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European Journal of Sport Science
ISSN: 1746-1391 (Print) 1536-7290 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tejs20
What is mental fatigue in elite sport? Perceptions
from athletes and staff
Suzanna Russell, David Jenkins, Steven Rynne, Shona L. Halson & Vincent
Kelly
To cite this article: Suzanna Russell, David Jenkins, Steven Rynne, Shona L. Halson & Vincent
Kelly (2019): What is mental fatigue in elite sport? Perceptions from athletes and staff, European
Journal of Sport Science, DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2019.1618397
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2019.1618397
Accepted author version posted online: 13
May 2019.
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Publisher: Taylor & Francis & European College of Sport Science
Journal: European Journal of Sport Science
DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2019.1618397
Title: What is mental fatigue in elite sport? Perceptions from athletes and staff
Running Heading: Mental fatigue in elite sport
Submission Type: Original Investigation
Authors: Suzanna Russell1,2,3, David Jenkins1, Steven Rynne1, Shona L. Halson4, Vincent
Kelly1,5
1 School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
2 Queensland Academy of Sport, Nathan, QLD, Australia
3 High Performance Department, Netball Australia, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia
4 School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University
5 School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane,
QLD, Australia
Corresponding Author
Miss Suzanna Russell
Telephone: +61 467 490 370
Email: suzanna.russell@uqconnect.edu.au
Email Addresses
Miss Suzanna Russell: suzanna.russell@uqconnect.edu.au
Associate Professor David Jenkins: d.jenkins@uq.edu.au
2
Dr Steven Rynne: s.rynne@uq.edu.au
Dr Shona Halson: shona.halson@gmail.com
Dr Vince Kelly: v.kelly2@uq.edu.au
Author ORCID
Miss Suzanna Russell: 0000-0001-9146-756X
Associate Professor David Jenkins: 0000-0003-0596-9526
Dr Steven Rynne: 0000-0001-7417-7130
Dr Shona Halson: 0000-0002-1047-3878
Dr Vincent Kelly: 0000-0002-0342-6416
Word count abstract: 249
Word count paper: 3941
Declaration of interest statement
Suzanna Russell, David G. Jenkins, Steven B. Rynne, Shona L. Halson and Vincent G. Kelly
declare they have no competing interests relevant to the content of this review.
Funding
Suzanna Russell is supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program
Government Scholarship and the Sport Performance Innovation and Knowledge Excellence
(SPIKE) unit within the Queensland Academy of Sport.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study
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Ethical approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the
ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964
Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards
Abstract
Purpose: Mental fatigue is a psychobiological state caused by prolonged periods of demanding
cognitive activity shown to negatively influence physical performance. Variation exists across
the literature regarding the manifestations and impact of mental fatigue; with little knowledge
of the domain-specific manifestations in elite sport. The difficulties in defining mental fatigue
may explain why it is not consistently assessed by coaching or support staff. The aim of this
study was therefore to investigate athlete and staff understandings of mental fatigue in elite
sport. Methods: Nine focus group discussions were conducted involving a total of 32 athletes
(n =17) and staff (n = 15) from elite sporting organisations. Results: Athletes and staff believe
mental fatigue negatively impacts sporting performance. Analysis revealed perceived
associations between mental fatigue and changes in behaviour including; disengagement,
decreased motivation and enthusiasm, increased displays of emotion and withdrawal. Changes
in concentration, decreased discipline and attention to detail also emerged as descriptors of
mental fatigue. Media engagements, study and work commitments were reported to induce
mental fatigue. Repetitive tasks, over-analysis, thinking about the sport in question and
environmental instability were further reported perceived causes. Experience and personality
emerged as factors contributing to individual susceptibility. Mental fatigue is perceived to not
only develop acutely but also build in a cumulative manner in the elite sporting environment.
Conclusion: The present findings inform the design of future studies examining MF in elite
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athletes; they also hold potential to improve how best to monitor and manage the condition in
applied practice.
Keywords
Cognitive fatigue
Cognitive demand
High-performance sport
Athlete monitoring
Athlete wellness
Introduction
Mental fatigue (MF) is defined as a psychobiological state caused by prolonged periods of
demanding cognitive activity (Desmond and Hancock, 2001; Job and Dalziel, 2001). MF holds
the potential to negatively influence an athlete’s performance; research shows reduced
performance in endurance based activities and in tasks involving a high degree of technical
skill and decision-making (M. R. Smith et al., 2018; Van Cutsem, Marcora, et al., 2017).
However, little is known of the domain-specific manifestations of MF in elite athletes. There
is a lack of clarity in both the definition of MF and how to assess what constitutes a mentally
fatigued state in elite sport settings.
A combination of subjective, behavioural and/or physiological manifestations have been used
to identify MF (Van Cutsem, De Pauw, et al., 2017). In the literature, the frequently reported
subjective signs of MF include feelings of tiredness, lack of energy and decreased motivation
and alertness (Van Cutsem, Marcora, et al., 2017). Behaviourally, a decline in accuracy and/or
reaction time responses in a cognitive task have been used (Van Cutsem, Marcora, et al., 2017).
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Furthermore, an increased resistance to further effort and propensity towards less analytic
processing have been found with MF (van der Linden, Frese, & Meijman, 2003).
Physiologically, in the exercise setting, alterations in brain activity through
electroencephalography have been shown to coincide with MF and impairments in cycling
performance (Pires et al., 2018; Van Cutsem, Marcora, et al., 2017). Given that the
manifestations of MF depend upon the specific nature of the investigation or task at hand, it is
not surprising that variation exists across the literature, both within and between domains.
Task-specific manifestations limit the direct transferability of many of the findings to elite
athletes.
In the elite sporting environment, fatigue is a closely monitored variable with over 90% of
coaches implementing a form of training monitoring of their athletes (Halson, 2014; Taylor,
Chapman, Cronin, Newton, & Gill, 2012). Indeed, coaches and support staff across a range of
different sports include wellness variables as part of athlete self-report measure systems and
fatigue monitoring (Taylor, et al., 2012). Such parameters; including ratings of rating of
perceived exertion (RPE) and the abbreviated profile of mood states (POMS) vigour scale,
have been demonstrated to be sensitive to MF (Marcora, Staiano, & Manning, 2009; Saw,
Main, & Gastin, 2015). However, the MF of athletes is not a variable specifically and
consistently assessed by coaching staff. No published literature to date has reported the
monitoring of MF in athletes. One reason for this may be the difficulty in defining MF.
Recently, M. R. Smith, et al. (2018) proposed a conceptual model of MF specific to soccer
performance. The model defines the soccer-specific stimuli, mechanisms and outcomes of MF
(M. R. Smith, et al., 2018). While the model advances the understanding of MF in soccer, there
remains a need to more broadly investigate MF across elite sport so as to improve monitoring
and assessment of MF in elite athletes. In addition, better defining MF will help to improve the
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ecological validity of future research into MF, a major limitation of previous work in the field
(Mitchell R Smith, Coutts, et al., 2016). Collectively, this will strengthen the evidence-base to
support consideration of MF by coaching and support staff working with elite athletes (Coutts,
2017). The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the perceptions of athletes and staff
across a variety of elite sport contexts regarding their understandings of MF.
Method
A qualitative research approach was used (Sparkes and Smith, 2013) supported by
recommendations by Coutts (2017) and Harper and McCunn (2017) as a mean to bridge the
gap between research and practice for those intending to use research to influence applied
practice. A post-positivist perspective recognising the contextually bound nature of the findings
to understand the meaning of human experiences was adopted (Greenfield, Greene, &
Johanson, 2007). Focus groups were used to capitalise on group dynamics and capture
perceptions of a range of relevant individuals (Harper and McCunn, 2017).
Participants and data collection
Participants needed to have adequate experience working in an elite sporting environment
either as an athlete (>2 years) or coach, assistant coach, sports scientist, physiotherapist,
dietitian, psychologist or team manager (>5 years). Such elite sport environments are
characterised by a multitude of demands; thus the modern athlete requires the highest level of
commitment to meet demanding selection and performance criteria whilst maintaining a
positive public image through media, social and community engagements among unforgiving
training and competition schedules (Joyce and Lewindon, 2014). Fifteen coaches, sports
scientists and medical personnel currently or recently involved in athletics (2), Australian rules
football (3), cricket (4), netball (8), rugby (6), basketball (2), hockey (1) and soccer (1) at the
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elite level volunteered to participate in the study. Seventeen athletes currently competing in
cricket (5), netball (11) and rugby (2) sporting codes also participated. Athletes represented
their country and/or involved with open selection teams e.g. Big Bash League (BBL), Suncorp
Super Netball (SSN) etc. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants
included in the study with both males and females involved. To improve engagement, data
quality and maintain aspects of confidentiality, focus groups were separated by both sporting
code and role; athletes and staff participated in separate focus group discussions. The primary
purpose behind this structuring approach was to reduce the impact of interaction effects and
positional role influencing the openness and selected responses during discussions (Sparkes
and Smith, 2013). Each focus group was facilitated by the head researcher and the study was
approved by the School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences Ethics Committee within
The University of Queensland (HMS17/2505).
Topics of Discussion
Guiding questions were developed to prompt relevant discussion around MF in the elite
sporting environment (Harper and McCunn, 2017). Guiding topics included, but were not
limited to; current roles and involvement with elite sport, perceptions of descriptors and
associated symptoms and the potential impact and causes of MF.
Audio recording, transcription and analysis
Each discussion was recorded (Olympus WS-853, Olympus, America) for verbatim
transcription by a professional transcription company. A unique identifier code was assigned
and data were labelled accordingly. Hierarchical content analysis was used to establish
dimensions and themes (Sparkes and Smith, 2013). Following immersion in and thus
familiarisation with the data achieved through repetitive listening and reading by the lead
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researcher, segments of meaningful information were identified for coding. Meaningful
information was connected and ordered to established general dimensions and higher order
themes (Sparkes and Smith, 2013) with the aid of Excel (Microsoft, 2018). The data were cross-
checked by the lead researcher, re-examining the raw data to ensure appropriate exploration,
identification of relevant information, and interpretation (Sparkes and Smith, 2013). Following
this, a ‘critical friends process’ (B. Smith and McGannon, 2017) was completed, with
interpretations of the lead researcher discussed with individuals who held experience in elite
sporting environments. Accordingly, the construction of knowledge was challenged to develop
rigor without the use of processes such as member checking and inter-rater reliability
assessments, which have previously been reviewed as limited methodologies for verification,
trustworthiness and reliability purposes (B. Smith and McGannon, 2017). Findings were then
visualised to display the generated themes (Sparkes and Smith, 2013) using Wordle (IBM
Corporation, Jonathan Feinberg, 2014) online software.
Results
The average recorded discussion duration for each focus group was 27.38 7.82 minutes.
Through exploration of both individual and group perspectives data saturation was deemed to
be met (Fusch and Ness, 2015). Analysis revealed five distinct general dimensions; (1)
descriptors and symptoms, (2) distinguishing mental and physical fatigue, (3) temporal nature,
(4) causes and inducement, and (5) impact. The hierarchical context to the higher order themes
within these dimensions and quotes associated with the lower order themes are expanded on
under the heading of each general dimension. Figures 1 and 2 visually represent the hierarchical
nature of selected higher-order themes and verbatim quotations provided in Tables 1 and 2 add
further context to the development of such themes.
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Descriptors and Symptoms
Common themes for descriptors and symptoms of MF are represented in the word cloud
presented in Figure 1.
[INSERT FIGURE 1 approximately here]
Change in behaviour was the most commonly reported theme regarding the definition and
description of MF symptoms. The most frequently identified behaviours related to
disengagement, decreased motivation and reduced enthusiasm. Further, increased displays of
emotion and a tendency to withdraw emerged as changes in behaviour occurring with MF.
Athletes and staff also perceived changes in concentration, with difficulties concentrating or
an increased demand to concentrate being symptoms associated with MF. In addition, athletes
commonly perceived feelings of an active or ‘full brain’ when experiencing MF. Staff
frequently discussed themes of decreased discipline and a lack of attention to detail. Despite
reporting these changes, staff commonly noted challenges in accurately identifying MF.
Distinguishing mental and physical fatigue
One such challenge related to distinguishing between mental and physical fatigue. Table 1
provides sample quotes from staff reflecting the divergence between mental and physical
fatigue being hard to decouple and perceptions of a distinguishable difference.
Temporal nature of MF
Another general dimension developed was the temporal nature of MF and whether mental
fatigue was an acute or cumulative concept. A cumulative nature emerged as a strong theme
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however an interactive and temporal nature of the conceptualisation was also suggested.
Quotes providing context to the emergence of these themes are shown in Table 1.
[INSERT TABLE 1 approximately here]
Causes and Inducement of Mental Fatigue
A visual representation of combined athlete and staff perceptions of what induces MF in
athletic populations is shown in Figure 2.
Fig 2 - Word cloud presenting nature of perceived causes or inducers of MF
[INSERT FIGURE 2 approximately here]
A higher order theme that was developed related to the presence and nature of other
commitments (e.g. external study or emotionally challenging work, media and sponsorship
engagements, driving between commitments under time pressure, and managing relationship
dynamics). Further, the impact of the athlete feeling unfamiliar or unsettled because of constant
changes in the environment was a higher order theme associated with MF as demonstrated
through staff quotations in Table 2. The professional nature of sport (e.g. contract negotiations)
was noted as another important factor contributing to athletes not ‘switching off’ and thus
experiencing MF. The repetitive nature of activities (e.g. training drills and over analysis by
coaches), the need for regular problem solving, and constantly thinking about the sport in
question were also perceived to contribute to the levels of MF experienced by athletes. Further,
staff commonly noted the lengthy duration of activities, the nature of the sport, and information
overload to be inducers of MF. The likelihood of athletes experiencing MF was raised, with
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experience and personality noted as important determinants. It was generally perceived that
experience reduced the likelihood of encountering MF, however it was acknowledged that MF
may be harder to detect in those with a greater playing age.
Impact of mental fatigue
Performance was a major higher order theme that emerged when discussing the impact of MF.
Another commonly reported theme was MF making an activity feel harder and requiring an
increased effort. Athletes in particular commented on the need to put in more effort to achieve
required outputs and perceptions of feeling physically tired when experiencing MF. Aligned
with this, MF was perceived to be associated with athletes “going through the motions”; simply
following an instruction, rather than performing activities with the required intensity. Both
athletes and staff reported a perceived negative influence of MF on response and reaction time.
Interestingly a decrease in impulse control was discussed by staff and raised by athletes as a
perceived impact of MF. Table 2 provides sample quotes to demonstrate these themes.
[INSERT TABLE 2 approximately here]
Discussion
The findings in this study included perceived descriptors and symptoms of MF that extend
beyond commonly expressed feelings of tiredness and lack of energy. A unique perspective
related to the temporal nature of MF was also outlined with both acute and cumulative aspects
of MF highlighted. Further, knowledge was advanced through the detailing of a multitude of
activities undertaken both within and beyond the boundaries of the elite sporting environment
identified as perceived causes of MF. Collectively, the findings support MF being perceived to
negatively impact elite sporting performance in both competition and training settings. The
12
information builds upon the previously utilised definition of MF(Van Cutsem, Marcora, et al.,
2017) offering a more complete and contemporary definition which adds context specific depth
to the meaning of MF in the elite sporting environment.
Descriptors & Symptoms
The identification of a change in behaviour being indicative of MF matches well with a
traditional definition of (physical) fatigue; “failure to maintain the required or expected force”
(Edwars, 1983). Athlete-specific applied definitions of fatigue proposed by Knicker, Renshaw,
Oldham, & Cairns (2011) of “a reduced capacity for maximal performance” and Halson (2014)
“an inability to complete a task that was once achievable within a recent time frame” support
that a change in ability, output or behaviour is a central characteristic of fatigue. Thus, the
emergence of a change in behaviour as a symptom or descriptor of MF is logical and proposed
as an important component in detecting and conceptualising MF in the context of elite sport.
More specifically, decreased motivation and enthusiasm and increased levels of disengagement
as reported by athletes and staff add to the previously established symptoms of low levels of
energy and feelings of tiredness. A relationship between MF and motivation (Boksem,
Meijman, & Lorist, 2006; Lorist et al., 2009) and changes in effort/reward evaluations and
subsequent motivation (Lorist, et al., 2009) have also previously been established. Further,
fatigue has been shown to negatively impact task engagement where mental effort is required
(Van Cutsem, Marcora, et al., 2017). Exercise-specific research has concluded that MF
significantly reduces percentage time-on-task during a bodyweight resistance training task;
supporting a reduction in physical engagement with an exercise task when experiencing a state
of MF (Head et al., 2016). Higher perceptions of effort for the same exercise task have
previously provided a plausible explanation for earlier task disengagement when cognitively
13
fatigued (Marcora, et al., 2009). Accordingly, it remains reasonable to position disengagement,
i.e. less time directly involved in a task, as a potential sign of MF which should be considered
in athletic populations. From a practical perspective however, consideration of the difficulties
in appraising motivation and disengagement through self-report in the applied sport research
setting due to social desirability bias and the impact of incentive should be acknowledged
(Martin, Meeusen, Thompson, Keegan, & Rattray, 2018).
Athletes are required to maintain concentration to make both fast and accurate decisions during
competition for a prolonged period of time (Williams, 2000). Difficulty concentrating on the
task at hand when experiencing a state of MF has been reported across the literature (Mitchell
R Smith, Zeuwts, et al., 2016). Thus, the association between changes in concentration and
MF, as raised by athletes and staff in the elite sporting environment, is a plausible and rational
suggestion. The concept of an over-active or ‘full brain’ raised by athletes also relates, with an
increased perception of irrelevant stimuli, reducing the ability to effectively use available cues
(Mitchell R Smith, Coutts, et al., 2016). The impact of increased mental and concentration
demands or difficulty concentrating as a result of MF may be reasonably speculated to impact
technical skill outputs. A decline in technical skill associated with decreased accuracy when
experiencing MF has previously been reported (Mitchell R Smith, Coutts, et al., 2016).
Consequently, MF should be considered in practice as a plausible explanation for both
subjective reports of changes in concentration and tangible outcomes such as skill execution.
Outside the context of elite sport, MF has previously been reported to impair emotional
regulation (Grillon, Quispe-Escudero, Mathur, & Ernst, 2015). As such it has previously been
recommended that athletes avoid cognitive tasks that require response inhibition, such as
controlling anger in a pre-competition media interview (Marcora, et al., 2009). The emergence
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of a lack of discipline as a higher order theme is also conceivably explained by a lack of
response inhibition as a result of MF. The potential for MF to impact on discipline in areas of
nutritional strategies such as post training protein ingestion, preparation, and athletes’ timely
entry of daily athlete self-report measures, as highlighted by staff, should be given due
consideration.
Distinguishing mental and physical fatigue
As raised by a participating staff member, from a practical perspective, it may be beneficial to
help athletes distinguish between physical and mental fatigue to address the appropriate
management of fatigue encountered in the applied environment (Taylor, et al., 2012). Barrett,
McLaren, Spears, Ward, & Weston (2018) demonstrated the capacity for athletes to
subjectively distinguish between origins of fatigue, through differential RPE scores for
breathlessness, leg muscle exertion and technical/cognitive exertion following English Premier
League games. However, objectively distinguishing between mental and physical fatigue
through physiological measures in the applied setting remains challenging (Russell, Jenkins,
Smith, Halson, & Kelly; Thompson et al., 2018). As such, this may be an outcome of further
research in the area that more clearly identifies and distinguishes symptoms and identifiers of
MF from physical fatigue.
Temporal nature of MF
Though only one study has considered a temporal component relating to MF (Vrijkotte et al.,
2018), chronic psychological recovery has previously been referred to by Kellmann (2010),
and van der Linden (2011) who discuss the concepts of acute MF and chronic MF. In the
present discussions, MF was considered to be a largely cumulative phenomenon, though acute
and chronic timeframes were both referred to. The current commonly utilised definition of MF
15
does not include reference to either an acute or chronic element manifestation of MF, yet the
design of studies investigating MF on physical or sporting performance follow approaches that
typically only consider the acute impact of MF. Studies that monitor MF over longer durations,
investigating the cumulative effects of repetitive acute bouts of MF may improve
understanding of MF in the elite sport setting.
Causes
Regardless of the demands that are responsible for the development of MF, the same
neurobiological mechanisms and physiology underpin the state, irrespective of context.
However, to better understand how MF develops in elite athletes, it is reasonable that future
research adopts and uses tasks and demands specific to athletes engaging in particular sports
and activities. This will improve the translation of research to practice in elite sport settings
(Russell, et al.; Thompson, et al., 2018).
The identification by athletes that; over-analysis of performance, an excessive amount of
instructions or discussion on the field of play during training drills, and post-game reflections
and media engagement contribute to MF aligns with research findings showing that both
repetitive and prolonged duration activities will cause MF. Deliberate strategic periodisation is
regularly utilised in elite sport to promote planned peaking (Robertson and Joyce, 2018) and
avoid athlete staleness (Joyce and Lewindon, 2014). Thus, it is a commonly accepted practice
to optimise athlete preparedness, avoid boredom and maintain motivation, however the present
findings support that improved structuring should also be a direct consideration when
periodising training. Adjustment of scheduling within the control of individual organisations,
such as adequate pre-game time away from mentally fatiguing tasks, limiting cognitively
16
demanding sessions to a short duration, or prioritising recovery following a later competition
time, may assist in mitigating the development of MF.
Consideration should be given to the surrounding environment and its potential to induce MF,
specifically unexpected changes in the external environment, experiencing a new place or
location, and a lack of ability to find comfort through inconsistency. The perception that a lack
of staff cohesion is a contributor to the inducement of MF within the elite sporting environment
is a novel and practically interesting finding. This is broadly supported by associations between
higher quality of the coach-athlete relationship and better cognitive performance in team sport
university level athletes (Davis, Appleby, Davis, Wetherell, & Gustafsson, 2018). Accordingly,
practical balance to avoid monotony whilst creating a degree of change that is not above what
is manageable for athletes to feel comfort and clarity may be recommended to minimise the
chances of inducing MF through environmental factors. In addition, selecting and training
individuals to tolerate and cope with such changes through development of resilience to MF
may be another approach with potential benefit.
It has been previously considered that individuals vary in their susceptibility or resistance to
MF (Martin et al., 2016). In the present discussions, more experienced athletes were generally
perceived to have a greater resistance to MF. Staff also commented on the potential for a higher
athlete intellect to increase likelihood of experiencing MF as induced through aforementioned
over-analysis and information processing. Awareness of individual differences and
identification of those who are particularly susceptible to MF may assist coaches in managing
the condition in elite sport (Joyce and Lewindon, 2014).
Impact
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Findings demonstrating an increase in perceived exertion with MF (Van Cutsem, Marcora, et
al., 2017) align with athletes’ perceptions of tasks feeling harder when experiencing MF.
Perception of effort, rather than cardiorespiratory or musculoenergetic factors, has previously
been suggested as the mechanism behind reduced exercise tolerance by (Marcora, et al., 2009).
This suggestion is supported by the recent theoretically plausible physiological explanation for
the greater perception of effort experienced with MF (Martin, et al., 2018). A more unique
finding was the present coaching and support staff’s belief that with MF, quality of movement
and intensity are compromised. Further, a decreased awareness and the ability to make correct
decisions with MF was also raised in reference to both competition and training practices;
outcomes of MF that have been identified in previous studies (M. R. Smith, et al., 2018). The
ability to make impulsive, and potentially incorrect decisions when experiencing MF may be
linked to the perception that an athlete has a diminished ability to control emotional responses
and decreased impulse control. The present findings position the impact of MF on intent,
movement quality, decision-making and reaction time in athletic populations as areas worthy
of further investigation.
Limitations
While attempts were made to incorporate a variety of perspectives and contexts, the bounded
nature of the results are acknowledged. For example, findings may not necessarily have direct
applicability to elite sporting organisations outside Australia. As per the purpose, findings are
specific to the elite sporting environment and whether the perceptions can be directly translated
to amateur level sport is not known. Although both males and females participated in
discussion groups gender specific perceptions and manifestations were not explored.
Practical applications
18
MF is perceived by athletes and staff to negatively influence performance in both
training and competition: positioning MF as one of many significant factors in the elite
sporting environment worthy of consideration
Identified sport-specific manifestations of MF may forthright be used as indicators of
MF with athletic populations.
Subjective measures worthy of consideration are ratings of; motivation, enthusiasm,
disengagement, ease of concentration and perceived exertion (in context of physical
load).
Observable changes in behaviour proposed to be indicative of MF include; displays of
withdrawal or simply ‘going through the motions’, decreased discipline and impulse
control, lack of attention to detail and the objective measurement of reaction time.
Practitioners should be aware of likely individual variability in susceptibility to MF;
with level of experience and (sporting) intelligence emerging as contributing factors.
MF has previously been demonstrated to occur acutely, thus a rapid onset impact should
be considered. However, perceptions indicate repetitive bouts of exposure may in fact
lead to MF building in a cumulative manner.
Appropriately structuring and managing activities may aid in mitigating the potential
negative effects of MF. Employment of strategies such as; periodising training to
provide appropriate variability, structuring tasks to avoid repetition or a long duration
of activities, providing environmental stability, enforcing avoidance of activities
requiring response inhibition pre-game such as media engagements, and prioritising
mental in addition to physical recovery are currently proposed.
Development of the capacity to cope with MF naturally induced in the elite sporting
environment through appropriate athlete section and training may also benefit
19
Conclusion
The present study positions MF as a factor perceived to negatively influence elite sport
performance. The findings support the notion that difficulties in clearly defining MF limit the
current monitoring and management of MF in the applied environment. Establishment of
perceived domain-specific descriptors and symptoms of MF inform subjective and behavioural
manifestations of MF in the elite environment that extend beyond feelings of increased
tiredness and low levels of energy. Indeed, a number of commonly monitored or observed
variables, such as motivation and perceived exertion, may be used in combination with
additional factors, to indicate athletes who may be experiencing MF. Further research to
confirm correlational and scientifically rigorous relationships between emerging symptoms
and MF is, however, needed. Consideration for individual variability in susceptibility and
resilience to MF is required by practitioners and in future research designs. MF is perceived to
not only develop acutely but also build in a cumulative manner and this knowledge should
inform the development of future research studies and the monitoring of MF in applied settings.
The multitude of identified inducers of MF can be used by practitioners to reduce perceived
MF and inform the development of sports-specific mentally fatiguing tasks, in turn holding
potential to create practically translatable research findings.
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Figure Legends
Fig 1 - Word cloud presenting nature of perceived descriptors and symptoms of MF
Fig 2 - Word cloud presenting nature of perceived causes or inducers of MF
Table 1 - Quotations from discussion groups demonstrating perceived descriptors,
distinguishing features and the temporal nature of mental fatigue
General
Dimension
Higher Order
Theme
Quotation
Descriptors
and
Symptoms
Decreased
motivation &
enthusiasm
“when mentally fatigued motivation - ahh this again -
rather than enthusiasm - dips, tell-tale sign” – staff
Disengagement
“disengaging, holding back, taking a bit longer to
actually get the information and process it, and
actually make any sense of it" - staff
Emotional
response
“if I wasn’t mentally fatigued, I feel like I’d be able to
control my emotions a bit more” – athlete
Concentration
“I’m really concentrating on this part, but usually it
just flows” - athlete
Discipline
“just not paying the attention to detail to the little
things that they normally would" (in a one-off
session) – staff
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Distinguishing
Mental and
Physical
Fatigue
Hard to
decouple
"They could be coupled though, because when you're
mentally fatigued you'll be physically pretty
exhausted. Well typically, so how do you decouple
that? - staff
Distinguishable
difference
"physically yes, their fatigued, but I think they are
able to stay on top of that, but there's this mental
fatigue element that is then coming onto court and just
general interactions" – staff
Temporal
Nature
Cumulative
"build over the course of the season, but peaks and
troughs are relevant for different people at different
times" - staff
Acute &
Cumulative
“I sometimes get mentally fatigued in a game, which
is different to my mental fatigue from doing too much
outside” - athlete
"sometimes it can sneak up on you. you feel like its
acute, but if you thought back to what you’ve done in
the past few days” – athlete
Acute
“depends on during the session – five, ten-minute
period, go through the motions and come back” -
athlete
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Table 2 - Quotations from discussion groups demonstrating perceived causes and impact of
mental fatigue
General
Dimension
Higher Order
Theme
Quotation
Causes and
Inducement
Other
Commitments
“I’m exhausted when I rock up to training, even though
I’ve been sitting at a desk, and I’m hopeless… physically
the toll is taken, where, really it’s just been mentally
draining” – athlete
Environment
"experiencing something for the first time, its daunting, if
the environment just keeps changing, nothing consistent
and can’t find comfort" – staff
Professionalism
“All their extra-circular stuff like interviews and
sponsorship things and club appearances and launch
nights, and now they are all getting individual
sponsorships. The business side of being an athlete" – staff
Over-Analysis
“trying to find answers, problem solving and coming to a
solution is energy zapping” – athlete
Experience
“seasoned athlete bit harder to pick up mental fatigue, can
get through the motions easier, but newbies may be a little
more obvious that they’re fatigued” - staff
Impact
Performance
“when I turn up to a session like I’m physically 100%, but
if I’m mentally fatigued, it’s useless” – athlete
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“maybe I’ll be like 10% worse… it wouldn’t affect me
massively but it’d be a noticeable difference” – athlete
Harder than
what it should
be / Increased
effort
“when you are mentally fatigued, the physical stuff seems
harder just makes you think you are more physically tired”
- athlete
“you’re not quite alert, you’re not quite there, so you put
in more effort” - athlete
Decision-
making
“struggle to make quick decisions as I would at the start of
the game, I find it hard to make the good decisions” –
athlete
"mentally fatigued, so decision making skills really suffer"
– staff
Response time
“where you have to respond to things that are going on,
just do like things, that are happening like a little bit
slower” – athlete
Mistakes
"Olympic lifting attempting to cue - complex movement,
technique mistakes can’t correct" - staff
Impulse
Control
"poor decision-making, concentration, impulse control" –
athlete
"diminished willpower, no will power to fight that" - staff
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