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Seagrass in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges Ahead

  • August 2016
DOI:10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5_268-1
  • In book: The Wetland Book (pp.1-9)
Authors:
Japar Sidik Bujang at Universiti Putra Malaysia
Japar Sidik Bujang
Muta Z Harah at Universiti Putra Malaysia
Muta Z Harah
Frederick T. Short at University of New Hampshire
Frederick T. Short
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Abstract and Figures

Seagrasses are submerged monocotyledonous angiosperms living in marine and estuarine habitats. They are plants differentiated into distinct segments: rhizomes, roots, and leaves. Seagrasses vary in morphology and size, ranging from the tropical eelgrass Enhalus acoroides with strap-like leaves that reach 1 m or more in height to shorter ovate leaved spoongrass Halophila ovalis that grows to only a few centimeters tall. Seagrasses produce flowers and seeds, disperse seeds and propagate vegetatively to maintain meadows. There are 16 species of seagrasses in Malaysia comprising Enhalus acoroides, Halophila beccarii, Halophila decipiens, Halophila ovalis, Halophila major, Halophila minor, Halophila spinulosa, Halophila sp., Halodule pinifolia, Halodule uninervis, Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Thalassia hemprichii, Syringodium isoetifolium, Thalassodendron ciliatum, and Ruppia maritima. Healthy seagrasses may grow dense and form an extensive beds or meadows. Their characteristics and interactive community within and from outside account for the high diversity and enable survival of diverse invertebrates (shrimps, sea cucumbers, starfishes, bivalves, gastropods), vertebrates (dugongs, green turtles, fishes) and macroalgae. Seagrasses provide conditions for the growth and abundance of invertebrates and fish that many local coastal communities collect and catch for their livelihood. Seagrass ecosystems are sources of food and continually facing threats by natural events and, human activities, e.g., coastal development causing their fast degradation and possible habitat loss.
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Seagrass in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges
Ahead
Japar S. Bujang, Muta H. Zakaria, and Frederick T. Short
Contents
Introduction . . ....................................................................................... 2
The Significance of Seagrass Beds and Their Resources .. ....................................... 3
The Decline of Seagrass Beds and Their Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................... 4
Threats and Future Challenges ..................................................................... 6
Cross-References . . ................................................................................. 8
References . . ........................................................................................ 9
Abstract
Seagrasses are submerged monocotyledonous angiosperms living in marine and
estuarine habitats. They are plants differentiated into distinct segments: rhizomes,
roots, and leaves. Seagrasses vary in morphology and size, ranging from the
tropical eelgrass Enhalus acoroides with strap-like leaves that reach 1 m or more
in height to shorter ovate leaved spoongrass Halophila ovalis that grows to only a
few centimeters tall. Seagrasses produce flowers and seeds, disperse seeds and
propagate vegetatively to maintain meadows. There are 16 species of seagrasses
in Malaysia comprising Enhalus acoroides,Halophila beccarii,Halophila
decipiens,Halophila ovalis,Halophila major,Halophila minor,Halophila
J.S. Bujang (*)
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul
Ehsan, Malaysia
e-mail: japar@upm.edu.my
M.H. Zakaria
Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor
Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
e-mail: muta@upm.edu.my
F.T. Short
Jackson Estuarine Laboratory, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA
e-mail: fredtshort@gmail.com
#Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016
C.M. Finlayson et al. (eds.), The Wetland Book,
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5_268-1
1
spinulosa,Halophila sp., Halodule pinifolia,Halodule uninervis,Cymodocea
rotundata,Cymodocea serrulata,Thalassia hemprichii,Syringodium
isoetifolium,Thalassodendron ciliatum, and Ruppia maritima. Healthy
seagrasses may grow dense and form an extensive beds or meadows. Their
characteristics and interactive community within and from outside account for
the high diversity and enable survival of diverse invertebrates (shrimps, sea
cucumbers, starfishes, bivalves, gastropods), vertebrates (dugongs, green turtles,
fishes) and macroalgae. Seagrasses provide conditions for the growth and abun-
dance of invertebrates and fish that many local coastal communities collect and
catch for their livelihood. Seagrass ecosystems are sources of food and continu-
ally facing threats by natural events and, human activities, e.g., coastal develop-
ment causing their fast degradation and possible habitat loss.
Keywords
Seagrass •diversity •significance •Malaysia •threats
Introduction
Seagrasses are submerged monocotyledonous angiosperms living in marine and
estuarine habitats (den Hartog 1970). They are plants differentiated into distinct
segments: rhizomes, roots, and leaves. Seagrasses produce flowers and seeds, disperse
seeds and propagate vegetatively to maintain meadows (Muta Harah et al. 2002).
Seagrasses vary in morphology and size, ranging from the tropical eelgrass Enhalus
acoroides with strap-like leaves that reach 1 m or more in height to shorter ovate
leaved spoongrass Halophila ovalis that grows to only a few centimeters tall (Fig. 1).
There are 16 species of seagrasses in Malaysia comprising Enhalus acoroides,
Halophila beccarii,Halophila decipiens,Halophila ovalis,Halophila major,
Halophila minor,Halophila spinulosa,Halophila sp., Halodule pinifolia,Halodule
uninervis,Cymodocea rotundata,Cymodocea serrulata,Thalassia hemprichii,
Syringodium isoetifolium,Thalassodendron ciliatum, and Ruppia maritima.
In Malaysia, along its 4800 km coastline, that stretches along the Malay Peninsula
and on the island of Borneo in both Sabah and Sarawak and bounds much of the
southern part of the South China Sea, are coastal environments harboring man-
groves, coral reefs, and seagrasses. The majority of seagrasses are found in sheltered
shallow intertidal associated ecosystems, with mangroves, coral reefs, semi-enclosed
lagoons, shoals, and subtidal zones. They sometimes form diverse extensive com-
munities (Japar Sidik and Muta Harah 2003, Fig. 2). Historically, seagrasses
(E. acoroides,H. ovalis) were common all around the coast of Peninsular Malaysia,
on muddy shores and areas exposed at low tide (Ridley 1924; Henderson 1954).
Since these early reports of extensive seagrass meadows, most have deteriorated due
to coastal development. Moreover, seagrass habitats in Sabah, East Malaysia were
described by Norhadi (1993) as already degraded by human activities, including
deforestation (Short et al. 2014). This would explain the present patchy and no
longer extensive distribution along the Malaysian coastline (Fig. 3).
2 J.S. Bujang et al.
The Significance of Seagrass Beds and Their Resources
Seagrasses are primary producers and through photosynthesis release dissolved
oxygen into the water for use by marine and estuarine animals. Seagrasses are also
primary food source for large species, such as dugongs and green turtles, and
consumed by sea urchins. Algae and animals attached to seagrass leaves are an
Fig. 1 Selected seagrass species of Malaysia (Source: Japar Sidik and Muta Harah (2011))
Seagrass in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges Ahead 3
important food resource for many grazing animals, e.g., juvenile and adult fishes,
and its disappearance could be detrimental to their survival.
Seagrass meadows are subject to tide and wave action that could erode and wash
away sediments if not for the plants’underground rhizomes and roots forming dense
mats that trap, hold, and stabilize the soft sediments. The seagrass meadows provide
habitat and shelter for many organisms. Bivalves and other buried organisms burrow
into the sediments to escape predation. In addition, many fish (grouper, seahorses),
shellfish, and crustaceans found in seagrass meadows are a valuable economic entity
(Sasekumar et al. 1989; Arshad et al. 2001). For example, local coastal communities
around Sungai Pulai estuary harvest invertebrates and fishes in and around seagrass
meadow for their livelihood (Fig. 4). While recognized as sources of food and an
important reservoir of coastal biodiversity, seagrass meadows are continually threat-
ened by human activities causing their degradation and habitat loss (Muta Harah and
Japar Sidik 2011).
The Decline of Seagrass Beds and Their Resources
Seagrasses and their resources have declined due to natural causes and human-
induced activities. Seagrasses can tolerate moderate disturbance through morpho-
logical and physiological adaptation, while heavy disturbances can result in seagrass
loss (Hemminga and Duarte 2000). Along the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia,
increased wave activity from storms during the northeast monsoon threatens
meadows (e.g., Gong Batu, Merchang, Paka shoal, Terengganu) in semi-enclosed
Fig. 2 Merambong shoal during low tide is one of several areas that support a well-developed
multi-species seagrass community (Photo credit: JS Bujang #Rights remain with the author)
4 J.S. Bujang et al.
lagoons by either exposing or burying the plants with shoals of sand, silt, or mud.
These seagrass meadows are also impacted from reduced salinity by frequent inputs
of freshwater (high rain events) or increased salinity due to drought. Seagrass
meadows can also be heavily impacted by flood events such as occurred in
December 2014 in Paka shoal, Terengganu, destroying almost all seagrasses.
Extremely high and continuous rainfall for a week contributed to the flood event
that transported and deposited sand that covered the seagrass meadow (Fig. 5).
Recovery may take years to occur or may not at all, as a result of a single monsoon
flooding event. In Sabah, deforestation associated with palm oil plantations has
resulted in extensive decline and loss of seagrass from reduced water clarity and
sedimentation (Freeman et al. 2008), followed by limited recovery by a pioneering
seagrass species (Short et al. 2014).
The human population utilizing the coasts and adjacent waters for numerous
activities is increasing, and many of these activities are accompanied by major
coastal developments. Activities attributed to seagrass declines are sediments in
runoff from cleared lands flowing into coastal areas covering meadows; and dis-
charge of untreated domestic sewage effluent, runoff of fertilizer, and outflow of
animal waste; all rich in nutrients promoting large algal blooms that cover the
seagrasses (Japar Sidik et al. 2006, Fig. 6) decreasing the plants’photosynthesis
capability. Sand mining, dredging, bottom sediment removal, and land reclamation
destroy seagrass meadows through direct removal and burial. Sourcing for sand is
commonly undertaken in shallow coastal lagoons with seagrasses (e.g., east coast of
Peninsular Malaysia) for land fill and shoreline stabilization projects. Coastal devel-
opment (land reclamation) has reduced the seagrass area of Merambong shoal
(Fig. 7), Johor from 26.3 ha to 21.1 ha. Similar land reclamation totally destroyed
a Tanjung Adang Darat seagrass shoal in 2003 (Japar Sidik et al. 2007).
Fig. 3 The major seagrass areas, associated habitats, utilization by coastal communities and other
users in Peninsular Malaysia (A), east Malaysia-Sabah (B), and Sarawak (C). Lagoon
1
, intertidal
2
,
subtidal
3
, aquaculture
a
, turtle sanctuary
b
, traditional capture fisheries
c
, dugong feeding ground
d
, and
marine park
e
(Source: Japar Sidik and Muta Harah (2011))
Seagrass in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges Ahead 5
Threats and Future Challenges
By the mid-to-late 1990s, inland areas were extensively developed, and beginning in
the early 2000s there has been a shift in the focus of development towards coastal
reclamation and constructed island systems as the primary region for economic
growth and development. Both systems have been recognized in Malaysia as an
increasingly important source of foreign exchange earnings as well as a means to
diversify the country’s economy. The tourism industry can play a vital role to boost
the economy drawing upon the scenic attraction of the aquatic environment, white
sandy beaches, and underwater marine resources such as live corals. The govern-
ment has allocated substantial funds to finance projects, basic infrastructure, public,
and other tourist facilities. In addition, development of tourist related facilities,
resorts, restaurants, and recreational centers are being undertaken by the private
sector in line with the government’s privatization policy. Many coastal zones are
Fig. 4 Fisherman with his
catch from Sungai Pulai
estuary seagrass meadow
(Photo credit: JS Bujang #
Rights remain with the author)
Fig. 5 (a) Dense Halophila beccarii bed in Paka shoal in 2004 (Photo credit: JS Bujang #Rights
remain with the author) (b) The same Paka shoal buried by shoal of sand, devoid of seagrass after
monsoon and flood in December 2014 (Photo credit: MH Zakaria #Rights remain with the author)
6 J.S. Bujang et al.
now being used intensively by a variety of activities, and these developments have
not been without problems.
The Sungai Pulai estuary, Johor, is an example of issues that have arisen with the
new focus on development of the coastal zone and islands. The estuary harbors
mangrove and seagrass meadows used by local communities for their fisheries and
transportation. Sungai Pulai estuary’s seagrass ecosystem provides multiple benefits
to local coastal inhabitants and other users including provisioning services (food,
Fig. 6 Algal bloom, Amphiroa fragilissima at seagrass bed of Tanjung Adang Laut, Sungai Pulai
estuary, Johor (Photo credit: MH Zakaria #Rights remain with the author)
Fig. 7 Massive earthwork of land reclamation across Merambong seagrass shoal (Photo credit:
MH Zakaria #Rights remain with the author)
Seagrass in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges Ahead 7
genetic resources, biochemical, and medicines); regulatory services (erosion regu-
lation, water purification, and waste treatment); and cultural services (educational
values) (Nakaoka et al. 2014). The most important provisioning services support the
fisheries and any disturbance will directly affect the earnings and protein supply of
coastal communities depending on the ecosystem.
Port and facilities development in Sungai Pulai estuary began in 2003, and
development of a mega resort and city commenced in 2014 for the next 30 years.
The development involves sand mining, filling, and land reclamation which has had
an immediate and significant impact to the marine environment and associated
resources of the seagrass beds. Land reclamation resulted in heavy loads of
suspended solids in the water column, depositing thick glutinous silt often many
centimeters deep over seagrasses and benthic communities (Japar Sidik et al. 2007).
The effect of habitat change and altered ecology has been realized by the fishermen.
They claim reclamation and pollution are severely affecting fish yields. Some
fishermen have ceased this activity and are seeking alternative jobs elsewhere to
generate income lost from fishing activities. It is expected that adjacent seagrass
meadows of Merambong-Tanjung Adang shoals will face a similar fate as further
expansion is planned for the port, mega resort, and city.
With the development and anticipated population growth, regulating domestic
waste disposal and waste treatment is a big issue. Domestic waste is the largest
contributor to the water quality problem and will worsen with growth in the
population and visiting tourists (Sungai Pulai estuary has been earmarked for
“community tourism”). There will be increased discharges of human waste and
household and commercial compounds (e.g., detergents and sullage) directly into
the watercourses. Inadequacy of sewage treatment systems will further aggravate the
problem. Discharge wastes eventually reach the seagrass and coastal areas, placing
great stress (causing algal bloom) to the ecosystem and associated resources. Main-
tenance and protection of seagrass habitats will conserve the water quality and other
resource values that are, in fact, able to attract tourism.
Malaysian seagrass meadows are facing serious threats from external human
sources and coastal development activities. The optimal and sustainable use of
coastal habitats is a high priority due to their important ecological functions and
socioeconomic benefits to coastal human population. However, the protection and
conservation of seagrass ecosystems is only afforded to those within protected areas,
e.g., marine parks under Fisheries Act 1985 and not for those outside their bound-
aries (Japar Sidik and Muta Harah 2003).
Cross-References
▶Current Status of Seagrass Habitat in Korea
▶Intertidal Flats of East and Southeast Asia
▶Seagrass Dependent Artisanal Fisheries of Southeast Asia
▶Seagrass Meadows of North-Eastern Australia
▶Seagrass Recovery in Tampa Bay, Florida, USA
8 J.S. Bujang et al.
▶Seagrasses
▶Seagrasses of Southeast Brazil
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Seagrass in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges Ahead 9
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... Seagrass meadows serve as important nurseries for various fish species and aquatic animals, providing feeding ground and refuge from predation, while also offering valuable ecosystem services that help mitigate the impacts of climate change (Heck Jr. et al., 2003;James et al., 2023;McDevitt-Irwin et al., 2016). Unfortunately, this oncepristine seagrass meadow on Merambong subtidal shoal, with nearly full seagrass coverage, has been heavily impacted by the reclamation project conducted in the area, resulting in an approximate 50 % reduction in seagrass cover in 2014 (Hossain et al., 2019;Japar Sidik et al., 2016;Misbari and Hisham, 2015). ...
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... Among the anthropogenic factors, dredging, construction activities, and sand mining substantially disturbed the seagrass habitats. Bujang et al. (2016) pointed out that rough sea conditions during the northeast monsoon season bring in particulate matter that buries the seagrass beds leading to their destruction. However, these natural threats are negligible compared to the threats caused by population growth in the coastal sector and enhanced anthropogenic activities (Bujang et al. 2006). ...
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Full-text available
  • Apr 2023
Simple Summary: The present review provides (1) an updated checklist of the Vietnamese marine flora, (2) a review of molecular-assisted alpha taxonomic efforts, (3) an analysis of marine floral biodiversity spatial distribution nationally and regionally (South China Sea), (4) a discussion on the impact of anthropogenic and environmental stressors on the Vietnamese marine flora, and (5) the efforts developed in the last decade for its conservation. The updated checklist consists of 878 species , including 439 Rhodophyta, 156 Ochrophyta, 196 Chlorophyta, 87 Cyanobacteria, and 15 seagrasses. The South Central Coast supports the highest species diversity of marine algae, which coincides with the largest density of coral reefs along the Vietnam coast. Vietnam holds one of the richest marine floras in the South China Sea owing to the country's coastline length and associated marine habitat diversity. However, the Vietnamese marine floral biodiversity is facing critical threats, and present management efforts are yet insufficient for their conservation. A methodical molecular-assisted re-examination of Vietnam marine floral biodiversity is urgently needed, complemented with in-depth investigations of the main threats targeted against it; and finally, conservation measures should be urgently implemented. Abstract: Part of the Indo-Chinese peninsula and located on the northwest edge of the Coral Triangle in the South China Sea, the Vietnamese coastal zone is home to a wealthy marine biodiversity associated with the regional geological setting and history, which supports a large number of marine ecosystems along a subtropical to tropical gradient. The diversity of coastal benthic marine primary producers is also a key biological factor supporting marine biological diversity. The present review provides: (1) an updated checklist of the Vietnamese marine flora, (2) a review of molecular assisted alpha taxonomic efforts, (3) an analysis of marine floral biodiversity spatial distribution nationally and regionally (South China Sea), (4) a review of the impact of anthropogenic and environmental stressors on the Vietnamese marine flora, and (5) the efforts developed in the last decade for its conservation. Based on the studies conducted since 2013 and the nomenclatural changes that occurred during this period, an updated checklist of benthic marine algae and seagrasses consisted in a new total of 878 species, including 439 Rhodophyta, 156 Ochrophyta, 196 Chlorophyta, 87 Cyanobacteria, and 15 phanerogam seagrasses. This update contains 54 new records and 5 new species of macroalgae. The fairly poor number of new records and new species identified in the last 10 years in a "mega-diverse" country can be largely attributed to the limited efforts in exploring algal biodiversity and the limited use of genetic tools, with only 25.4% (15 species) of these new records and species made based on molecular-assisted alpha taxonomy. The South Central Coast supports the highest species diversity of marine algae, which coincides with the largest density of coral reefs along the Vietnamese coast. Vietnam holds in the South China Sea one of the richest marine floras, imputable to the country's geographical, geological, and climatic settings. However, Vietnam marine floral biodiversity is under critical threats examined here, and Citation: Nguyen, M.-L.; Kim, M.-S.; Nguyen, N.-T.N.; Nguyen, X.-T.; Cao, V.-L.; Nguyen, X.-V.; Vieira, C. Marine Floral Biodiversity, Threats and Conservation in Vietnam: An Updated Review. Plants 2023, 12, 1862. https://doi.org/10.3390/ plants12091862 Academic Editors: Andrey Erst and Yevhen Maltsev
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Between the devil and the deep blue sea: Trends, drivers, and impacts of coastal reclamation in Malaysia and way forward
Article
Cities all over the world are edging further into the ocean. Coastal reclamation is a global conservation issue with implications for ocean life, ecosystems, and human well-being. Using Malaysia as a case study, the coastal reclamation trends over three decades (1991–2021) were mapped using Landsat images and Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) via the Google Earth Engine platform. The changes in drivers and impacts of these coastal expansions throughout the decades were also reviewed. Twelve out of the 14 states in Malaysia had planned, active, or completed reclamations on their shorelines. Between 1991 and 2021, an absolute area of 82.64 km² has been or will be reclaimed should all the projects be completed. The most reported driver for coastal expansion in Malaysia is for development and modernization (41 %), followed by rise in human population (20 %), monetary gains from the development of prime land (15 %), and agriculture and aquaculture activities (9 %). Drivers such as reduction of construction costs, financial advantage of prime land, oil and gas, advancement of technology, and tourism (Malaysia My Second Home (MM2H)) had only started occurring within the last decade, while others have been documented since the 1990's. Pollution is the most reported impact (24 %) followed by disruption of livelihoods, sources of income and human well-being (21 %), destruction of natural habitats (17 %), decrease in biodiversity (11 %), changes in landscapes (10 %), erosion / accretion (8 %), threat to tourism industry (6 %), and exposure to wave surges (3 %). Of these, changes in landscape, shoreline alignment, seabed contour, and coastal groundwater, as well as wave surges had only started to surface as impacts in the last two decades. Efforts to protect existing natural coastal and marine ecosystems, restore degraded ones, and fund endeavours that emphasize nature is needed to support sustainable development goals for the benefit of future generations.
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Seagrass ecosystems along the Vietnamese coastline: Current state of research and future perspectives
Article
Seagrass communities in Vietnam are important primary producers in the coastal environment and play a key role in shoreline protection as a bioshield in the country. In the past two decades, seagrass research in Vietnam has advanced in many aspects, including distribution mapping, plant genetics and biophysical characteristics, sustainable use of seagrass beds, restoration and protection of seagrass meadows, establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs), and collaborative research with international institutions. In this paper, we presented a state-of-the-art review of recent seagrass research conducted in Vietnam. Despite the recent increase in the number of seagrass studies conducted in Vietnam, these coastal ecosystems continue to be poorly mapped and managed in some areas. Although a number of recent studies highlighted the use of seagrass ecosystems as a coastal bioshield in Vietnam, they have undergone degradation in recent years due to pollution, sedimentation and turbidity, eutrophication and habitat loss. Remote sensing is considered as an effective tool for mapping seagrasses in recent studies, particularly due to the ability to accurately map, model and assess the condition of some hard to access sites. Collaboration among regional authorities, NGOs and research institutions can provide an appropriate basis for understanding these complex systems at a national scale and afford an important scientific reference for supporting management and conservation decisions in Vietnam. Sustainable use of seagrass ecosystems can bring economic benefits as well as environmental protection along the coastal areas of Vietnam.
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Seagrass habitat suitability model for Redang Marine Park using multibeam echosounder data: Testing different spatial resolutions and analysis window sizes
Article
Full-text available
Integrating Multibeam Echosounder (MBES) data (bathymetry and backscatter) and underwater video technology allows scientists to study marine habitats. However, use of such data in modeling suitable seagrass habitats in Malaysian coastal waters is still limited. This study tested multiple spatial resolutions (1 and 50 m) and analysis window sizes (3 × 3, 9 × 9, and 21 × 21 cells) probably suitable for seagrass-habitat relationships in Redang Marine Park, Terengganu, Malaysia. A maximum entropy algorithm was applied, using 12 bathymetric and backscatter predictors to develop a total of 6 seagrass habitat suitability models. The results indicated that both fine and coarse spatial resolution datasets could produce models with high accuracy (>90%). However, the models derived from the coarser resolution dataset displayed inconsistent habitat suitability maps for different analysis window sizes. In contrast, habitat models derived from the fine resolution dataset exhibited similar habitat distribution patterns for three different analysis window sizes. Bathymetry was found to be the most influential predictor in all the models. The backscatter predictors, such as angular range analysis inversion parameters (characterization and grain size), gray-level co-occurrence texture predictors, and backscatter intensity levels, were more important for coarse resolution models. Areas of highest habitat suitability for seagrass were predicted to be in shallower (
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The first nation-wide assessment identifies valuable blue‑carbon seagrass habitat in Indonesia is in moderate condition
Article
Seagrasses help mitigate climate change by capturing and storing carbon for a very long time. Despite their significance, multiple threats are putting pressure on this valuable habitat. Seagrass conservation and restoration is essential to maintain the carbon sequestration service, along with the other ecosystem services (e.g., fisheries production). Information on the status of seagrass habitat is required to enable proactive management strategies. In this study, we assessed the ecological status of seagrass meadows in Indonesia, a globally significant hotspot of blue carbon habitat, using five resilience parameters: seagrass species richness, seagrass cover, macroalgal cover, epiphyte cover, and water transparency. We collected data on these parameters from 18 locations across Indonesia and developed the Seagrass Ecological Quality Index (SEQI, range 0–1) that summarises the parameters into a standard seagrass assessment. We recorded that Thalassia hemprichii and Enhalus acoroides were the most common species in the sampling locations. Seagrass cover was on average 39 ± 3.6% (mean ± SE) which was lower than measured 3 years before (46%). Macroalgal cover and epiphyte cover were relatively low with mean values 10 ± 1.8% and 22 ± 4.4% respectively. Most locations had clear water. Our analysis showed that Indonesia's seagrass meadows are generally in moderate condition, indicated by the mean value of SEQI 0.68 ± 0.02. These findings provide a baseline for seagrass conservation and management. It enables setting up of specific goals for management action plans, at both the local, national and international level, and where appropriate, track the progress of management actions based on threat mitigation or restoration over time. The SEQI is a useful tool to summarise the condition of tropical seagrass meadows in Indonesia and could be applied across Southeast Asia or the Tropical Indo-Pacific bioregion.
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Coralline macroalgae contribution to ecological services of carbon storage in a disturbed seagrass meadow
Article
Coralline macroalgae are globally distributed rhodopyhtes that remove carbon from their immediate environment and transform it into carbonate sediments through the senescence of their calcified tissues. In this study, the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) stocks in the tissue of Jania adhaerens and sediments in Tanjung Adang Shoal, Johor were quantified for a 13-month study period. The detailed maps of the geographical distribution based on the spatial and temporal variations of biomass and CaCO3 were also assessed. The highest amount of biomass, CaCO3 and organic carbon (OC) stocks in the tissues showed the highest in May 2018 and May 2019. The biomass values ranged from 65 to 143 g DW m⁻², which contained 53–147 g CaCO3 m⁻² and 3–11 g OC m⁻². These findings provided insights into the biogeochemical cycling of these inputs, which can be used to estimate the overall carbon budget of the macrophyte meadow.
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Preliminary Study of the Seagrass Flora of Sabah, Malaysia
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 1993
ABSTRAK Suatu tinjauan terhadap komposisi, taburan serta biomas beberapa dataran rumput laut yang terdapat di sepanjang pantai Sabah telah dilakukan. Di dalam tinjauan ini, sejumlah enam genera yang terdiri daripada sembilan spesies rumput laut telah direkodkan. Lima daripada spesies tersebut iaitu Cymodocea rotundata Ehrenb. et Hempr. ex Aschers., Cymodocea serrulata (R. Br.) Aschers. et Magnus, Halodule uninervis (Forssk.) Aschers., Halodule pinifolia (Miki) den Hartog dan Syringodium isoetifolium (Aschers.) Dandy yang belum pernah dilaporkan sebelum ini merupakan rekod baru bagi kawasan Sabah. Spesies yang kerap ditemui di stesen-stesen persampelan ialah Halophila ovalis (R. Br.) JD. Hook dan diikuti oleh Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers. serta Enhalus acoroides (LI) Royle. Rumput laut telah diperhatikan wujud di kawasan intertidal sehingga ke kedalaman 2.5 m dan tumbuh di atas berbagai jenis substrat seperti pecahan karang, pasir dan pasir berlumpur. Walaupun taburannya tidak menunjukkan penzonan yang spesifik, namun terdapat dua zon yang boleh dibezakan berdasarkan spesies yang paling melimpah. Dataran rumput laut di Sabah juga di dapati menghasilkan biomas yang tinggi terutamanya habitat berlumpur yang membatasi kawasan pokok bakau (contohnya biomas total E. acoroides sehingga mencapai 468.5 g berat kering tanpa abu. m· 2). Sementara dataran rumput laut di sekitar pulau yang di luar pantai seperti Pulau Sipadan, T. hemprichii (biomas 146 g berat kering tanpa abu. m· 2) didapati merupakan pengeluar biomas yang utama. ABSTRACT The species composition, distribution and the biomass of different seagrass beds along the coast of Sabah have been surveyed. Nine seagrass species belonging to six genera were recorded during the survey. Five of these i. e Cymodocea rotundata Ehrenb. et Hempr. ex Aschers., Cymodocea serrulata (R. Br.) Aschers. et Magnus, Halodule uninervis (Forssk.) Aschers., Halodule pinifolia (Miki) den Hartog and Syringodium isoetifolium (Aschers.) Dandy have not previously been reported from this area, thus represent new records for Sabah. The most frequently encountered species at the sampling stations was Halophila ovalis (R. Br.) JD. Hook followed by Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers and Enhalus acoroides (L.f) Royle. Seagrasses were observed from intertidal zone down to 2.5 m depth on various substrate types such as coral rubble, sand to muddy-sand. There was no specific zonation in the distribution of seagrasses. However, two zones may be distinguished according to the most abundant species. The seagrass beds in Sabah were also found to produce very high biomass particularly in the muddy habitat bordering mangroves (e.g. total biomass E. acoroides amounted to 468.5 g AFDW m· 2). Among the seagrass beds around the off-shore islands such as Pulau Sipadan, T. hemprichii (146 g AFDW m· 2) was found to be a very important biomass contributor.
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Regional Comparison of the Ecosystem Services from Seagrass Beds in Asia
Chapter
Full-text available
  • May 2014
Coastal ecosystems offer valuable services to human society. However, these ecosystems are facing multiple impacts of human-induced stress, including overexploitation, eutrophication, land construction, and global climate change. The prediction of long-term changes in coastal ecosystems under multiple impacts is difficult because nonlinear and cumulative effects operate simultaneously. This difficulty is especially true for Asian regions, where coastal biodiversity is the world’s highest but the least studied. In this chapter, we compare ecosystem services of coastal areas of Asia based on the expert knowledge of practioners who study coastal ecosystems at each locality. We especially focused on seagrass beds, which provide important services to humans including provision of seafood and regulation of water conditions. We selected the six most important ecosystem services at each of 13 seagrass beds ranging from Japan to India and evaluated the direction of changes over the past two decades. We also evaluated public awareness and data certainty for each service. Food provisioning, water purification and waste treatment, erosion regulation, recreation and ecotourism, and educational values were selected as major ecosystem services of seagrass beds. Degradation during the over past 10–20 years was reported for most provisioning and regulating services, whereas improving trend was found for cultural services in most sites. Public awareness and certainty of information were generally high for provisioning services, but low for most regulating services. Regional variation along latitude, and differences between temperate and tropical seagrass beds, were not detected for the examined variables. Regional comparisons of ecosystem services shed light on general and specific aspects of the status of seagrass beds, which will provide baseline data for planning effective conservation and management strategies under multiple human impacts.
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Monitoring in the Western Pacific region shows evidence of seagrass decline in line with global trends
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2014
Seagrass systems of the Western Pacific region are biodiverse habitats, providing vital services to ecosystems and humans over a vast geographic range. SeagrassNet is a worldwide monitoring program that collects data on seagrass habitats, including the ten locations across the Western Pacific reported here where change at various scales was rapidly detected. Three sites remote from human influence were stable. Seagrasses declined largely due to increased nutrient loading (4 sites) and increased sedimentation (3 sites), the two most common stressors of seagrass worldwide. Two sites experienced near-total loss from of excess sedimentation, followed by partial recovery once sedimentation was reduced. Species shifts were observed at every site with recovering sites colonized by pioneer species. Regulation of watersheds is essential if marine protected areas are to preserve seagrass meadows. Seagrasses in the Western Pacific experience stress due to human impacts despite the vastness of the ocean area and low development pressures.
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Seagrass on the edge: Land-use practices threaten coastal seagrass communities in Sabah, Malaysia
Article
Full-text available
Seagrass meadows are susceptible to coastal environmental impacts and serve as early indicators of system-wide degradation. Two SeagrassNet monitoring sites were established in Sabah (Malaysia) in 2001 in the Tunku Abdul Rahman National Park: one a pristine, reference site and one anticipating impacts from nearby, ongoing waterfront development. At both sites, percent cover of all seagrass species declined significantly between 2003 and 2005. Water temperature, fine sediment and specific leaf biomass increased, while percent surface light intensity reaching the plants decreased. Evidence suggests that the temperature changes observed during the monitoring period were not sufficient to impact seagrasses; rather, the documented reduced subsurface light intensity caused the observed seagrass declines. Concomitantly, satellite imagery revealed a persistent sediment plume in these coastal waters associated with deforestation. SeagrassNet monitoring quickly documented seagrass losses and identified the causal environmental factor, providing timely information for management consideration.
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Flowering, fruiting and seedling of annual Halophila beccarii Aschers in Peninsular Malaysia
Article
Full-text available
A survey of Halophila beccarii Aschers. from mid 1997 to early 1999 in a coastal lagoon of Pengkalan Nangka, Kelantan showed that flowering and fruiting were seasonal. Flowers and fruits were abundant from June to August 1997 and 1998. Their abundance decreased during September 1997 and 1998. This was followed by an absence of living plants for two to three consecutive months, in November 1997 to January 1998 and October 1998 to November 1998. The meadow showed recovery from seed germination observed in February 1998 and December 1998. Seedlings were abundant from February to April 1998 and December 1998 to January 1999. Early development of H. beccarii seedlings up to the protrusion of a third leaf of the pioneer shoot was essentially similar as those described for seedlings of H. spinulosa, H. engelmannii, H. decipiens, H. ovalis and H. tricostata. The morphology of progressive development of H. beccarii seedlings to juvenile or young plant, an observation that has not been described for Halophila to date, is presented. The presence of viable seeds and seedlings in the meadow demonstrated the successful pollination and sexual reproduction in H. beccarii in this meadow. Seed production through sexual reproduction is of major importance not only in propagating the species but also for the establishment of new seagrass areas at Pengkalan Nangka, Kelantan.
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Distribution and significance of seagrass ecosystems in Malaysia
Article
Full-text available
Seagrasses are the only flowering plants (monocotyledonous Angiosperms) that have adapted themselves to living in marine and estuarine habitats, and are submerged most of the time. They are rooted in sediments on the sea bottom, with shoots appearing above the substrate. Seagrasses occurred at 78 sites scattered in the west and east coasts of Peninsular Malaysia and in Sabah and Sarawak in East Malaysia. They are usually found along the coasts growing in association with shallow inter-tidal, mangroves, coral reefs, semi-enclosed lagoons and shoals. In these habitats, seagrass beds or meadows have distinct species assemblage completely adapted to the submerged life. There are fourteen major species of seagrasses recorded in Malaysia: Enhalus acoroides, Halophila beccarii, H. decipiens, H. ovalis, H. minor, H. spinulosa, Halodule pinifolia, H. uninervis, Cymodocea rotundata, C. serrulata, Thalassia hemprichii, Syringodium isoetifolium, Ruppia maritima and Thalassodendron ciliatum. Although seagrasses make up only a small portion of the marine ecosystem, the physical settings and their interactive community within and from outside account for their high diversity and ensure survival of an assortment of vertebrates (fish), invertebrates (shrimps, starfish, sea cucumbers, bivalves, gastropods), and seaweeds. Seagrass form the food and habitats for the vulnerable dugongs or sea cows (Dugong dugon), seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) and endangered green turtles (Chelonia mydas), and for other fish, and also a feeding ground for seasonal migratory birds, Egretta garzetta. Seagrasses provide conditions for the growth and abundance of invertebrates and fish that many local coastal communities collect and catch for their livelihood. Seagrass ecosystems are sources of food and yet they are continually threatened by human activities, causing their degradation and possible habitat loss. The purpose of this review is to give information on the significant linkages of seagrasses with the coastal inhabitants and to suggest recommendations for the protection and conservation of this important ecosystem and the associated resources.
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Seagrass Ecology
Book
  • Oct 2000
Seagrasses occur in coastal zones throughout the world, in the part of the marine habitat that is most heavily influenced by humans. Decisions about coastal management therefore often involve seagrasses, but despite a growing awareness of the importance of these plants, a full appreciation of their role in coastal ecosystems has yet to be reached. This book provides an entry point for those wishing to learn about their ecology, and gives a broad overview of the state of knowledge, including progress in research and research foci, complemented by extensive literature references to guide the reader to more detailed studies. It will be valuable to students of marine biology wishing to specialize in this area and also to established researchers wanting to enter the field. In addition, it will provide an excellent reference for those involved in the management and conservation of coastal areas that harbour seagrasses.
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Malayan wild flowers: monocotyledon. Kuala Lumpur: The Malayan Nature Society
  • Jan 1954
  • M R Henderson
  • MR Henderson
Henderson MR. Malayan wild flowers: monocotyledon. Kuala Lumpur: The Malayan Nature Society; 1954.
  • MA Hemminga