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Public Managers: Their Behavior, their Change Potential and the Behavior of Women and Men in Public Organizations
Abstract
This survey article addresses three questions based on the assumption that significant differences exist between public and private organizations. If this assumption is correct managerial and leadership behavior will differ between public and private managers. Additionally, the propensity to change will also differ between public and private managers. Since a number of studies indicate that managers’ leadership behavior in public organizations differ from that of private managers, difference and similarities in leadership behavior between women and men in public organizations are examined. Three studies are presented here which show that public and private managers have different behavioral patterns of leadership. However, public managers turn out to be more change- oriented than business managers. In the public organizations investigated no differences in leadership behavior between women and men were found.
... Lee and Xia (2006) conducted a meta-analysis of 54 correlations that confirmed a positive relationship between organizational size and innovation adoption; however, it was moderated by the type of organization, stage of adoption, scope, and type of size measure. Similarly, studies have established the difference between public and private firms in terms of their change-oriented behaviors (Andersen, 2012). Congruently, a few sectors (e.g., industrial manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, computer and electronics, mining, construction) are reported to be more innovative and have a high impact on organizational competitiveness compared to the least innovative sectors (e.g., transportation and storage; PricewaterhouseCooper, 2013). ...
The current study attempted to determine if workforce diversity (inherent or acquired) and its inclusion practices (implementing fairness, belongingness, uniqueness, and diverse workplace climate) contribute to the innovativeness of the organizational climate. It also considered whether organizational characteristics (i.e., type, size, and industry) encourage or moderate innovation in work settings. The self-administered survey was adopted to collect responses from the employees working in different types and sizes of the organizations across the industries in the United Arab Emirates. The responses from five hundred and eleven (511) participants were analyzed using partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The formative and reflective measurement models and structural paths were estimated for quality checks and hypotheses testing, respectively, using Smart PLS-3. The findings confirmed that diversity and inclusion practices in the workplace significantly contribute to its innovative climate. The f ² effect size demonstrated a stronger impact of organizational inclusion practices compared to its diversity in engaging innovation and change at the workplace. Moreover, large size organizations were more engaged in innovative activities compared to small size firms. The findings have implications for policy setters in the governmental bodies and practitioners across industries in multicultural regions, promoting culture of innovation.
... 12) says that: "Norwegian managers tend to have an informal, inclusive, supportive and non-authoritarian leadership style." This claim is somewhat imprecise as Scandinavian business managers are more relationships-oriented than public managers, however, more change-oriented (Andersen, 2012b). Throughout the document the term leader "role" is found. ...
strengthen leadership practices in the public sector. The policy documents ”Code for Chief Executive Excellence” (Denmark) and ”Leadership in Norway’s Civil Service” pertain to how the public sector ought to be managed. This article addresses two problems concerning these documents. To what degree does New Public Management (NPM) influence them? To what degree does management and leadership theory and research support the principles proposed by these documents? This article concludes that NPM has had a significant impact on public management in the Scandinavian countries. The policy documents are based on leadership research and are in accordance with mainstream management theory. The idea of formulating a principle of management that would characterize the classical contributions is also evident in these documents.
This study assessed workforce diversity and its effect on organizational culture at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co-operation in Lusaka. The specific objectives were: to identify the existing workforce diversity traits at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co-operation in Lusaka; to determine the relationship between workforce diversity and organizational culture practices in Lusaka, and to examine the effect of workforce diversity on organisational culture in public institutions through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co-operation in Lusaka. Employing a mixed-method design, the research involved a sample of 50 respondents for a quantitative aspect while saturation method was for a qualitative design. Questionnaires were used for quantitative data while interviews were used for qualitative data. Purposive and random sampling techniques were used as sampling techniques. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and qualitative responses were thematically analyzed to capture comprehensive insights. The findings reveal that the ministry’s workforce is diverse in terms of gender, age, educational qualifications, and management levels. Quantitative results indicate that 70% of respondents are male, with the predominant age group being 41-50- years (40%), and 44% of the staff holding a graduate degree. Qualitative feedback further indicates that this diversity contributes positively to creativity, innovation and problem-solving within the organization. However, some challenges were identified, including communication gaps and inconsistencies in managing diverse teams, which could hinder the full potential of a diverse workforce in terms of performance and productivity. The study concludes that (1) the ministry exhibits significant workforce diversity that requires systematic monitoring;(2) there is a positive relationship between workforce diversity and effective organizational culture practices; and (3) well-managed diversity enhances overall organizational performance. Based on these conclusions, it is recommended that the ministry establishes a centralized system for monitoring diversity metrics, implement regular diversity training and team-building initiatives to foster inclusivity, and develop robust diversity management policies to ensure equitable treatment and leverage diverse perspectives.
Diversity is the mix of people whereas inclusion is the culture in which the mix of people can come to work, feel comfortable and confident to be themselves, and work in a way that suits them and delivers your business or service needs. Inclusion will ensure that everyone feels valued and importantly, adds value. Diversity and inclusion allows organizations to be more inclusive of different ideas, cultures, and lifestyles, leading to improved company culture. In this research article the researcher focused on the factors which are significantly impact on performance of employees in ITES Industry. During the research study the researcher collected 400 data sample through the structured questionnaires and compiled by SPSS software at 0.05 significant levels. The researcher emphasized that that the attributes of diversity and inclusion at workplace such as Diverse Skill Sets, Cultural Awareness, Equal Opportunities, Inclusive Leadership, Flexible Work Policies, Training and Education have a significant impact on employee’s performance in ITES Industry. As the statistical analysis the researcher found that 91.1% respondents are in favour of attributes with respect to diversity and inclusion at workplace have a significant impact on employee’s performance whereas 4.6% does not believe in diversity and inclusion at workplace.
In an age of globalization, increased importance is given to the study of public leadership. Present-day leadership cannot afford to limit its actions within the limits of the sovereign territory of one nation. Modern leaders need to think globally in terms of any public policy, which is interconnected with the world at large. The tasks of public leadership have become complicated through the involvement of formal and informal actors, both domestic and international. In a globalized world, leaders find themselves limited by international financial organizations. Even within the country, the leaders find themselves limited by the civil society from different countries but united in a mission. Furthermore, the issues are complex and the solutions require actions which are conditioned by factors beyond their control. Despite the constraints, the leaders are crucial for the overall welfare of countries. Khan analyzes various leadership theories and the challenges of organization culture, crises, ethics, bureaucratic politics and contracting.
Innovation plays a very important role in the private sector in terms of competitiveness, and is the key to success for private businesses, helping to cut costs, improve products and open new markets. Nowadays, innovation is gaining in importance in the public sector as well, as it can improve the quality of service delivery as well as reduce costs. Innovation is an important driver of economic progress and competitiveness in all economies. Collaboration between public and private entities creates better and more effective public and private services and products. Collaboration enables the participants to exchange and share knowledge, experiences, know-how and expertise. Collaboration helps to bring a broader set of skills and talents and a more responsive work culture into public sector organisations, along with innovative thinking and creativity; it also helps private companies to innovate more effectively and to achieve their concrete goals in a more efficient way. The objective of this paper is to outline the differences and similarities between private and public sector innovation in terms of definition, driving factors, barriers and measurement; the paper also aims to examine the importance of cross-sector collaboration for private and public sector innovation, and demonstrate that collaboration can improve innovation.
Research comparing public and private organizations and examining the publicness of organizations represents a substantial and growing body of empirical evidence, relevant to many international issues in political economy and organization theory such as the privatization of public services. This article assesses several major streams in this research over the last two decades, which in some ways refute widely held a priori assumptions about similarities and differences between public and private organizations but which in some ways support such assumptions. The review covers research on goal complexity and ambiguity, organizational structure, personnel and purchasing processes, and work-related attitudes and values. The research results converge in important ways, but they also present anomalies. For example, in spite of virtually universal agreement among scholars that public organizations have more goal complexity and ambiguity, public managers do not differ from business managers in response to survey questions about such matters. Public managers do not differ from business managers on perceptions about organizational formalization, in spite of a chorus of assertions that government agencies have more red tape and rules than private firms have. Public managers do, however, show very sharp differences in response to questions about constraints under personnel and purchasing rules. The article concludes with an assessment of the credibility of these streams of research through consideration of alternative plausible hypotheses.
Scholars have devoted increasing attention to similarities and differences between public and private organizations. This paper critiques the comparative literature on these organizations in order to assess the usefulness of the public-private distinction in organization theory and concludes that further analysis of this distinction is valuable. Several avenues for improving research are suggested, including clarification of the categories through an extension of previous conceptions, and assessment of a proposed typology of subcategories across the public-private continuum.
Do managers in government perceive higher levels of red tape in their organizations than managers in industry? Most people would think so, but organizational researchers have often found that government organizations do not necessarily have higher levels of rule intensity than business firms. If there are higher levels in government, what explains their existence? Hal Rainey, Sanjay Pandey, and Barry Bozeman report on a survey of public and private managers' perceptions of red tape that supports some common assertions about red tape in government but that contrasts sharply with other assertions. The public and private managers differed little on general questions about rule enforcement Yet the public managers were much more likely than private managers to report that rules constrain the relation between managers performance and their pay and promotion. The authors assess several explanations of whether and why public managers may create red tape, including a goal ambiguity hypothesis, an insecurity hypothesis, and an expectancy hypothesis. The results show some support for the latter two hypotheses. The results also support the goal ambiguity hypothesis, but among both the public and private managers. The authors ultimately conclude that external rules and laws concerning such functions as personnel and procurement are the mast important sources of red tape in government. The authors call for more systematic analysis of red tape, including the use of methods such as those reported here, in support of current reform efforts aimed at reducing red tape.
The growing impact of women in the workforce has kept the leadership style of women on the research agenda. Reviews some of the current thinking on women and leadership, drawing on general and educational management literature. Particular attention is paid to management in education because of: the continued pressure on the higher educational sector generally to be publicly accountable that indicates a specific need for effective leadership; the fact that at the school level, leadership is a central theme in the literature on organizational improvement and educational reform; and education is a field numerically dominated by women, yet despite some evidence of a growing willingness of women to take up leadership positions in the field, educational leadership is still a male preserve. Concludes with a synopsis of some of the factors that may account for differences in leadership style.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to review the extant literature on the ways women lead in organizations with a focus on the fields of business and education. A secondary purpose is to identify implications of the literature for leadership and gender issues in the worlds of business and education.
Design/methodology/approach
– A review of the extant literature was conducted to collect data through professional and academic journals of business and education, pertinent web sites, and textbooks. Once these data were collected, they were placed in categories according to common themes and patterns that emerged from the literature on the leadership styles of women in business and education.
Findings
– Research findings show that women adopt democratic and participative leadership styles in the corporate world and in education. Transformational leadership is the preferred leadership style used by women. The characteristics of transformational leadership relate to female values developed through socialization processes that include building relationships, communication, consensus building, power as influence, and working together for a common purpose.
Originality/value
– This paper provides a theoretical perspective on women's leadership behaviours as an approach to equity in organizations by capitalizing on female contributions to organizations and the importance of those contributions in an increasingly diverse workforce world‐wide. Women leadership styles are presented as alternatives to traditional leadership models.
This article reviews the mainstream leadership literature and its perennial debates and compares it to the public-sector (administrative) leadership literature. The mainstream leadership literature fully articulated the transformational models in the 1980s and began the serious work of integrating transactional and transformational types of leadership into comprehensive models in the 1990s. Many have considered this to be a major advance over the field's previous fragmentation and excessively narrow focus. This integration has not been reflected in the public-sector literature, in which the normative debates about what leaders should do has received most of the attention in the last decade. Although many types of leadership in the public sector have been discussed extensively, such as leadership by those in policy positions and working in community settings, administrative leadership within organizations has received scant attention and would benefit from a research agenda linking explicit and well-articulated models with concrete data in public-sector settings.
The possibilities for Church of Sweden vicars to manage their parishes in change were explored in 2000. The results indicated that vicars had a low capacity for initiating and implementing organizational change. The aim of this investigation is to assess whether vicars have a managerial style that differ from other groups of civil servants. Using tested instruments, 240 Swedish vicars (response rate 64%), 300 school principals (66%) and 64 social insurance officers (95%) were asked about their leadership style, decision-making style, motivation profile and perceived operational demands. The vicars stand out as a special group of managers with a strong relationshiporientation.
Headmasters and social officers are similar to each other in behaviour. The results are explained by that pastoral work is founded on relations, the pastoral training of the vicars and the
«weight of history». A contributory cause may be that many priests are perceived as having a «helping approach» to leadership.
The relationship between race role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics was studied. A group of 232 graduating MBA students completed the Schein Descriptive Index (Schein, 1973). The group of "future managers" saw little difference between whites and Hispanics. They did perceive that Hispanic managers were different from Hispanics in general. While males saw no difference among the four groups studied, females perceived Hispanic managers significantly more similar to managers in general than did males. Implications for both aspiring Hispanic managers and organizations desiring diversity are discussed.
Public administration is a political institution. This article elaborates on this essential fact of politics and government and explores its implications for public management. It shows how this fact leads to the central problem of administration and management. It considers the normative demands this fact places on political leaders. Finally, the article calls for a conception of public management grounded in regime politics and considers the educational requirements and leadership standards that follow from it.
This comparison of middle managers in business and in the Federal government on measures of their motivation to achieve, to affiliate with others, and to seek power leads the author to the conclusion that the academic and popular images of the modern civil servant show some serious distortions.
Surprisingly little research has been reported on what is frequently asserted to be a serious personnel problem in government-the harmful impact of civil service systems upon incentives and motivation. This study reports a comparison of questionnaire responses by government and business managers which indicates that the government managers: 1) perceive a weaker relationship between their performance and such incentives as pay, promotion, and job security, 2) feel that the formal personnel procedures governing their organizations provide much less flexibility in administration of such incentives (for example, they are much more likely to feel that it is difficult to fire a manager who is a poor performer), 3) score lower on scales of satisfaction with promotion and satisfaction with co-workers. Implications for civil service reform, for further research, and for theory are discussed.
Qualities that are culturally associated with females are appearing in descriptions of managerial work in the texts of contemporary writers, and these texts function as carriers of a feminine ethos to practicing managers. The article describes a mechanism-management writings-used to disseminate and legitimate a management idea. It examines the nature of the rhetoric used in management writings and the implication of authors' failure to label the idea by its name: feminization. This "feminization" is discussed from both women's voice and poststructuralist perspectives. Implications for management theorizing and future research are described.
Leadership scholars have theorized that leaders of an organization must have an appropriate “fit” with those they lead and with their environment. Yet, there is no empirical research to date that has explored this belief. We develop a theoretical model to determine the factors influencing the fit of a city manager, indicated by his or her tenure. We argue that six sets of explanations may help determine the fit of the city manager: the manager's leadership style, his or her personality type, the city manager's perception about fit, the perceptions of city councils, the demographics of the city managers, and the demographics of the cities where they work. Based on a rigorous nationwide study of city managers, the study shows that the fit of city managers is significantly influenced by two of the six sets of explanations. Implications for scholars, city managers, and practitioners are drawn from the study's analysis and findings.
This article uses the different perspectives of economic theory, organization theory, public administration, and political science to explore the question of whether public organizations are inherently less innovative than private organizations, and synthesizes existing empirical evidence to test the predictions and explanations of theory. Theory generally leads one to expect that public organizations are less innovative than private ones, though the logic used frequently is tortuous. Empirical evidence, though limited, gives reason to doubt the hypotheses that public organiza tions are inherently immune to efforts to increase innovative behavior there. Some of the public policy implications of each discipline's perspective on the central ques tion are discussed and examples of efforts to apply these implications to public agencies are presented.
Public management has been rapidly developing as a subfield. Since other recent reviews have discussed many disciplinary and paradigmatic issues, this one concentrates on developments in research on the distinctive characteristics of public managers and the organizations in which they work. It takes aframework developed over a decade ago to describe propositions about public managers and organizations prevalent at that time, and describes how those observations have fared in conceptual and empirical work since then.
This article discusses empirical research findings indicating that complexity is a dominant characteristic in local government change and addresses that the current complexity sets limits to rational reform processes and gives way to political leadership.During the recent decade, intermunicipal co-operation has emerged as a major issue in local governance in Finland. Despite the fact that the need for intense co-operation is acknowledged in most surveys, practical steps are often difficult to take due to complexity of the interorganizational action. Actors come upon complex situations involving many issues; situations where the issues are continuously changing and complicatedly interdependent. Circumstances are further blurred by the fact that actors often hide their preferences.In the changing local governance, complexity, paradoxes and uncertainty decrease the prospective of managerial and expert knowledge, because rational calculations do not give definitive support for decision making. From this perspective, we have reached the limits of rational, clear-cut reforming. More than before, the implementation of change depends on the emergence of political leaders willing and able to take responsibility for reforms.
Over the past decade, many hospitals have invested in major restructuring and/or reengineering efforts designed to enhance their competitiveness by improving product quality and/or reducing costs. For a variety of reasons, these significant changes have not been systematically evaluated. This research provides an objective look at the results of restructuring/reengineering hospitals and an examination of the influences on employee perceptions of reengineering's outcomes. This research demonstrates that employees, including upper management, had little or no objective knowledge of the outcomes of their change efforts. However, perceptions of all employees involved in a major change effort are critical if their full participation is to be sustained. The ultimate sustainability of many hospital strategic change efforts may rest largely on subjective assessments of its outcomes. The research reported here suggests that such perceptions vary significantly by organizational level and may not be stable over time. While the passage of time sees improvements in managers' perceptions of reengineering results, line personnel become increasingly skeptical and less positive. Further objective research is encouraged to more definitely distinguish the impact of employee perceptions on change efforts' outcomes and sustainability.
The article examines the literature on research into leadership
styles and gender: the results are conflicting and do not support the
assumption that there are stereotypical masculine and feminine styles.
What has emerged is that women managers are likely to possess both task-
and relations-oriented leadership behaviours. It is argued that the
“androgynous” leadership style is effective in the
management of change.
Notes that previous researchers have investigated the relationship between gender role (i.e. sex-role identity) and leadership style, and they also have investigated the relationship between decision style and leadership style. However, points out that they have not investigated the relationship between gender role and decision style. Using three validated questionnaires with 90 participants, attempts to test the relationship between gender role, decision style and leadership style. Reveals, from the results, strong support for the proposed relationships: masculinity/directive/analytical/task-oriented styles and femininity/conceptual/behavioural/relations-oriented styles. Provides implications/application questions for practitioners, for example that “linking the people with the strategic needs of the business” (i.e. strategic human resource management emphasizing competence acquisition, development and utilization) requires an in-depth analysis for many organizations. Suggests that instead of relying on a single measure, a combination of different measures may result in higher reliability and predictability. Concludes that the development of effective human resources training and management programmes requires further exploration of the relationship between gender role, decision style and leadership style.
Argues that public management differs from private management not just in degree but in quality, so that American business is an inappropriate analogy for evaluating public management. In particular, "purpose,""organization," and "people" have different meaning and significance in public agencies and private businesses. (JG)
With the growth of contemporary technology, communications, and transportation, infused with television, computers, and the information highway, all of us are quickly becoming aware of the linked consequences of change. As traditional boundaries are collapsing around us, there is a growing sensitivity to the need for change, along with the belief that we need to plan for it. As such, strategic planning, competitive positioning, and innovative management systems that involve longer-term perspectives, critical trade-offs, and opportunity-driven forecasting are being fashioned here in the United States, and around the world. To grasp the initiative to shape an organizational context that will ensure a competitive, vibrant, healthy, fiscally rigorous and humane decision making environment for the public sector is the analytical foundation on which this symposium is anchored. Public managers have no option but to respond to American and global events, and the accompanying cultural, economic and political developments with courage, innovations, and strategic perspectives. It is clear that a paradigmatic crisis is occurring in American society and in public administration. Therefore, the harbingers of new paradigms are being created and crafted, which provide “hard” methods of inquiry, “real” cases of success; sound “fiscal” measures of performance; and “clearer” professional/leadership redefinitions of responsibility.
Examined 3 purported differences between the public and private sectors that are relevant to personnel management—goal clarity, leadership turnover, and job security—and the impact of these differences on employee motivation. 234 managers from 50 government agencies and 12 private organizations were surveyed. Findings indicate that these differences do exist, but are not as substantial as the literature indicates. The public sector experienced less goal clarity, greater leadership turnover, and greater job security. The public–private differences studied do not have a substantial impact on employee motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This exploratory study coded and analysed 120 behaviours on videotaped data of 111 male and 30 female managers engaged in disciplinary discussions with one of their unionized employees. Four categories of behaviour were coded: non-verbal communication, speech characteristics, leadership and interactional justice. A factor analysis of the results generated 14 factors, ten of which were correlated with experts’ ratings of disciplinary fairness. Female managers exhibited significantly higher levels of seven of the ten behavioural factors. Female managers also made more supportive interruptions than male managers and took more time for the disciplinary discussion, both of which were positively correlated with disciplinary fairness. The results suggest that leadership and communication styles commonly found in females may lead them to be better equipped than male managers to manage employee discipline situations.
Few problems common in management reform are more prominent or more vaguely conceived than is leadership. Advocates and observers broadly agree that leadership is a critical factor where reform takes hold. Yet, in scholarship assessing the results-model management reforms proliferating in public organizations during the last decade and a half, leadership remains an elusive concept, rarely subject to empirical scrutiny. Applying the logic of credible commitment drawn from the study of institutional political economy, this article models leadership commitment as a factor shaping organizational responses to reform. Quantitative analysis of data drawn from two Government Accountability Office surveys of agency managers administered during the implementation of the Government Performance and Results Act provides evidence regarding the impact of leadership commitment on perceived credibility results-based reform and reported use of performance measures. The article concludes with a brief discussion of reputation-based credibility and the skepticism many government managers hold toward reform.
Claims of “gender advantage” in the area of leadership are critiqued, and the findings from research on sex/gender differences in social behavior and leader effectiveness are reviewed. Meta-analytic studies that have considered sex differences in leadership are examined with respect to both leader behavior and leader effectiveness. It is concluded that claims of comparative gender advantage, based on stereotypic reasoning, are overstated. Recent research on gender similarity is highlighted with recognition that a “fine-grained” analytic approach is critical. Plus, the usefulness of including temporal dimensions and perceived leader tolerance of demographic differences is suggested. Additional attention is given to research indicating that gender stereotypic descriptive tendencies arise when men and women are asked to describe behaviors for imaginary others or to describe their own actions after the passage of time. Literature that pertains to whether females and males differ in effectiveness as followers is also reviewed. Finally, an agenda is outlined for future gender research on aspects of leadership and followership.
This study investigates the emphasis males and females place on leadership behaviors and styles across four countries characterized as two cultural dyads (Norway - Sweden and Australia - U.S.). Previous gender comparisons and cross-cultural studies of leadership are reviewed. A framework for exploring leadership, consisting of five leadership behaviors and six leadership styles, is then presented and tested with questionnaire data from 209 managers across the four countries. Results demonstrate significant effects for gender and country, but no interaction effects, Post-hoc analyses suggest that across all four countries, male emphasize the goal setting dimension, while females emphasize the interaction facilitation dimension. Australians scored significantly differently than leaders in the other countries on interaction facilitation, benevolent autocratic style, and laissez-faire style. These findings are discussed in light of gender characteristics and cultural values.© 1995 JIBS. Journal of International Business Studies (1995) 26, 255–279
Objective. This article reports on a systematic review of data‐based, peer‐reviewed scientific assessments of performance differences between private for‐profit and private nonprofit U.S. health care providers published since 1980.
Methods. Computerized bibliographic searches of all relevant databases yielded 149 studies (179 assessments) that compared the performance of for‐profit and nonprofit health care providers on four performance criteria (access, quality, cost/efficiency, and/or amount of charity care). Reported findings on performance were coded in one of three ways: for‐profit superiority, nonprofit superiority, or no difference/mixed results.
Results. Overall, the nonprofits were judged superior 59 percent of the time, the for‐profits superior only 12 percent of the time, and for the rest (29 percent), no difference was found or results were mixed.
Conclusions. Caution is warranted on policies that encourage private for‐profit entities to replace private nonprofit providers of health care services in the United States.
Red Tape and the Service Ethic
- B Buchanan
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