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The Effects of Developmental Programming upon Neonatal Mortality

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Abstract

The greatest loss in ruminant production systems occurs during the neonatal period. The maternal environment (nutrition and physiologic status) influences neonatal mortality and morbidity as it reportedly affects (a) Dystocia, both via increasing birth weight and placental dysfunction; (b) Neonatal thermoregulation, both via altering the amount of brown adipose tissue and its ability to function via effects upon the hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis; (c) Modification of the developing immune system and its symbiotic nutrient sources; (d) Modification of maternal and neonatal behavior. Free manuscript available (until 4th July): https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749072019300027?dgcid=author

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... Poor maternal nutrition during gestation can alter nutrient delivery to the fetus, ultimately impairing prenatal growth and development (Caton and Hess, 2010;Meyer et al., 2012) as well as pre-weaning health and survival (Cooke, 2019;Perry et al., 2019). Survival through the neonatal period is one of the greatest challenges to beef calves, and it depends on a successful transition to extrauterine life (Danijela, 2015). ...
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Fall-calving primiparous beef females [body weight: 451 ± 28 (SD) kg; body condition score: 5.4 ± 0.7] were individually-fed either 100% (control; CON; n = 13) or 70% (nutrient restricted; NR; n = 13) of metabolizable energy and metabolizable protein requirements for maintenance, pregnancy, and growth from day 160 of gestation to parturition. Calves were reared naturally by their dams and monitored for latency times from birth to first sternal recumbency, attempt to stand, and stand; vigor scores were assigned at 2, 5, 10, and 20 min of age. Rectal temperatures and jugular blood were obtained at 0 (pre-suckling), 6, 12, 24, and 48 h of age, and blood chemistry, hematology, cortisol, and insulin were determined. Data were analyzed with fixed effects of late gestational nutritional plane (single data point) or nutritional plane, hour, and their interaction (data over time, repeated measures). Calving date was a fixed effect; calf sex was included when P < 0.25. We previously reported that late gestational nutritional plane did not affect gestation length or calf size at birth, but calving assistance and fetal malpresentations occurred more often in NR. Nutritional plane did not affect (P = 0.65) duration of parturition, but calves born to NR dams had slower times to attempt to stand (P = 0.09), slower times to stand (P = 0.02), and had poorer 20 min vigor scores (P = 0.05). Serum immunoglobulin G and A concentrations at 48 h were greater (P ≤ 0.03) for NR calves. Rectal temperature of NR calves was less (P = 0.02) at 0 h, but greater (P = 0.04) at 24 h compared with CON. Circulating glucose, non-esterified fatty acids, triglycerides, cortisol, and insulin were not affected by nutritional plane (P ≥ 0.18). Total protein and globulin from 6 to 48 h were greater (P ≤ 0.02) in NR calves. Calves from NR dams had greater (P < 0.08) gamma-glutamyl transferase at 6, 12, and 48 h. Serum aspartate aminotransferase was greater (P ≤ 0.07) from 0 to 24 h and creatine kinase was greater (P ≤ 0.04) from 6 to 24 h in NR calves. At 0 h, potassium was greater (P = 0.03) in NR calves. Calves born to CON had greater chloride (P = 0.08; main effect), sodium (P ≤ 0.09) from 0 to 48 h, and anion gap (P = 0.02) at 6 h. Hematocrit from 6 to 24 h and red blood cells and hemoglobin at 6 and 12 h were greater (P ≤ 0.09) in CON calves. These data indicate that nutrient restriction during late gestation resulted in less vigorous calves with more indicators of trauma in early life.
... Maternal factors may also influence the calf. The prenatal environment may influence factors such as birthweight, dystocia, immune function, and calf survival (24). Calves born to dams suffering from metabolic stress in late lactation have lower birthweights and an increased basal inflammatory response compared to calves born to dams experiencing a lower level of metabolic pressure (25). ...
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Technology-derived behaviors are researched for disease detection in artificially-reared calves. Whilst existing studies demonstrate differences in behaviors between healthy and diseased calves, intrinsic calf factors (e.g., sex and birthweight) that may affect these behaviors have received little systematic study. This study aimed to understand the impact of a range of calf factors on milk feeding and activity variables of dairy-bred calves. Calves were group-housed from ~7 days to 39 days of age. Seven liters of milk replacer was available daily from an automatic milk feeder, which recorded feeding behaviors and live-weight. Calves were health scored daily and a tri-axial accelerometer used to record activity variables. Healthy calves were selected by excluding data collected 3 days either side of a poor health score or a treatment event. Thirty-one calves with 10 days each were analyzed. Mixed models were used to identify which of live-weight, age, sex, season of birth, age of inclusion into the group, dam parity, birthweight, and sire breed type (beef or dairy), had a significant influence on milk feeding and activity variables. Heavier calves visited the milk machine more frequently for shorter visits, drank faster and were more likely to drink their daily milk allowance than lighter calves. Older calves had a shorter mean standing bout length and were less active than younger calves. Calves born in summer had a longer daily lying time, performed more lying and standing bouts/day and had shorter mean standing bouts than those born in autumn or winter. Male calves had a longer mean lying bout length, drank more slowly and were less likely to consume their daily milk allowance than their female counterparts. Calves that were born heavier had fewer lying and standing bouts each day, a longer mean standing bout length and drank less milk per visit. Beef-sired calves had a longer mean lying bout length and drank more slowly than their dairy sired counterparts. Intrinsic calf factors influence different healthy calf behaviors in different ways. These factors must be considered in the design of research studies and the field application of behavior-based disease detection tools in artificially reared calves.
... The impact of bovine maternal nutrient status during gestation on offspring health and performance is well documented (Corah et al., 1975;Greenwood and Cafe, 2007;Larson et al., 2009;Long et al., 2010). Maternal nutrient restriction during late gestation has been associated with lower birth weights and decreased survival rates of calves (LeMaster et al., 2017;Perry et al., 2019). Despite conflicting reports of compensatory preweaning growth in calves that were severely nutrient restricted in utero (Greenwood and Cafe, 2007;Loṕez Valiente et al., 2022), nutritional supplementation of dams during late gestation has been demonstrated to increase weaning weights in both steer and heifer calves (Funston et al., 2010). ...
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Winter supplementation of gestating beef cows is often necessary to ensure energy and protein requirements remain satisfied. However, it is difficult to prevent over- or under-consumption by individual animals fed in a group. The objective of this study was to evaluate the intake limiting effects of 3 levels of tea saponin (TS) on pelleted feed consumption when compared with a TS-free control treatment. Commercial beef cows in late gestation (n = 24) were allocated to 1 of 4 treatments delivered via a pelleted feed supplement: 0% (A), 0.16% (B), 0.32% (C), or 0.64% (D) TS on a dry matter basis. Cows were assigned so that initial mean body weights and body condition scores were similar among treatment groups. Supplement was delivered once daily via Calan gates at a rate of 2.5% of BW for 42 days. Refusals were collected daily to calculate intake. Treatment differences were observed for pellet DMI, cow BW, and cow BCS ( P < 0.0001). Cow hay intake, calf birth weight, and calf weaning weight were unaffected by treatment ( P > 0.05). Dry matter intake of pellets as a percent of BW (DMIBW) was significantly different for all treatments ( P < 0.0001) with intake declining as TS content increased. Considerable variability in DMIBW of all treatments was observed from day 0 to 15 but intakes plateaued between 1.75 and 2.5% DMIBW for the remainder of the trial with Treatment D intake remaining noticeably lower than the other treatments. Treatment D was found to be successful at limiting pellet intake to an average DMIBW of 1.51%. This study concluded that short-term pellet intake can be limited by inclusion of TS, highlighting it as a potential intake limiter product for beef cattle producers.
... Although there was no early calf morbidity and mortality for calves in the current dataset, this would be unlikely in a less intensive management system, as collection of research data ensured nearly continuous monitoring of calves. Calves born to first-parity heifers have greater death losses pre-weaning (Patterson et al., 1987;Berger et al., 1992;Nix et al., 1998), and intrauterine growth restriction likely contributes to the increased pre-weaning mortality of calves born to primiparous dams, as development or maturity at birth may be impaired (Perry et al., 2019). Further research is necessary to determine if first-parity beef heifers are able to partition nutrients adequately during pregnancy to allow for fetal growth to meet calves' genetic potential and improve calf survival. ...
Article
To determine effects of dam parity on perinatal nutrient availability in beef cattle, data and samples were collected from 18 primiparous and 35 multiparous spring-calving Sim-Angus dams and their calves. Time to stand was recorded and neonatal vigor assessed. Jugular blood was collected from a subset of calves at 0 (post-standing and pre-suckling) 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h of age, and blood chemistry panels were completed. Expelled placentas were dissected, dried, and weighed. Prepartum maternal circulating glucose, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), triglycerides, and urea N were analyzed. All statistical models included the fixed effect of dam parity, and calf sex (when P ≤ 0.25) was included for calf and placental variables. Effects of sampling hour, and parity × hour were included for calf metabolites over time using repeated measures. Multiparous dams had greater body weight prepartum (P < 0.001) but similar (P = 0.25) body condition score. Maternal circulating urea N and triglycerides were greater (P ≤ 0.05) in multiparous dams pre-calving. Calves born to primiparous dams weighed 10% less (P ≤ 0.04) at birth with smaller (P ≤ 0.01) heart and abdominal girths. Cotyledonary, intercotyledonary, and total placental masses were less (P ≤ 0.05) for primiparous dams. Dam parity did not affect (P ≥ 0.58) calf time to stand, vigor score at 10 min, or rectal temperature. Serum glucose was greater (P = 0.03) at 0 h but less (P ≤ 0.04) at all other hours in calves from primiparous dams. Calves from primiparous dams had greater (P ≤ 0.02) serum NEFA at 6, 12, and 24 h although plasma triglycerides were greater (P < 0.001) at 6 h. Calves from primiparous dams had greater (P ≤ 0.04) serum urea N at 12 h and creatinine at 12 and 24 h. Plasma insulin was greater (P ≤ 0.04) in calves from multiparous dams at 12, 48, and 72 h, but parity did not affect (P ≥ 0.18) serum total protein or plasma cortisol. Serum aspartate aminotransferase was greater (P ≤ 0.04) at 6 and 24 h, creatine kinase was greater at 24 h, and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase was less (P ≤ 0.04) at 6, 12, and 24 h, for calves from primiparous dams. Calves born to primiparous dams had greater (P ≤ 0.02) total bilirubin and direct bilirubin at 12 and 24 h. Data indicate that calves born to first-parity heifers had decreased perinatal nutrient availability, resulting in reduced fetal and placental growth, as well as greater energy reserve mobilization and metabolic indicators of stress as neonates.
... For example, our current knowledge indicates that foetal programming and calfhood performance (e.g. Hayes et al., 2021) have significant impacts on lifetime productivity (Berry et al., 2008), reproductive performance (Cushman & Perry, 2019), health (Perry et al., 2019) and longevity (Berry et al., 2008). Sixty years ago, perinatal health research was confined to effects in humans, for example, the Barker hypothesis (Barker et al., 1989). ...
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This review addresses the progress that has been made in ruminant health research over the last 60 yr, with an emphasis on Irish research. The review focuses on the economically important infectious diseases of dairy and beef cattle and of sheep, calf diseases, regulated and non-regulated infectious diseases, lameness, mastitis and parasitoses. The progress to date, current knowledge and future challenges are all addressed. Paradigm shifts have occurred in many of these diseases, the most profound of which is the change from increasing antimicrobial usage (AMU) to the realisation of the challenge of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and the current reduction in AMU. Another major change in thinking is the move away from focus on the pathogen exclusively towards a more holistic view of the roles of host immunity and adequacy of management. In the last 60 yr, many new diseases have emerged but in parallel many new technologies have rapidly evolved to monitor and control these threats to animal health. Irish research has contributed substantially to improved current ruminant health. The major future challenge is how to manage ruminant health in a OneHealth world where animal, human and environmental health and sustainability are intimately intertwined and interdependent.
... Специфіка нервової системи у них сприяє підвищенню частоти дихання і посиленню серцево-судинної діяльності, а енергетичний обмін переважає над пластичним (Wang et al., 2019). У тварин травного типу відповідно менше забезпечення кисню на 1 кг живої маси, обмін речовин повільніший, за нервовою діяльністю тварини флегматичніші, що спрямовано на відкладання речовин про запас (жири, білки, вуглеводи), в їх організмі більше виражений пластичний обмін (Perry et al., 2019;Hales & Old, 2019). ...
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Presented study results of the influence of constitution types on economically useful traits of highly productive Swiss breed. The experimental animals were divided into three groups according to the standard deviation of 0.67 from the average value of the volume-to-weight coefficient (VWC) for the studied group of same-aged animals at the calving. To the low-volume type with VWC value of less than 0.46 l/kg 16 cows were allocated, to the medium-volume type with VWC of 0.46 to 0.56 l/kg – 44 cows respectively, and to the large-volume type with VWC value, which amounted to 0.57 l/kg or more – 19 cows. Since the difference in animals’ bodyweight of all groups was within 3%, which is a characteristic of matched pairs design, in cows with the constitution of large and medium volume type per kg of their body weight, there was a greater ratio of the thorax which is characterizing volume-to-weight coefficient value. Experimental cows by the main measurements of the exterior were characterized by good development. However, animals of the high and mid-volume type of constitution had deep and wide chests, with a larger chest cross-sectional area behind the shoulder blades and behind the last rib, and a larger conditional volume of the whole thorax. The skin on the neck and the last rib turned out to be the most informative for the definition of the body types features. The cows of those constitution types had thinner skin on the neck by 0.4 (P > 0.95) and 0.3 cm (approximately P > 0.95), and at the level of the last rib by0.3 (approximately P > 0 95) and 0.5 cm (P > 0.95) compared to the low volume type of constitution. According to body indices, cows of all body types had a pronounced and consolidated dairy type. This was evidenced by the low value of the variability coefficient of the exterior indices in the range of 2.2–6.9%. Compared to cows of low volume type, a statistically significant difference was found in favor of cows with the high and medium-volume type of the constitution by chest width index, respectively, by 1.9% (P > 0.999) and 1.8% (P > 0.999) and backside index, respectively: 2,4%(P > 0.99) and 1.0% (P > 0.95). No correlation was found between the cows’ behaviour and their type of constitution. It has been established that cows’ milk productivity depends on the development of the thorax as a whole and the value of the volume-to-weight coefficient in particular. High and medium-volume type cows for 305 days of the first lactation had higher milk yields by 1 314 kg (P > 0.95), milk fat yield – by 41.6 kg (P > 0.95), and milk protein yield – by 40.8 kg (P > 0.95). There was a similar difference for the second lactation.
... The poor intrauterine environment caused by GDM and preeclampsia induces changes in fetal DNA methylation patterns related to fat synthesis, leading to abnormal NBW [8]. Dyslipidemia is an important risk factor affecting the growth and development of the fetus and may also be the critical pathogenesis of GDM with co-existent preeclampsia (GCP) [9,10]. ...
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IntroductionWomen with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) with co-existent preeclampsia (GCP) are at increased risk of giving birth to a baby with an abnormal birth weight. We have analyzed the risk factors for abnormal newborn birth weight (NBW) in women with co-presence of GDM and GCP, focusing on maternal glucose/lipid metabolism, with the aim to optimize the clinical intervention strategy.Methods The clinical data of 248 pregnant women with GCP and their infants were retrospectively analyzed through a comprehensive review of the electronic medical records of Women and Children’s Hospital, Xiamen University (Xiamen, China). These women had received prenatal care and had their baby delivered in the hospital between January 2016 and November 2018. Major characteristics assessed were large for gestational age (LGA), small for gestational age (SGA), severe preeclampsia (S-PE), and maternal plasma glucose/lipid profile in late pregnancy. Secondary characteristics were maternal age, height, body mass index (BMI), gestational weight gain (GWG), abortion history, education level, primipara or not, preterm or not, and fetal gender. Regression analysis was used to analyze the association between maternal glucose/lipid metabolism parameters and LGA or SGA.ResultsThere was no difference in the ratio of advanced maternal age, primipara, abortion history, preterm delivery, and newborn sex between the control group and the LGA or SGA group. Logistic regression analysis, with such factors as maternal stature, BMI, among others, was applied. Multivariate analysis of SGA infants revealed the following associations: S-PE (odds ratio [OR] 3.226, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.385–7.515; adjusted OR [AOR] 3.675, 95% CI 1.467–9.207; p < 0.05); high levels of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c > 6.5%) (OR 0.436, 95% CI 0.187–1.017; AOR 0.459, 95% CI 0.179–1.173; p > 0.05); low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C < 1.0 mmol/L) (OR 0.625, 95% CI 0.287–1.361; AOR 0.637, 95% CI 0.267–1.520; p > 0.05). Multivariate analysis of LGA revealed the following associations: S-PE (OR 30.885, 95% CI 0.398–2.013; AOR 0.974, 95% CI 0.400–2.371; p > 0.05); high levels of HbA1c (OR 4.542, 95% CI 0.187–11.824; AOR 3.997, 95% CI 1.452–10.998; p < 0.05); low levels of HDL (OR 3.393, 95% CI 1.362–8.453; AOR 2.900, 95% CI 1.100–7.647; p < 0.05).Conclusions The results of our analysis revealed that severity of preeclampsia was associated with SGA. The high HbA1c and low HDL-C values found in our analysis were independent risk factors for LGA in women with GCP, while other lipoproteins were not associated with abnormal NBW. These findings suggest that there are differences in the effects of various maternal lipid parameters on NBW.
Chapter
The objective was to analyze the nature of developmental programming, the characteristics of some assisted reproductive technologies, and the importance of their relationship on the expression of important productive traits in the resultant offspring in cattle. Developmental programming refers to the phenomenon by which organisms during gestation are prepared to have a phenotype that fits better to the environment present once they are born. However, cattle are commonly exposed to conditions like undernutrition or heat stress that might program a phenotype in the opposite direction according to common objectives of productive systems like greater beef or milk production per animal unit. Mechanisms for developmental programming involve changes in epigenetic marks like DNA methylation, which regulates chromatin accessibility, gene expression, and consequently, organisms’ physical and physiological status. Embryos experience extensive changes in epigenetics marks and, therefore, are highly susceptible to developmental programming. Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) are valuable tools for genetic improvement programs in cattle and normally involve the manipulation of gametes and embryos under non-natural environmental conditions. Therefore, animals derived from ART might express undesirable phenotypes like a reduction in their productivity. However, recent studies suggest that productive traits might also be positively programmed in ART-derived embryos if appropriate conditions or signals are provided.
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To determine the effect of calving season on perinatal nutrient availability and neonatal beef calf vigor, data were collected from 4 spring- (average calving date: February 14; n = 203 total) and 4 fall- (average calving date: September 20; n = 179 total) calving experiments. Time to stand was determined as minutes from birth to standing for 5 sec. After birth, calf weight and size (length, heart and abdominal girth, and cannon circumference) were recorded. Jugular blood samples and rectal temperatures were obtained at 0, 6, 12, and 24 h postnatally in 6 experiments and at 48 h postnatally in Exp. 2 to 8. Data were analyzed with fixed effects of season (single point) or season, hour, and their interaction (over time, using repeated measures). Experiment was a random effect; calf sex was included when P ≤ 0.25. Within calving season, correlations were determined between calf size, vigor, and 48-h serum total protein. Fall-born calves tended to have lighter (P = 0.09) birth weight and faster (P = 0.05) time to stand than spring-born calves. Season did not affect (P ≥ 0.18) gestation length, other calf size measures, or 48-h serum total protein. Fall-born calves had greater (P ≤ 0.003) rectal temperature at 0, 24, and 48 h postnatal. Spring-born calves had greater (P ≤ 0.009) circulating glucose at 0 h, serum non-esterified fatty acids at 0 and 6 hand plasma triglycerides at 0, 6, 12, and 48 h. Fall-born calves had greater (P ≤ 0.03) sodium from 6 to 48 h and magnesium from 0 to 24 h of age. Phosphorus was greater (P ≤ 0.02) at 6 and 12 h of age in spring-born calves. Spring-born calves had greater (P ≤ 0.04) aspartate aminotransferase at 12 and 24 h and creatine kinase at 0 and 12 h of age. Fall-born calves had greater (P ≤ 0.03) albumin, calcium, and chloride, had lower (P ≤ 0.03) bicarbonate and direct bilirubin, and tended to have greater (P = 0.10) anion gap (all main effects of calving season). Calf birth weight had a weak positive relationship (P ≤ 0.03) with 48-h serum total protein and time to stand in fall-born, but not spring-born, calves. Overall, fetal growth was restricted and neonatal dehydration was increased by warm conditions for fall-born calves, but vigor and metabolism were negatively affected by cold conditions in spring-born calves. These data suggest that calving season influences perinatal nutrient availability, which may impact the transition of beef calves to postnatal life.
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Our objectives were to determine the effects of dam body condition score (BCS), age of dam, and calf sex on placental size and the relationships between dam body weight (BW) and calf size with placental size. Expelled placentas and calf size at birth were collected from crossbred beef heifers and cows during four experiments (n = 22 to 39/experiment). Placentas deemed complete by visual inspection were dissected; dry weights were determined for cotyledonary and intercotyledonary tissues. Mixed linear models were used to individually determine main effects of peripartum BCS category [Thin (<5), Moderate (=5), or Fleshy (≥6)], age of dam category [Primiparous (2 yr), Young (3–4 yr), or Mature (≥5 yr)], and calf sex on placental measures. Correlations were determined for placental characteristics with prepartum dam BW, gestation length, and calf size. Thin BCS dams had lower (P ≤ 0.05) cotyledonary, total placental, and average cotyledon weights and greater placental efficiency (calf birth BW/placental weight) than moderate and fleshy dams. Intercotyledonary weight was lower (P ≤ 0.01) in thin BCS dams compared with fleshy dams. Thin and moderate BCS dams had smaller (P ≤ 0.04) calf birth BW than fleshy dams. Primiparous dams had lower (P ≤ 0.05) total placental and average cotyledon weights than young and mature dams, yet calf birth BW was unaffected (P = 0.17). Male calves were heavier (P = 0.01) than females, yet there were no differences (P ≥ 0.59) in placental weights. Calf birth BW and heart girth had moderate positive correlations (P < 0.01) and shoulder to rump length and abdominal girth had weak positive correlations (P < 0.01) with all placental weights. Dam prepartum BW and calf flank girth had moderate positive correlations (P < 0.01) with total placental weights and weak positive correlations (P < 0.01) with cotyledonary and average cotyledon weights. Intercotyledonary weight had moderate positive correlations (P < 0.01) with gestation length and calf flank girth and a weak positive correlation (P < 0.01) with dam prepartum BW. Gestation length had a weak positive correlation (P = 0.02) with total placental weight. Number of cotyledons was not correlated (P > 0.28) with any dam or offspring characteristics. In conclusion, these data suggest that both maternal age and BCS affected placental size. Calf size at birth and placental weight were positively correlated, but it is still unknown which controls and signals for the growth of the other.
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This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to summarize the effects of maternal under or overnutrition during pregnancy on fetal weight and morphometric measurements during pregnancy, at birth and postnatal period in sheep. After completing the search, selection and data extraction steps, the measure of effect was generated by the individual comparison of each indicator with the average of the control and treated group (undernutrition or overnutrition) using the DerSimonian and Laird method for random effects. Subgroup analyses were also performed for lambing order, litter size, sex, as well as level, timing and duration of the intervention. Fetal weight during the first third of pregnancy was not affected by maternal under or overnutrition. On the other hand, undernutrition in the second and last third of gestation reduces the weight of the lamb both during pregnancy, at birth and during the postnatal period, requiring at least 120 postnatal days to achieve the same weight as its contemporaries in the control treatment. However, this reduction in weight is not accompanied by reductions in morphometric measurements, demonstrating that the animals were lighter, but of equal size. In overnutrition, there is an increase in fetal weight in the second third of gestation. However, in the last third of the gestational period, there are no differences in fetal weight for the multiparous subgroup, but it was reduced in primiparous ewes. There are no effects of overnutrition on birth weight, however, this result is highly heterogeneous. Thus, maternal nutrition of ewe during pregnancy has effects on fetal and postnatal weight, but not on size. Furthermore, the effects of undernutrition are more homogeneous while overnutrition showed heterogeneous responses.
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