362 and thus may not be a firstline
choice within this class for athletes.57 Aripiprazole may cause
akathisia, which could negatively impact motor performance in
athletes.56 Typical antipsychotics are an infrequent choice for
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Consensus statement
Box 4 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders 5 diagnostic criteria for bipolar I disorder and
bipolar II disorder1
►Bipolar I disorder
–At least 1 manic episode, defined as a distinct period
of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive or
irritable mood, and abnormally and persistently increased
activity or energy, present most of each day for at least a
week (or any duration if hospitalisation is necessary)
–3 additional symptoms (4 if mood is only irritable) are
present to a significant degree during the manic episode
and represent a noticeable change from usual behaviour:
–inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
–decreased need for sleep
–more talkative than usual
–flight of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts
are racing
–distractibility
–increased goal directed activity or psychomotor
agitation
–excessive involvement in activities that have a high
potential for painful consequences
–The mood disturbance is sufficiently severe to cause
marked impairment in social or occupational functioning
or to necessitate hospitalisation to prevent harm to self or
others, or there are psychotic features
–The symptoms are not better explained by another
medical condition, a psychotic disorder or a substance.
►Bipolar II disorder
–At least 1 hypomanic episode, defined as a distinct period
of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive or
irritable mood, and abnormally and persistently increased
activity or energy, present most of each day for at least 4
consecutive days
–Symptom criteria for a hypomanic episode are the same as
for a manic episode (second bullet point above)
–The hypomanic episode is associated with an unequivocal
change in functioning that is uncharacteristic of the
individual when not symptomatic
–The disturbance in mood and change in functioning are
observable by others
–The episode is not severe enough to cause marked
impairment in functioning, hospitalisation or psychosis
–The symptoms are not better explained by another
medical condition or a substance
–At least 1 major depressive episode has occurred (see
criteria in table1).
psychotic disorders in athletes because of sedation, motor side
effects and cardiac concerns.57
Sport-related concussion
Sport related concussion (SRC) is a traumatic brain injury induced
by biomechanical forces. It may be caused by a direct blow to the
head, face or elsewhere in the body with a transmitted impulsive
force to the head.363 SRC typically results in short lived impair-
ment of neurological function, but signs and symptoms may
evolve over minutes to hours. It largely reflects functional brain
disturbances, but also may result in neuropathological changes.
SRC manifests in a range of clinical signs and symptoms, with or
without loss of consciousness; resolution of signs and symptoms
usually follows a sequential course, but may be prolonged.363
Finally, the signs and symptoms cannot be explained by drugs,
other injuries or comorbidities.317 364 365 Changes in mood,
emotions and behaviour are common following SRC; indeed,
in the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool, fifth edition,366 most
symptoms overlap with those attributable to anxiety and depres-
sion.367–369 Thus SRC may be viewed as a neuropsychiatric
syndrome.
Rice and colleagues365 performed a systematic review of
mental health outcomes of SRC in elite athletes; of 103 studies,
27 met the inclusion criteria for the final analysis. The most
common mental health symptoms following SRC reported
in these studies were depression, anxiety and impulsivity, but
studies were primarily in male athletes, and most were from
North America. Only one paper was judged as meeting sufficient
methodological rigour and lack of bias: Vargas et al370 described
depression symptoms in 20% of collegiate athletes following
SRC. Vargas et al also reported that predictors of depression
symptoms included baseline depression symptoms, baseline
post-concussion symptoms, lower estimated premorbid intelli-
gence, non-white ethnicity, increased number of games missed
following injury and age of first participation in organised sport
(more depression symptoms noted in athletes with fewer years of
experience in organised sport).
Although acute mood and behavioural symptoms may be
common following SRC, such symptoms must be differenti-
ated from mental health disorders. For example, Kontos et al371
reported significantly worse depression symptoms following
SRC, but not at the level of major depressive disorder. No high
quality studies exist of other mental health outcomes, such as
alcohol or other substance use disorders, personality disturbance
or psychotic symptoms, after SRC in elite athletes.365
Most athletes recover from SRC within 7–10 days.372–374
However, up to 21% of athletes remain symptomatic after 30
days.374 Delayed recovery has often been diagnosed as ‘post-con-
cussion syndrome’. This label assumes the presence of common
influencers of delayed recovery, but it lacks consensus criteria or
clinical specificity, and subsumes varied presentations not clearly
associated with the concussive injury.1 363 375–383 Since SRC is
not a homogenous entity, persistent symptoms are increasingly
described within specific, but often overlapping, post-concus-
sion subtypes and should be managed as such.384
The development of depression, anxiety or other mental
health symptoms or disorders following SRC may adversely
impact recovery.385 386 Further, pre-injury mood and/or other
mental health disorder, family history of mental health disorder
and high life stressors before injury all negatively impact SRC
recovery.387 Multiple SRCs may predispose to the development of
clinically significant depression. Kerr et al388 reported a 5.8-fold
increased risk of depression after 5–9 concussions in retired
professional football players, and Guskiewicz and colleagues389
described a 3-fold increased risk of depression following three
or more SRCs among retired football players. Similarly, Kerr et
al390 reported a higher prevalence of moderate/severe depression
among former collegiate football players with a history of three
or more concussions. Although Fralick and colleagues391 found
a twofold higher risk of suicide in individuals who experienced
concussion and/or mild traumatic brain injury, this study was not
athlete or sport specific, and included the general population. Of
note, the risk of suicide in former professional football players is
significantly lower than in the general population.392
Diagnosis of SRC and associated mental health symptoms
or disorders can be challenging.365 For example, there are no
objective imaging or blood biomarkers for SRC.373 Nonetheless,
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Consensus statement
neuropsychological evaluation may help differentiate cognitive
from other mental health manifestations.393–397
After an SRC, management of persistent mental health
symptoms and/or disorders should first address factors that
can contribute to delayed recovery, which may include several
biopsychosocial issues.365 398–401 Because many athletes with
prolonged concussive symptoms reduce their daily exercise
markedly, a progressive increase in exercise often ameliorates
mental health and somatic symptoms.399 400 402 Additionally,
social activity, including team activities, should not be restricted,
as such a restriction has been associated with increased depres-
sion following an SRC.403 Psychotherapy may be helpful for both
mental health and somatic symptoms.375 404 405 Athletes with
pre-existing or post-SRC substance use disorders may be more
likely to report more SRC symptoms;406 407 thus ascertaining
substance use patterns in elite athletes with SRC is important.
There are no approved pharmacological interventions specific
to SRC and its sequelae, and evidence to support use of specific
medications is minimal.408 While the majority of concussed
athletes recover relatively quickly and thus will probably not need
medications,374 when such an approach is warranted, targeted
treatment beginning with a lower starting dose and a prolonged
titration interval is generally indicated.409 410 Intervention for
insomnia following SRC should focus on sleep hygiene;408
however, if a sleep aid is warranted, melatonin may be consid-
ered408 411 412 with trazodone as a second option.374 408 413 414
Benzodiazepines should be avoided because of their negative
effect on cognition.408 413 414 SSRIs may be helpful to treat
depressed mood following SRC,408 410 413 415 416 and may simul-
taneously improve cognition.415 416 Tricyclic antidepressants,
for example amitriptyline, are sometimes used to treat head-
ache, depression, anxiety and/or insomnia in the post-SRC
setting374 408 417–419 but side effects may limit their use in elite
athletes.60 While some evidence exists for the use of stimulants
to manage cognitive dysfunction such as deficits in attention and
processing speed associated with SRC,408 413 415 420–423 they carry
risks415 and are prohibited in competition by WADA without an
approved TUE.59
Substance use and substance use disorders (ergogenic and
recreational)
Elite athletes use alcohol, caffeine, cannabis/cannabinoids, nico-
tine and other substances that can be misused for similar reasons
as non-athletes.345 424 These reasons can include experimenta-
tion, socialisation, pleasure, boosting confidence and increasing
alertness and energy. Elite athletes may also use substances for
relief of stress, negative emotions, pain, cravings and with-
drawal.345 424 Athletes may use ergogenic substances,425 doping
methods such as gene doping426 427 and blood transfusions,428
and neuromodulation (eg, transcranial stimulation).429 430
Further, athletes may unwittingly ingest ergogenic substances
by taking dietary substances that contain adulterants.431 These
practices seek to enhance performance via hoped for increases in
strength, power, endurance, aggression, concentration, oxygen
carrying capacity of the blood and lean body mass; reductions
in fatigue and percent body fat; and enhanced recovery from
exercise and injury.345 424
The prevalence of substance use, misuse (defined as heavy,
risky, harmful, hazardous or problem use) or full use disor-
ders as defined in DSM-51 among elite athletes varies signifi-
cantly by substance class,424 432–439 sport,5 439–445 in season
versus out of season,434 age/level of competition,424 432 438 445–448
gender,438 439 445 449 450 country,433 437 445 451–455 sexual orientation,456
ethnicity,439 444 457 reasons for use424 458 and prevalence deter-
mination methods.433 459–461 Although self-report surveys and
competition day urine drug testing are the most common
ways of determining use or misuse, these likely are underesti-
mates.460 461 More reliable measures include: athlete biological
passport baselines (obtaining an individual’s profile of biological
markers of doping over time); team urine surveillance and post-
game testing; repeat testing; hair testing; early out of season
testing; attitude scale administration; indirect questioning tech-
niques; and interviews with athletes, teammates and parents or
coaches.460–464
A few recent high quality studies have compared substance
use among athletes and non-athletes. Using indirect compar-
isons among US collegiate athletes and non-athletes, athletes
across all sports report annual use of alcohol, cigarettes, mari-
juana, amphetamines, anabolic–androgenic steroids, cocaine,
ecstasy and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) at lower rates
than their non-athlete peers.439 465 466 However, in the recent
NCAA study (2018) and older US studies that included compar-
ison groups,432 434 448 467–472 collegiate athletes (especially white
males) in lacrosse, ice hockey, swimming, baseball and wres-
tling use more spit tobacco473 and report higher rates of binge
drinking and alcohol related problems than non-athletes. Female
collegiate athletes in ice hockey, lacrosse and swimming binge
drink at higher rates than non-athletes, while women ice hockey
players use spit tobacco far more often than non-athletes.473
Male and female collegiate lacrosse players have higher rates
of use for both cannabis and cocaine.439 465 466 Recent studies
of professional European football players from five countries6
and professional rugby players from eight countries19 showed
rates of adverse alcohol behaviours (regular, heavy drinking and/
or binge drinking) ranging from 6% to 17%6 and from 8% to
21%, respectively, while a 2015 study of elite rugby players from
Australasia using similar measures showed much higher rates of
hazardous alcohol use both before (68.6%) and during (62.8%)
the season.14 At the collegiate level, a 2017 study by Zanotti et al
using the Psychiatric Diagnostic Survey Questionnaire (N=304)
showed rates of DSM IV alcohol abuse/dependence of 7.2% to
10.3%,474 confirming previous reports about collegiate athletes’
relatively high rate of alcohol misuse.432 448 468
The most commonly used substances by elite athletes across
countries, sports and genders are alcohol, caffeine, nicotine,
cannabis/cannabinoids, stimulants and anabolic–androgenic
steroids.425 434 435 437 444 459 475–477 Marijuana (inhaled and/or
ingested) has replaced nicotine as the second most widely used
drug among some elite adolescent and collegiate athletes; it
is more likely to be used in places where it is legal, which are
becoming increasingly common.437 439 478 Despite relatively low
rates of use, synthetic cannabinoids479 and cocaine439 appear to
be a growing problem among collegiate athletes, with uncertain
year round trends for athletes worldwide.
The sports with the highest general substance use/misuse
rates across all substances for men’s elite sports are lacrosse, ice
hockey, football, rugby, baseball, soccer, wrestling, weightlifting,
skiing, biathlon, bobsleigh and swimming, and lowest for track,
tennis and basketball.439 443 459 480 For women’s elite sports, the
highest rates occur in ice hockey, gymnastics, lacrosse, softball,
swimming and rowing, and lowest in track, tennis, basketball
and golf.439 443 459 480 In general, those who participate in team
sports are more likely to use or misuse substances than athletes
in individual sports.439 442
Common risk factors for use include: sport context and culture
(eg, normative beliefs about heavy peer drinking or illicit drug
use); situational temptation (eg, drinking games); permissive
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Consensus statement
attitudes among athletes, coaches and parents; male sex; use of
performance enhancing substances or tobacco; identification as
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender or queer; party lifestyle or
drinking game participation; sensation seeking; overestimating
peer use; achievement orientation; lower use of protective
measures (eg, avoiding serious intoxication, using a designated
driver); leadership position; fraternity/sorority membership;
problem gambling; and injury.442 443 448 450 452 458 468 481–483
Intrinsic religiosity has been inversely associated with the use of
alcohol, marijuana and other drugs.484
Substances most commonly used by elite athletes may cause
performance enhancement, decrement or both, and the net
impact may vary by sport and athlete. Some athletes may use
alcohol before competition to reduce anxiety or tremor and
improve subjective self-confidence.54 442 485 Alcohol is no longer
a prohibited substance in competition in specified sports.59
Post-competition, alcohol is used by some athletes to reduce
stress, boost self-esteem, increase social connectedness, improve
team cohesion, strengthen athletic identity and raise subjective
happiness.54 442 485 Ergolytic effects of alcohol include dehy-
dration, insomnia, higher injury rates, slower injury healing,
impaired psychomotor skills, hangovers, accidents, lateness,
missing important obligations, reduced metabolic recovery/
glycogen re-synthesis, impaired thermoregulation, weight gain
and academic underperformance that can threaten athletic eligi-
bility.424 485 486
Although some elite athletes speculate that cannabis/canna-
binoids increase the likelihood of obtaining restorative sleep
before a competition, reduce pre-competition stress and anxiety
to allow for optimal relaxation, or reduce physical pain, no
studies have shown a beneficial effect on performance.486 487 In
fact, since cannabis is likely to raise heart rate and blood pres-
sure and impair reaction time and coordination,486 it might
be expected to limit performance. Regular or heavy cannabis/
cannabinoid use may reduce motivation, activate anxiety, trigger
psychosis488 or produce temporary disorientation, delirium or
aggression.489 490
Ergogenic effects of anabolic–androgenic steroids include
enhanced muscle mass, improved biomechanical efficiency and
anti-catabolic effects.491 Potential ergolytic effects include cogni-
tive impairment,492 negative mood symptoms,345 psychosis,345
aggression345 and injury, especially tendon rupture.345 Some
individuals who use anabolic–androgenic steroids have muscle
dysmorphia, a preoccupation that one’s body is not sufficiently
lean and muscular, often with significant body image distor-
tion.493–495 Cycles of using anabolic–androgenic steroids are
usually interspersed with drug free periods and are sometimes
associated with other drug use (eg, diuretics or benzodiazepines)
to mitigate side effects.424 491 These other drugs themselves may
have ergolytic effects.56 165 174 247
Stimulants may be attractive to elite athletes because they
may improve reaction time and concentration, increase arousal,
improve memory, boost energy, trigger relaxation and confi-
dence, and improve energy when fatigued.309 424 475 486 496 497
Their negative effects, however, are more apparent in high
doses or when combined ('stacked'), which may be relatively
common among male athletes who use performance enhancing
substances.424 452 Athletes may knowingly or unknowingly
consume large amounts of caffeine in dietary supplements, and
larger caffeine doses do not appear to increase performance
and indeed are more likely to cause side effects.431 Ergolytic
effects of high dose stimulant use or combination stacking may
include anxiety, insomnia, gastric irritation, tachycardia and
tremors.309 424 476 486
Nicotine, whether smoked (eg, via cigars, cigarettes or
hookahs), used orally (eg, via moist snuff, snus or leaf tobacco)
or vaped, is also widely used by elite athletes.439 Nicotine
is currently being studied by WADA because of its poten-
tial ergogenic effects on performance and because it is so
widely used in some sports, especially baseball, ice hockey and
lacrosse.59 486 Athletes’ perception of nicotine’s ergogenic effects
include improved alertness and concentration, increased energy
and focus, increased muscular strength and power, enhanced
endurance, relaxation/calmness, weight control and reduction of
boredom, although the results of higher quality studies gener-
ally do not support ergogenesis.424 475 486 Ergolytic effects may
include elevated blood pressure, anxiety, insomnia and chronic
respiratory infections.424 475 486 Potential performance enhance-
ment and decrement associated with other substances by elite
athletes, not described in detail here, are documented elsewhere
in the literature.345
Interventions for regular, risky or disordered use of substances
in elite athletes are not well studied. Nonetheless, approaches
to reducing spit tobacco use among baseball players424 498 499
and newer approaches to service delivery models for mental
health and substance use disorders in elite athletes provide some
guidance.339 500 For spit tobacco use, two approaches used the
pre-season physical and dental examinations as an opportu-
nity to screen for heavy nicotine use and examine players for
oral lesions. If screening is positive, then a brief intervention
by a dental technician or a substance counsellor experienced in
tobacco cessation is delivered. In one study,498 after 10 years of
annual oral examinations and dental technician interventions,
spit tobacco use dropped from 41.1% to 25.6% of players.
In more recent models of service delivery, experienced sports
clinicians are onsite with teams to integrate substance screen-
ings and brief interventions with other health screenings and
interventions.339 500 One model uses experienced mental health/
substance providers, who work with the team all year, to conduct
screenings for substance use/misuse at the time of the pre-season
physical and carry out follow-up evaluations and treatments for
those who screen positive. This approach has led to increasing
service utilisation rates and problem identification at earlier
stages, when problems are easier to treat.424 500 Finally, drug
testing is a known deterrent to substance use among athletes,501
and research suggests that increased frequency of drug testing,
including during high risk time periods (eg, immediately after a
game when athletes are socialising or early in the post-season),
may diminish illicit drug use among elite athletes.462
Brief individual or group interventions delivered by clinicians,
sometimes with key family members or members of the athlete’s
entourage in attendance, may successfully prevent or diminish
binge drinking or other substance use in collegiate athletes.502–505
Similarly, binge drinking may be successfully diminished when
athletic trainers and academic advisors screen for and deliver
brief motivational interventions.506 Group therapy, as an adjunct
to medication treatment, is effective when addressing substance
use disorders among professional athletes.14 478 507 No research
on the use of self-help groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous
or Narcotics Anonymous or intensive outpatient or residential
treatment of elite athletes is available. While these treatments
are evidence based in other populations, concerns about confi-
dentiality may limit elite athletes’ willingness to participate in
self-help groups.508
There are no pharmacological studies on treatment of
substance use disorders in elite athletes. Such treatment is gener-
ally grounded in psychosocial modalities, and pharmacotherapy
is used to manage withdrawal and cravings and to treat comorbid
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Consensus statement
Table 9 Features of 'exercise addiction' versus normative/adaptive exercise in elite athletes538 738–741
Exercise addiction Normative/adaptive exercise in elite athletes
►Tolerance: the need to increase the exercise duration, frequency and/or intensity to
perceive the desired benefit and to satisfy 'cravings' for it
►Fluctuation in amount of exercise as expected at various points in the training
cycle
►Withdrawal: depressive or anxious symptoms or irritability when the individual suddenly
reduces or stops exercise, with possible difficulty performing professional or social
activities as a result of these symptoms
►Mild depressive or anxious symptoms or irritability are possible when the
individual suddenly reduces or stops exercise, but these symptoms do not cause
functional impairment
►Continued exercise despite knowing that it is causing physical, psychological and/or
social problems
►Ability to stop or cut down on exercise as recommended (eg, if an injury or
illness could be worsened by continued exercise at the same level)
►Inability to reduce or manage exercise, despite the desire to do so ►Feeling of control over exercise, which occurs according to planned training
►Elimination of other life activities (eg, previously desired social, occupational or
recreational activities) to accommodate increasingly time consuming exercise regimens
►While exercise may take a substantial amount of time, other life activities that
are important to the individual are not completely eliminated
mental health symptoms or disorders, such as insomnia, anxiety
or depression.508 There are unique implications for treatment
of opioid use disorder in elite athletes because treatment often
involves use of opioid agonists (eg, methadone and buprenor-
phine). Since these are prohibited in competition by WADA,59
elite athletes falling under WADA’s governance require a break
from training and competition if such an approach is utilised.53
Because alcohol is the most commonly used substance among
elite athletes, alcohol use disorder may occur in this population;
naltrexone, acamprosate and disulfiram are treatment options
for this disorder when cravings are strong or persistent and when
the athlete is unable to stop use on their own.53 Since heavy oral
nicotine use is also seen frequently in some sports and can be
accompanied by tolerance, physiological dependence and crav-
ings, pharmacological strategies for moderate to severe nico-
tine use disorders in elite athletes should be considered. These
include nicotine replacement therapy with or without bupro-
pion, varenicline or bupropion plus varenicline.509–511 Electronic
cigarettes or nicotine vaping devices are not recommended for
use in elite athletes since their safety and effects on respiratory
function have not been established.512 513
Gambling disorder and other behavioural addictions
Many behavioural addictions may negatively impact an athlete’s
functioning, but most studies have focused on gambling
disorder.514 Gambling disorder, as described by the DSM-5,1
involves at least 12 months of persistent and recurrent problem-
atic gambling with resultant negative consequences. Individuals
with gambling disorder report decreased athletic and academic
performance, comorbid mental health symptoms and disorders
(eg, anxiety, depression and substance use disorders), interper-
sonal difficulties and legal concerns (theft or embezzlement to
support their gambling).514–516
Along with technological advances, attitudes toward gambling
have changed. It is now a socially accepted, easily accessible form
of entertainment.517 Gambling disorder is regarded as a 'hidden
disorder', and mental health professionals have reported rela-
tive lack of awareness and concern about gambling as a poten-
tial problem.518 Relatively few studies have examined the impact
of gambling disorder. Elite athletes may be particularly at risk
for gambling disorder, given their overrepresentation of young
males, which is a known high risk group.514 519–521 Additional
risk factors for elite athletes include their desire for competition
and challenges, high levels of sensation seeking and impulsivity,
and increased risk taking behaviours.522–525
Early studies that assessed North American collegiate athletes
found prevalence rates of disordered gambling between 5.2%526
and 6.2%.527 Weiss and Loubier521 reported that both former and
current athletes had the greatest likelihood of problem gambling
(13.0% and 7.0%, respectively) compared with non-athletes
(3.0%). In the NCAA’s study of North American collegiate
athletes between 2004 and 2016, over 84 000 male collegiate
athletes self-reported prevalence rates of disordered gambling of
between 0.7% and 2.0%. However, those athletes at risk (not
meeting the clinical criteria for gambling disorder, but self-re-
porting serious gambling related problems) comprised between
1.1% and 2.9% of the sample.522 Thus the results suggest that
between 1.8% and 4.0% of respondents have serious gambling
related problems. Importantly, assessment measures have differed
among studies, as have the availability and accessibility of
gambling opportunities. Additionally, the NCAA study assessed
athletes where gambling by collegiate athletes was prohibited. In
a study among professional athletes from Spain, France, Greece,
Ireland, Italy, Sweden and the UK, 56.6% participated in some
form of gambling during the past year, and 8.2% had a gambling
problem (either current or in the past). In particular, problem
gambling was related to wagering on one’s own team, betting
online and gambling regularly.520
Several other behavioural disorders, including excessive
gaming, Internet and social media use, may be of concern in
athletes but are not DSM-5 diagnoses and have received little
research attention. In one case study, a professional baseball
pitcher experienced an injury after excessively playing a video
game.528 Others have argued that Wii Sports software may be
helpful for rehabilitation of athletic injuries.529 Some papers
describing excessive professional gaming in electronic sports
('e-Sports') have questioned whether professional gamers who
spend 10 hours or more a day practising and competing are
'addicted' to gaming or work.530–532
While also not included as a behavioural addiction in the
DSM-5, excessive exercise shares behaviours with other addic-
tive behaviours.533 Prevalence rates of 'exercise addiction'
among athletes have varied considerably. Szabo and Griffiths534
reported that 6.9% of British sports science students were at risk
for an exercise addiction. Blaydon and Linder535 reported that
30.5% of triathletes could be diagnosed with exercise addiction,
with another 21.6% approaching an addiction. Allegre et al536
reported that 3.2% of ultra-marathoners displayed signs of an
exercise addiction. Several studies have reported a significantly
greater risk for exercise addiction in elite athletes compared
with recreational exercisers.537 In the elite population, it may be
challenging to distinguish exercise addiction from normative and
adaptive high level training, but some characteristics may help
with that distinction (table 9).537 538
Eating disorders often are comorbid with exercise addiction
in athletes.290 539 Some researchers distinguish primary exercise
addiction, in which there is no accompanying eating disorder
and exercise is the primary objective, from secondary exercise
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Consensus statement
Figure 2 Framework of non-accidental violence in sport, as adapted from the International Olympic Committee.266
Table 10 International Olympic Committee definitions: types of non-accidental violence in sport266
Psychological abuse A pattern of deliberate, prolonged repeated non-contact behaviours within a power differentiated relationship. This form of abuse is at the
core of all other forms
Physical abuse Non-accidental trauma or physical injury caused by punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning or otherwise harming an athlete. This could
include forced or mandated inappropriate physical activity (eg, age inappropriate or physique inappropriate training loads; when injured or
in pain), forced alcohol consumption or systematic doping practices
Sexual abuse Any conduct of a sexual nature, whether non-contact, contact or penetrative, where consent is coerced/manipulated or is not or cannot be
given
Neglect Failure of parents or caregivers to meet a child’s physical and emotional needs or failure to protect a child from exposure to danger. This
definition equally applies to coaches and athlete entourages
addiction, in which weight loss is the objective, with exces-
sive exercise being one of the primary means in achieving the
objective.540–542
There is a growing body of clinical evidence that behavioural
disorders can be successfully treated.514 The most common
approaches include motivational interviewing and CBT.514 543
Coaches, trainers and team physicians are in a unique position
to identify and address these concerns.522 544
MAJOR STRESSORS AND KEY ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
THAT INFLUENCE ELITE ATHLETE MENTAL HEALTH
In addition to the specific mental health issues mentioned above,
the IOC expert group also considered the larger social environ-
ment in which elite athletes operate. We share our consensus
findings on: harassment and abuse; how injury, performance
and mental health interesect; barriers to seeking care for mental
health symptoms and disorders; the athete’s transition out of
sport; mental health emergencies; and how it may be possible
to create an environment that promotes mental well-being and
resilience.
Harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence)
The risk of non-accidental violence in elite sport environ-
ments—whether psychological, physical or sexual abuse, or
neglect—requires policies and procedures to protect athletes
(table 10).266 Non-accidental violence is the term used by the
United Nations and the IOC to describe harms experienced by
athletes because of an abuse of actual or perceived differen-
tials in power, based in a cultural context of discrimination.266
Psychological abuse is considered the basis for all other forms
of non-accidental violence and is the most prevalent in sport.545
The four types of non-accidental violence may occur in isolation
or in combination, and may be a one time occurrence, contin-
uous or repetitive. Non-accidental violence can manifest via
different mechanisms, including contact, verbal or cyber mecha-
nisms, negligence, bullying or hazing (figure 2).
Non-accidental violence occurs in all sports and at all
levels,546–548with a greater risk for psychological, physical and
sexual abuse at the elite level.546 549 High risk sport populations
for non-accidental violence include: child athletes;550 athletes
who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual,transgender, or queer;551
and athletes with a disability.549 Underreporting is a significant
concern and limits conclusions about the prevalence of non-ac-
cidental violence of any form among elite athletes.552 Stafford
reports that the prevalence of psychological abuse approaches
75% in youth athletes.553 The reported prevalence of sexual
abuse in sport ranges from 2% to 49%.554 Although there are
few robust prevalence studies on physical abuse and neglect
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in sport, many public reports outline these forms of non-acci-
dental violence in sport. Male perpetrators of sexual abuse are
reportedly more common than female perpetrators, and female
athletes are reportedly more often victims of sexual abuse
than male athletes.555 Perpetrators of forms of non-accidental
violence may be team physicians,556 coaches, other members of
the athlete entourage,557 peers or team mates.558
The impact of non-accidental violence in sport can be devas-
tating and long standing,559 including loss of self-esteem, poor
academic performance, distorted body image, eating disorders,
self-harm, depression, anxiety, substance use disorders and
suicide.560 Non-accidental violence is correlated with willing-
ness to cheat or dope in sport.561 Psychological abuse can lead
to impaired athletic performance, reduced medal opportuni-
ties, loss of sponsorship and early sport dropout.560 Childhood
psychological abuse is a correlate of long term post-traumatic
and dissociative symptoms in athletes.562
Athletes can also suffer from indirect non-accidental violence
when they witness such events experienced by others and not
stopped by others, including those in authority.563 This phenom-
enon compounds the psychological trauma of the victim, and
deters disclosure by athletes.564 Non-accidental violence in sport
may also affect the victim’s family, and personal, social and
work/school relationships outside of sport.565
An athlete presenting with mental health symptoms to a clini-
cian should be asked about a history of non-accidental violence,
either within or outside of sport.566 Sports medicine healthcare
providers should develop the clinical competence to recognise
non-accidental violence, manage athlete disclosures, report cases
and treat victims, their families and their teams.556 It is impera-
tive to ensure immediate athlete safety. Multidisciplinary support
should be the cornerstone of management.556 Support for team-
mates, the athlete entourage and family members may also be
appropriate.556 Depending on laws where the abuse occurred,
reporting to legal authorities may be required, for example if a
child has been sexually abused.556
How injury, performance and mental health intersect
The relationship of injury, performance and mental health
in elite athletes is complex.322 567–570 Elite sport has specific
stressors that potentially increase the likelihood of injury or
illness, including mental health disorders.222 571–576 Injury also
can potentially unmask or precipitate mental health disorders.574
Finally, mental health disorders can increase the likelihood of, or
complicate recovery from, injury.222 572 573 577 Nonetheless, there
is minimal prospective research in this area.
Injury risk factors
Psychological and sociocultural factors are potential risk factors
for injury in sport.569 574 575 578 Psychological risk factors include
anxiety/worry, hypervigilance, poor body image or low self-es-
teem, perfectionism, limited coping resources, life event stress (ie,
perceived strain associated with major life event stressors such as
the death of a family member or starting at a new school), risk
taking behaviours or low mood state. Sociocultural risk factors
include limited social resources, a lifetime history of sexual or
physical abuse,579 social pressures, organisational stress (ie, asso-
ciated with an athlete’s appraisal of the structure and function
of their sports organisation),580 stress related to negative self-ap-
praisal of athletic and academic performance, coaching quality
(eg, poor athlete–coach relationship and communication) and
the culture of sport and teams (eg, a mindset of 'winning at all
costs' vs striving for continual improvement).223 569 574 581
Although there are limited prospective studies coupled with
conflicting results regarding risk factors related to injury, life event
stress and high stress response (ie, negative emotional responses
after sport injury or other stressful events) consistently demon-
strate a relationship with injury risk.223 572 574 578 581–585 Life event
stress and high stress response can cause inattention, distraction
and increased self-consciousness while increasing muscle tension
and impaired coordination, all of which can impair performance
and increase the risk for injury.223 572 578 581–585 When team
mates and coaches are sources of life event stress, there is an
associated increased risk of both acute and overuse injuries.581
Emotional reactivity (involuntary and overly intense emotional
reaction) is also associated with poor on field performance and
injury.222 586 587
Response to and recovery from injury and illness
Cognitive, emotional and behavioural responses are important
factors associated with outcome following injury.578 The
evidence for outcomes following illness is not well evaluated,
but the same processes may occur as after injury. Cognitive
responses to injury may include concerns about re-injury, doubts
about competency, low self-efficacy, loss of identity and concerns
about competency of the medical staff.588 Emotional responses
to injury may include symptoms of sadness, depression, suicidal
ideation, anxiety, isolation, lack of motivation, anger, irritation,
frustration, changes in appetite and sleep, low vigour, disengage-
ment and burnout.7 574 Injured athletes report more symptoms
of depression and of generalised anxiety disorder compared with
non-injured athletes.11 Whereas emotional responses to injury
and illness vary, problematic emotional responses are those that
do not resolve, worsen over time or in which the symptoms seem
excessive.569 Injury (and possibly illness) may trigger or unmask
other behavioural responses or underlying mental health disor-
ders, including disordered gambling, disordered eating or eating
disorders, and substance use disorders.26 30 35 192 241 389 483 589–595
Athletes with more positive cognitive, emotional
and behavioural responses may have improved injury
recovery.35 573 596–606 Higher levels of optimism and self-efficacy
and lower levels of depression and stress are associated with
improved recovery from injury.35 573 596–605 Examples of strate-
gies that support positive return to sport experiences include: (a)
reducing re-injury anxieties using modelling techniques, such as
watching videos of formerly injured athletes discussing how they
overcame their re-injury anxieties, or pairing an injured athlete
with another athlete proficient in certain rehabilitation exer-
cises so the less experienced athlete can learn how to execute
the exercises correctly; (b) fostering athlete autonomy (eg, by
explaining why they are performing rehabilitation exercises); (c)
building confidence through functional tests and goal setting; (d)
providing social support; (e) keeping athletes involved in their
sport but avoiding premature return to sport; and (f) stress inoc-
ulation training when injury requires surgical intervention.604 606
Barriers to seeking care for mental health symptoms and
disorders
Elite athletes may encounter many barriers to seeking mental
healthcare, including stigma.188 607–615 Public stigma and self-
stigma predict a significant detrimental impact on seeking treat-
ment for mental health.616 Additionally, many athletes come
from countries where there are few, if any, mental health services,
and where there may also be ways of understanding and treating
mental health symptoms and disorders outside of evidence and
biomedically based ones.617 618 Other barriers can include lack
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Consensus statement
of mental health literacy, negative past experiences with mental
health help seeking and busy athlete schedules.188 290 609 610
Facilitators to seeking mental healthcare among athletes
include: having an established relationship with a mental health
provider; positive previous interactions with mental health
providers; perception of benefits to seeking help; a sense of
self-efficacy to seek treatment; and the positive attitudes of
others, especially coaches, regarding seeking mental health
treatment.188 619 620 Even for elite athletes with positive attitudes
toward mental health help seeking who express a willingness to
engage psychological services, many have concerns regarding
how they will be perceived by their peers, coaches and sport
managers.611 612 621 Brief mental health literacy and de-stigmatisa-
tion interventions improve knowledge and may decrease stigma
but may not be enough to increase help seeking.289 502 505 622–627
Negative attitudes about mental health services are associated
with several factors, including identification as male, younger
age, Black (vs Caucasian) race, US (vs European) nationality,
lower measures of openness, higher measures of conscientious-
ness, gender role conflicts and participation in physical contact
sports.628–632 Conversely, coaches can be important advocates
of promoting positive attitudes about mental health by being
mindful of early identification and referral of athletes with
possible mental health symptoms and disorders to mental health
services.607 Moreover, athletes with stronger positive coping
skills generally have attitudes more supportive of seeking mental
health help.291 Finally, athletes have strong preferences for coun-
sellor characteristics, such as familiarity with their sport, same
gender, older but still close enough in age to understand their
lives and geographic proximity to the sports facility.633–636
Cultural issues within sport have broad reaching effects that
impact elite athletes differently, depending on their own cultural
identities, including gender, gender identity, sex, sexual orien-
tation, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and religion.55
Cultural influences and discrimination related to cultural factors
may leave some athletes at a performance disadvantage and set
the stage for mental health symptoms or disorders.
As women continue to engage in elite sport opportunities, their
participation has led to varying degrees of cultural acceptance.637
Women competing in sports traditionally considered 'male' may
face being marginalised and stereotyped638 and may experience
unequal training opportunities and resources.639 Sexualisation,
traditional gender roles, religion and ethnic beliefs all influence
opportunities for women.640 For example, women of some reli-
gions may experience difficulty combining traditional roles with
competition as an elite athlete, as related to religious rules about
the body and presentation in public.640 Tension may also exist
between what is functionally optimal for women elite athletes
to be wearing and what is culturally deemed acceptable.641 642
Gender stereotyping in the media may influence how women
athletes view themselves.641 Women athletes may be stereo-
typed as 'lesbian' to keep them from playing certain sports, or
from playing for certain coaches or with certain teams.641 Some
professional women athletes must train outside their native
countries643 and may struggle to find a support network and
cultural understanding from team mates in their new location.644
Sexuality and cultural norms of masculinity in elite sport also
impact elite athletes.645 Non-heterosexual athletes face various
degrees of acceptance,646 and this may interfere with sports
performance.646 647 Transgender athletes often have negative
experiences in sports and may struggle to be accepted,648 even
after they meet criteria allowing them to participate.649
Racial disparities—including those involving exploita-
tion, player–coach tension, prejudicial treatment and
microaggressions—in addition to socioeconomic inequities,
form barriers that may prevent equal opportunities.650–654 For
example, access to wealth has predicted participation and success
at the Olympic Games.655 Importantly, discrimination based on
any aspect of cultural identity may come from several sources,
including coaches, team mates, agents, universities, leagues,
managers, healthcare providers or others.
Transition out of sport
Epidemiological evidence suggests that elite athletes tran-
sitioning out of sport are at risk of developing mental health
symptoms and disorders. As in current athletes, most studies
have relied on self-reported cross sectional data. These reports
show that the prevalence of mental health symptoms and disor-
ders in former elite athletes ranges from 5% for adverse alcohol
use to around 45% for anxiety and depression.13 16 22 34 590 656–661
Few studies have prospectively explored mental health disorders
in former elite athletes; those that have done so reported inci-
dence rates from 5% to 30% over a follow-up period of up to
12 months.13 16 18 662
While transitioning out of elite sport, generic and sport
specific factors are likely to interact and increase the risk of
mental health symptoms and disorders among athletes.31 32 663
Undesired and involuntary retirement from sport (eg, because of
injury or deselection from sport) is especially associated with an
increased risk of mental health symptoms and disorders among
transitioning athletes.8 661 664–668 Concussion in sport is associ-
ated with subsequent mental health symptoms and disorders
among retired elite athletes; however, a causal relationship has
not been established.16 390 594 669–672 Other factors associated with
adjustment difficulties and mental health symptoms and disor-
ders among former elite athletes include high levels of athletic
identity, lack of retirement planning, lower educational attain-
ment, adverse life events, post-sport unemployment and chronic
pain.9 18 662 668 673 674
Stakeholders in elite sport have considered how to protect
and promote the long term health of elite athletes beyond retire-
ment. For example, an ‘exit health examination’ focusing on
mental health indicators may promote sustainable health and
quality of life.675 676 This could be particularly important for
former elite athletes at risk for mental health disorders, espe-
cially those retiring from sport involuntarily. Additionally, thor-
ough preparation for post-sport life may help mitigate mental
health disorders during transition out of sport.668 Accordingly,
education programmes/seminars, practical resource centres,
and mental and life skills training for career transition could be
offered to elite athletes across their sport career.668 677 Finally,
clinicians can help athletes to become aware of, develop and use
transferable skills that may provide direction, meaning and moti-
vation in their post-sport life.660
Mental health emergencies
A mental health emergency refers to immediate risk in the
context of a disturbed mental state.678 679 Risks are typically to
the health and/or safety of the athlete or others.678 Data on prev-
alence in elite athletes are sparse. Some circumstances within
sport may carry an increased risk of mental health emergencies.
For example, deselection is linked to acute adverse emotional
reactions.680 Sporting injuries are associated with anger and
depression,681 which are in turn associated with an increased
suicide risk.682 Periods of injury may also necessitate time away
from sport and a further increased risk of suicide.683
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Consensus statement
Substances misused by elite athletes may also contribute to a
higher risk of mental health emergencies. Use of anabolic–an-
drogenic steroids is linked to hypomanic or psychotic symptoms,
aggression and even suicide.342 343 Longitudinal studies lend
support to these links,684 685 and symptoms are more likely with
the high doses and multiple agents misused by athletes.341 342
Symptoms can emerge rapidly,686 but may be self-limiting or
require only short term treatment.341 Current users may expe-
rience mood changes with suicidal thinking and impulsivity;
discontinuation leads some to descend into depression with
more planned suicidal ideation.687 Both scenarios carry signif-
icant risks, and death by suicide is 2–4 times greater in male
athletes who may have used anabolic–androgenic steroids
compared with the general population.591 Stimulant use may
lead to acute mood disturbance, aggression and psychosis.344 345
Marijuana and synthetic cannabinoids are associated with acute
psychosis,688 689 but there are no athlete specific data.
Athletes’ patterns of alcohol consumption tend more towards
binge drinking;444 thus acute intoxication may be a more likely
emergency presentation than physical dependence and/or with-
drawal. Retired athletes may also be at greater risk for mental
health emergencies associated with heavy alcohol use compared
with their non-sporting peers.690 Acute concerns in eating
disorders are often medical (eg, fracture risk, electrolyte abnor-
malities and electrocardiographic changes) and may be severe
enough to warrant deselection.274 286 If so, then there is a risk
of emotional decompensation, and urgent clinical evaluation
may be needed.691 Limited data suggest that borderline (along
with obsessive–compulsive) subtypes are the the most common
personality disorders found in sport.692 Borderline personality
disorder is associated with impulsivity, risk taking, frequent
suicidal behaviours, an unstable affect and interpersonal diffi-
culties.1 These features alone, or especially in combination, may
promote an emergency mental health presentation.
There is little to guide the choice of pharmacological treat-
ments for mental health emergencies in elite athletes.57 Benzo-
diazepines and/or antipsychotics by oral or parenteral routes are
all used to tranquillise a person with an acutely, severely and
dangerously disturbed mental state.679 693 Sports specific treat-
ment concerns include the performance impact of motor symp-
toms, weight gain or sedation,56 57 but these concerns may be less
relevant when only short term treatment is required.
When conducting an emergency mental health assessment,
the physical environment should be uncluttered and provide
both containment and escape routes.678 However, such envi-
ronments may be unavailable when assessing an athlete at a
training or competition venue.694 Although pathways and avail-
able personnel may differ from country to country,339 it is best
practice to develop and rehearse a mental health emergency
action management plan for all relevant sport stakeholders. This
plan should include clarity on what constitutes an emergency,
who should be contacted and when, and familiarity with local
emergency services and mental health legislation. Plans should
be consistent with other emergencies in sport, such as cardiac
arrest, heat illness and severe trauma. A review of procedures
after any incident can be very helpful.567
Creating an environment that supports mental well-being
and resilience
The diagnosis and management of mental health symptoms and
disorders is a separate but related continuum with athlete well-
being.695 696 Within sport, coaches are often the primary inter-
personal interface with the athlete. They can support diagnosis
and management of mental health symptoms and disorders by
creating a destigmatising environment wherein mental health
help seeking is a core function of training and self-care.697 698
Coaches can attend to athlete stressors that may diminish well-
being and predispose to mental health symptoms and disor-
ders, including training load and recovery,699 700 injury,22 322 700
burnout701 and retirement.241 Coaches can ensure that training
is age and developmentally appropriate.702–704 For younger elite
athletes, coaches can communicate the importance of mental
healthcare to parents, thereby managing expectations about
avoiding stressors and seeking care when appropriate.705
Coaches can foster positive psychosocial development and
well-being by helping athletes learn to respond to stressors in
healthy ways.698 706 707 This includes helping athletes learn skills
that promote resilience,708 psychological flexibility,709 self-com-
passion710 and adaptation to situational demands while staying
consistent with one’s values.709 In day to day training, coaches
can de-emphasise achievements and outcomes and instead foster
a process oriented mindset, in which effort and improvement are
emphasised.711 Such an approach may help mitigate performance
related anxiety712 and attrition from sport713 while optimising
the positive psychological experiences of sport participation.714
Organisations can support athlete mental health by
providing coaching education that is evidence based and effi-
cacious.622 698 715–719 Effective delivery of coaching education is
more likely if it falls within the framework of coaching duties and
expectations.705 Resource allocation, priorities and outcomes or
behaviours that are rewarded (well-being vs win–loss record)
show coaches whether mental health is viewed as an organisa-
tional priority. Intentional time allocation in the athlete’s normal
practice schedule for learning positive psychosocial skills is asso-
ciated with better developmental outcomes.720 Sport governing
bodies can further influence athlete mental health by requiring or
recommending that coaches undergo mental health training.291
Ultimately, sport can positively influence society to promote
well-being and de-stigmatise mental health help seeking.721
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: MENTAL HEALTH IN
PARALYMPIC ATHLETES
Paralympic sport is sport for people with disabilities. Paralympic
athletes use adapted equipment or rules to make sport acces-
sible to individuals with impairments. In general, sport is often
heralded for its ability to promote mental health, and there is a
largely unexamined assumption that participation in Paralympic
sport improves an athlete’s psychological well being.722 However,
research concerning the mental health of athletes with disabili-
ties is minimal.723
Rates of mental health symptoms and disorders, specifi-
cally depression, among the general population of people with
disabilities are reported to be higher than in non-disabled indi-
viduals.724 Nonetheless, a review of 12 studies of Olympic and
Paralympic athletes demonstrated that most indices of well-
being (eg, physical confidence, physical self-worth, self-regard,
self-actualisation, self-acceptance, confidence and self-efficacy)
were similar in the two groups.725 Emerging research suggests
that athletes making a Paralympic team may have lower rates of
depression and anxiety than those trying out for but not making
a Paralympic team.723 While eating disorders in Paralympic
athletes have received little research attention, those who restrict
their food intake may be at greater risk for complications from
low energy availability, especially low bone mineral density,
because of factors such as altered skeletal loading.280 Finally,
athletes with intellectual and physical impairments, as a subset
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Consensus statement
of Paralympic competitors, may have unique mental health chal-
lenges, but specific research is particularly sparse.724
Elite athletes with disability experience both sport specific
and disability specific stressors that may contribute to mental
health symptoms and disorders.724 Stressors that disproportion-
ately and commonly affect elite athletes with disabilities include:
chronic pain; overtraining and injury in often complex medical
situations (eg, with the need to distinguish sport fatigue, discom-
fort from the underlying disability and sport injuries); lack of
sufficient adaptive sport facilities; logistical difficulties in getting
to competition sites; challenging sleep conditions and inferior
sleep quality in Paralympic villages; recent rapid escalation of
Paralympic sport competitiveness and associated rapid increases
in training demands; malfunctioning sports equipment; costs
associated with new technology; negative coaching behaviours
(eg, demeaning comments); and being ‘misclassified’ or assigned
to the wrong disability category for competition.724 726–729
There is little published work on the management of psycho-
social stressors or mental health symptoms and disorders in
Paralympic athletes. Studies that exist usually had very small
sample sizes, did not use standardised measures of psycho-
pathology and relied on unsophisticated statistical analysis.
Some attention has been given to the use of psychological skills
training to promote peak performance by Paralympic athletes,
independent of a history of mental health disorders.724 Psycho-
logical skills training entails systematically training athletes to
use mental skills—such as regulating anxiety, sustaining moti-
vation, focusing attention and maintaining concentration—to
enhance sport performance.724 Addressing insufficient sleep may
be particularly relevant, as athletes with disabilities may be at
high risk for sleep disorders.730
Given the relative prominence of research regarding social
factors among athletes with disabilities, disability exclusion may
be an important issue when working with these athletes.731 For
example, Paralympic athletes may report feelings of power-
lessness and invisibility;732 accordingly, athletes with disabili-
ties benefit from coaches who are trained to be supportive of
athletes’ autonomy,733 734 and sport performance may improve
as a result.735 Additionally, as with non-disabled athletes, retire-
ment from sport is an important time of transition for Paralympic
athletes.724 Many Paralympians start their careers shortly after
the onset of disability.724 Consequently, with relatively short
lived professional sport careers, some face the challenge of
simultaneously needing to adjust to a relatively new disability
and preparing for retirement from sport; providers should be
aware of these dual transitions.723 724
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The current state of the science of mental health in elite athletes
suggests possible future direction for additional research, change
in clinical practice and optimisation of environmental factors.
These include:
1. The relative lack of access to mental health services in
some countries and cultures must be considered as research
is undertaken and clinical services developed. A rigorous,
evidence based approach to mental healthcare should
be utilised across countries, but nuanced approaches to
provision of that care might be needed, for example by
incorporating into the mental healthcare team people
such as athletic trainers, physical therapists, coaches and
others in the athlete’s entourage and community. If mental
healthcare for elite athletes is to be equitably available
globally, researchers and practitioners must engage with
any emerging evidence and lessons from the global mental
health field.
2. More thorough and reliable mental health epidemiology
in elite athletes is needed, with attention to cross cultural
differences in manifestations of symptoms and disorders.
There are particularly sparse data on bipolar and psychot-
ic disorders, mental health emergencies and athletes with
disabilities.
3. More robust data on pre-existing mental health symptoms
and disorders as risk factors for subsequent concussion, and
on mental health implications of sub-concussive impact, are
needed.
4. While future research should be clear about whether mental
health symptoms versus full disorders are being measured,
athletes with symptoms and not full disorders must remain
a focus of research attention, as symptoms themselves can
be problematic for elite athletes. Increased understanding
of risk factors for development of full disorders from earlier
symptomatic stages needs clarification within elite athletes.
5. More research on and subsequent recommendations for ex-
panded mental health screening of elite athletes is needed.
Screening is often an important step to ensure that more
affected elite athletes ultimately receive the treatment they
need. Timing of screening must be carefully considered,
given that risks, such as those that occur with injury, may
increase at various times throughout an elite athlete’s ca-
reer. There may be benefit from athlete specific screening
tools being developed across diagnostic categories where
they do not yet exist, taking into consideration potential
unique manifestations of these conditions in this population
while also appreciating the limitations to sole reliance on
rating scales in the absence of clinical interview. To be able
to develop optimal assessment methodologies and screening
tools, we need better understanding of the unique symptom
manifestations in athletes, which may require both quali-
tative and quantitative study across countries and cultures.
6. A better understanding of physiological recovery and opti-
mum readiness—including physical and psychological—to
return to play after an injury or illness must be developed.
The impact of sleep on recovery and on optimum readiness
must be considered in this context.
7. Additional research is needed on treatments, includ-
ing psychotherapy and pharmacological treatment, for
mental health symptoms and disorders in elite athletes.
Methodology should address the limitations that exist in
the pharmacologic research to date. Cross cultural consid-
erations include types of therapies and medications/sup-
plements disproportionately used in some countries and
cultures, but for which an evidence base may be relatively
lacking. Pharmacological intervention for post-concussion
mental health symptoms also needs further study, for ex-
ample addressing duration of recommended treatment for
apparent new onset depression and anxiety associated with
concussion.
8. Additional prevention strategies for mental health symp-
toms and disorders are needed. For example, comprehen-
sive strategies for preventing eating disorders and substance
use disorders, especially within high risk elite sports, are
needed. Furthermore, more widespread implementation
of prevention strategies for non-accidental violence in elite
sport is needed.
9. Strategies that more effectively overcome stigma for elite
athlete populations must be developed, such that members
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Consensus statement
of this population come to understand that the 'mental
toughness' required for success in sport is compatible with
mental health help seeking.
10. A better understanding of sport as a subculture within
society is needed, including which elements of that
subculture are particularly conducive to positive mental
health outcomes. While much of the research in this area
focuses on coaching interventions, roles for other members
of the athlete entourage, including parents and other
caregivers through their involvement in developmental
factors that may lead to ultimate positive adjustment
in elite sport, should be studied. Interventions need to
distinguish between impact on mental well-being, and on
actual mental health symptoms and disorders.
11. Olympic villages and similar areas should be designed and
assessed with sleep hygiene in mind.
12. Researchers need to better understand the societal and
sport specific impact of sport sponsorship by companies
that promote alcohol, tobacco and other products
associated with adverse mental health outcomes in elite
athletes.
13. Coaches, athletes and stakeholders should be empowered
with relevant information so that they recognise the
importance of creating an environment that supports
mental wellness and mental health help seeking.
CONCLUSION
The IOC has committed to improve the mental health of elite
athletes, recognising that doing so will reduce suffering and
improve quality of life in elite athletes and serve as a model for
society at large. The IOC hopes that all involved in sport will
increasingly recognise that mental health symptoms and disor-
ders should be viewed in a similar light as other medical illnesses
and musculoskeletal injuries; all can be severe and disabling, and
nearly all can be managed properly by well informed medical
providers, coaches and other stakeholders.
Mental health is an integral dimension of elite athlete well-
being and performance and cannot be separated from phys-
ical health. Mental health assessment and management in elite
athletes should be as commonplace and accessible as their other
medical care; ideally elite athletes should have access to the
best interdisciplinary care. To advance a more unified, evidence
informed approach to mental health assessment and manage-
ment in elite athletes, the IOC Consensus Group has critically
evaluated the current state of the science and practice of mental
health in elite athletes.
Author affiliations
1Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public
Health, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
2National Collegiate Athletic Association, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
3Department of Psychiatry, Samaritan Health Services, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
4Office of the President, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, California,
USA
5Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, George Washington University
School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
6Mohali, , India
7Medical and Scientific Department, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne,
Switzerland
8Sports Department, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, Switzerland
9Department of Neuroscience, Faculdade de Medicina do ABC, Santo Andre, Brazil
10Universidade de Sao Paulo Faculdade de Medicina Hospital das Clinicas Instituto
de Psiquiatria, Sao Paulo, Brazil
11Regional Affective Disorders Service, Northumberland Tyne and Wear NHS
Foundation Trust, Newcastle, UK
12Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, The University Of Sunderland,
Sunderland, UK
13International Centre for Youth Gambling Problems and High Risk Behaviors, McGill
University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
14Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of
Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
15Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth,
, UK
16Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam,
Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
17Amsterdam Collaboration on Health and Safety in Sports (ACHSS), AMC/VUmc IOC
Research Centre of Excellence, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
18Department of Psychiatry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
19Department of Psychiatry, Chung Ang University Hospital, Seoul, Republic of
Korea
20Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore,
Maryland, USA
21Department of Family Medicine-Sport, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada
22FINA Bureau Liaison to Sport Medicine, Lausanne, Switzerland
23Department of Psychiatry, Kocaeli University, Faculty of Medicine, Kocaeli, Turkey
24Kocaeli University, Community Mental Health Centre, Kocaeli, Turkey
25Research and Translation, Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth
Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
26Centre for Youth Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia
27Athletic Medicine, University Health Services, Princeton University, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA
28Department of Medicine, Rutgers-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New
Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
29Department of Research and Translation, Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence
in Youth Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
30Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia
31National Football League, New York, New York, USA
32Department of Neurological Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center,
Nashville, Tennessee, USA
33Athletic Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
34Department of Psychology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, , South Africa
35Social Sport, Zheng Zhou University, Zheng Zhou, , China
36Social Aesthetic and Mental Health Institute, Vienna Sigmund Freud University,
Vienna, Austria
37Orthopaedic Clinic, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
38Medical Sciences, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, Switzerland
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge Mary E Hitchcock, Senior
Academic Librarian, Ebling Library for the Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin-
Madison, for conducting systematic literature reviews for this manuscript; Sarah
E Watkins from Raccoona Editing and Laura Arnett, NCAA Sport Science Institute
Coordinator, for manuscript preparation; and Torbjorn Soligard, International Olympic
Committee Medical and Scientific Department, for participation in the consensus
meeting.
Contributors All authors meet criteria for authorship, as all have contributed in
the following ways: substantial contributions to the conception or design of the
work, or the acquisition, analysis or interpretation of the data; drafting the work or
revising it critically for important intellectual content; final approval of the version
published; and agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring
that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are
appropriately investigated and resolved. No one meeting the criteria for authorship
has been excluded from authorship.
Disclaimer This consensus paper provides an overview of mental health symptoms
and disorders in elite athletes that are important to physicians and other clinicians
who treat elite athletes. It is not intended as a clinical practice guideline or legal
standard of care and should not be interpreted as such. This consensus paper serves
as a guide and, as such, is of a general nature, consistent with the reasonable
practice of the healthcare professional. Individual treatment will depend on the facts
and circumstances specific to each individual case.
Competing interests None declared.
Patient consent for publication Not required.
Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.
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