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Soil for Sustainable Environment and Ecosystems Management
Abstract
India shares 2% of the world’s geographical area supporting 18% human population
and 15% livestock population. Soil is the largest pool on the earth having the
capacity to sequester and store a million ton of C (carbon) as soil organic carbon
(SOC) pool and in plant as vegetation’s C pool. It helps to reduce atmospheric C
and minimize free movement of several GHGs (greenhouse gases) in the atmosphere
which forms the basis of global warming that becomes a major concern
today. Soils support all organisms (perennial trees as vegetations, crops, animals,
and humans) and harbor a variety of organisms (both micro and macro) which is
prerequisite for smooth functioning of the ecosystem. These entire organisms
link among them and help in augmenting quality and health of soils through
decaying and decomposition of dead plants (by microorganism, earthworm, etc.)
and release several essential nutrients which is the basis of life for plant, animal,
and humans. Although, healthy soil gives healthy ecosystem services along with
environmental, ecological, and food and nutrition security (FNS). From an
Indian perspective, major soil type includes Inceptisols (95.8 Mha), Entisols
(80.1 Mha), and Alfisols (79.7 Mha) sharing 77.76% of land cover. C sequestration
capacity of soil is a very good strategy for targeting the goal of FNS along
with enhancement of soil health and quality. Good soil can enhance productivity
of both land and crops, which secure food and nutritional consumption of varying
organisms and sort out the problem of food insecurity. The present chapter
deals with the issues related to soil, environment, and their sustainability perspective.
In this context, sustainable soil management (SSM) performs good job
and helps in maintaining organic carbon (OC) stock which improve fertility and
physiochemical properties of soil that significantly affects yield parameter of
crops (productivity), water availability and use efficiency, and health of soil-inhabiting
organism and whole ecosystem processes.
... A combination of signifcant, inorganic, radioactive, and natural metals can be found in the mechanical waste [3][4][5]. Soil provides a crucial environment for various forms of life, including plants, microorganisms, and animals [6]. It supports ecosystems and contributes to numerous ecological processes. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of salicylic acid (SA) on wheat subjected to cadmium (Cd) stress. The experiments were conducted during the winter season of 2022-2023 (November to February) at the University of the Punjab in Lahore, Pakistan. The study involved four wheat varieties: Akbar-2019, Galaxy-2013, Ujala-16, and Chakwal-86. The study utilized a factorial design with three replicates, examining three Cd levels (0.1 mM, 0.2 mM, and 0.3 mM) and two SA levels (0.5 mM and 0.9 mM). SA was applied as a seed priming agent, while cadmium sulfate (CdSO4) solution induced Cd toxicity. Various growth parameters, including plant height, total plant length, leaf length, leaf breadth, and leaf area, were measured alongside physiological and biochemical parameters such as total chlorophyll content, carotenoid content, oxidative stress indicators (MDA and H2O2), and antioxidants (total soluble protein, CAT, and APX)—to assess the effects of SA under Cd stress. The results indicated that the application of 0.5 mM SA resulted in the highest vegetative growth and maximum physiological and biochemical parameters, while 0.3 mM Cd significantly reduced growth. The performance of the treatments was observed in the following order: 0.5 mM SA > 0.3 mM Cd. Ujala-16 showed intermediate growth and yield, while Chakwal-86 had the lowest growth rate and yield. The study demonstrated that SA mitigates Cd stress effects, with 0.9 mM SA and 0.1 mM Cd yielding the highest growth, second only to 0.5- and 0.9-mM SA treatments. These findings underscore the potential of SA to enhance wheat growth and yield in Cd-contaminated soils. In conclusion, SA is suggested as a beneficial treatment for improving productivity and economic returns in Cd-stressed areas. Future recommendations include conducting long-term studies to evaluate cumulative treatment effects and investigating how salicylic acid mitigates cadmium stress through biochemical pathways and gene expression, enhancing agricultural practices.
... Soil is a vital natural resource that plays a crucial role in supporting life on Earth. It provides the foundation for most terrestrial ecosystems, including agriculture, forestry, and natural habitats (Marchi et al. 2018;Raj et al. 2019;Yin et al. 2022). However, the soil system in the Global South, particularly in Africa, is facing various threats that require sustainable management strategies to ensure its long-term viability (Nguyen et al. 2023). ...
This chapter provides an overview of the status of soil systems in the Global South, with a particular focus on Africa. Soil is a vital natural resource that plays a crucial role in supporting life on Earth, but it faces threats from all quarters, ranging from land degradation to the impacts of climate change. Thus, climate-smart management strategies are required to ensure sustainable use of this resource. The status of the soil in Africa is characterized by a range of factors, including soil type, climate, vegetation cover, and land use patterns. The chapter discusses the diverse range of soil types found in Africa and the highly variable climate across the continent. It also highlights the importance of soil in sustaining agriculture, forestry, and natural habitats. The need for sustainable management strategies to address the threats facing the soil system in the Global South, including soil degradation, erosion, and pollution is emphasized. Overall, this chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the status of soil systems in the Global South and highlights the urgent need for sustainable management strategies to ensure its long-term viability.
... This approach has directly contributed to the degradation of soil's natural fertility (Lal, 2015). Soil, a vital natural resource, is essential for sustaining human life by providing food for generations (Raj et al., 2019). The reliance on sophisticated mechanisms and synthetic chemicals to boost productivity has been pursued without fully understanding the long-term consequences, particularly in the context of climate change. ...
Background: This study investigates the sustainability of future food production by examining current intensive high-yield cultivation practices and their long-term impacts. With the global population projected to reach 10 billion by 2050, the demand for food will escalate, leading to increased use of chemical inputs in agriculture. This practice poses a significant threat to soil fertility, potentially rendering it infertile for future generations. Presently, food scarcity affects millions, with 80 million people lacking adequate food and 2 million dying annually due to hunger-related issues. If these trends persist, the impact will extend from low-income countries to middle-income and developed nations. Objective: The study highlights the urgent need for strategic and practical approaches to mitigate these challenges. It underscores the detrimental effects of current agricultural practices on human health, including a rise in chronic diseases and genetic impacts on future generations. The research draws on interviews, case studies, and focus group discussions with farmers to understand their motivations and knowledge regarding sustainable practices. It also analyses the transition from traditional to modern agricultural methods in Telangana state over five years of doctoral research. Recommendations: Based on this comprehensive analysis, the paper provides strategic recommendations for Small Scale Growers (SSGs) to achieve sustainable development goals, eradicate future hunger, and preserve soil fertility. The proposed strategies include controlling soil erosion, minimizing synthetic fertilizer use, eliminating herbicides, and promoting effective soil ploughing and residue management. By integrating traditional knowledge with modern practices, these recommendations aim to enhance agricultural productivity while safeguarding environmental and human health. This study calls for immediate action to implement these strategies at the ground level to ensure a sustainable future for food production.
... The conservation of the soil is very important, though it is a non-renewable natural resource which has become a key global concern because soils are a limited resource (Aleminew and Alemayehu, 2020). Therefore, its conservation plays a huge role such as supporting farming, sustaining species, and controlling water quality in the world (Raj et al., 2019). Then again, the adverse consequences of climate change, massive human encroachment, and unwise land use have led to serious cases of soil erosion and degradation, which pose a real threat to the future viability of agricultural production as well as the general wellbeing of ecosystems (Hossain et al., 2020;. ...
Depending on the country, many challenges affect the availability and quality of food, as well as their nutritional status. This is due to intensive agriculture and the exploitation of external inputs, which are degrading the soil, water, and genetic resources, thereby affecting agricultural performance. Soil conservation is an effective and environmentally friendly technique for promoting modern agriculture that helps in the production of food without hurting the environment. Some of the systematic measures used in soil conservation are contour cultivation, terrace cultivation, cover crops, crop rotation, agroforestry, and the like. However, the application of these strategies is not exempt from difficulties, although they are one of the most promising sustainable solutions. These challenges include technological difficulties, the adoption of conservation tillage practices, and long-term research priorities. This is an attempt to provide a brief overview of various strategies in the field of soil conservation, the multifaceted challenges that arise in these processes, and the methods employed to address these difficulties. In conclusion, we feel that the Ministry needs to organize training programs on adequate measures for soil conservation, as policy assistance concerning capacity building is crucial. Given the challenges identified, it may be effective to introduce the elements of soil conservation into the ministries, departments, or institutions concerned and encourage local stakeholders to participate in the process of solution acceptance and implementation.
... Soil health refers to the overall condition and well-being of a soil ecosystem, encompassing its physical, chemical, and biological properties [61]. A healthy soil can sustain and support essential functions and processes while providing a productive environment for plants, animals, and microorganisms [62]. Trees in agroforestry systems are crucial in improving soil quality through various mechanisms and interactions. ...
Agroforestry combines tree crop cultivation with traditional farming, which ensures biodiversity conservation, food security, and climate change mitigation in the tropical regions. Notably, agroforestry systems reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and mitigate climate change issue through carbon sequestration. Trees in these systems capture and store carbon over extended periods, mitigating the greenhouse effect by decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide gas concentrations while diminishing methane and nitrous oxide emissions. Furthermore, these systems offer vital habitat provisions with diverse vegetation, nurturing various species and fostering ecological equilibrium, acting as critical biodiversity corridors that connect fragmented habitats and facilitate genetic diversity. Beyond ecological benefits, trees within agroforestry systems serve as invaluable food resources and bear cultural significance deeply rooted in the history and heritage of local communities. Moreover, sustainable agroforestry practices improve soil health by enhancing soil organic carbon content, improving nutrient cycling, preventing erosion, addressing soil contaminants, and nurturing diverse soil biological communities. Additionally, agroforestry systems regulate microclimates, creating less stressful conditions for crops and livestock while providing numerous economic advantages, diversifying income sources, strengthening agricultural resilience, and contributing to local economies. Although they also aid in weed, pest, and disease control, their effectiveness may vary depending on specific design and management practices. This chapter delves into the intricate and mutually beneficial relationship between tree crops and ecosystems, highlighting their substantial advantages while acknowledging the challenges associated with implementing these synergies.
... In savannas, herbivorous animals and frequent fires either drive forest-grassland relationships (Erdős et al., 2022). The influence of forest fires on perennial plants at four locations such as high, medium, low, and non-fire regions within Bhoramdeo Wildlife Sanctuary in Chhattisgarh, India was reported (Raj et al., 2019) as number of species were endangered. Another team found that burning raised 19 species in the minimum density of about 668,000 ha − 1 throughout the pre-fire period and 30 species the quantity and 510, 000 density ha − 1 over the post-fire period (Awasthi et al., 2022). ...
... Sustainable agriculture is a technique to handle customary and practical issues related to environmentally friendly food processing (Raj et al. 2019). However, it is significant to understanding social and environmental realities due to the management and manufacturing activities functioning with renewable resources to reserve capital and minimize wastage and ecological deterioration while reserving/improving the productivity of farms. ...
Global warming is a life-threatening risk to mankind and its survival; to combat this risk, the considerable contribution of renewable energy cannot be overlooked for sustainable growth globally. The aim of this paper is to scrutinize the threshold level and asymmetric connection among renewable energy consumption, foreign direct investment, financial inclusion, and agricultural productivity in dissimilar regimes of the different income levels of 123 countries from 1995 to 2019 by applying an advance technique PSTR (panel smooth transition regression) model. The PSTR model results imply that the connection between renewable energy consumption and agricultural productivity at all the estimates is non-linear. Moreover, in all countries, there is a positive and significant connection among renewable energy consumption, foreign direct investment, financial inclusion, and agricultural productivity in both low and high regimes, except the carbon emission, which has a negative and significant impact on agricultural productivity. Based on the results of this study, the recommendations are as follows: (i) to increase renewable energy consumption, efficient-energy resources should be used by farmers for the agricultural process; (ii) the dependence on non-renewable energy resources should be minimized and shifted towards natural and renewable resources.
... All of these elements are reliant on one another for survival, resulting in a cleaner environment and a healthier ecosystem. Soils provide and control an extensive variety of ecosystem services and remain perilous to humanity's survival (Raj et al., 2019). Agriculture is strongly reliant on soil and crop biodiversity for ecological services (Di Falco & Zoupanidou, 2017). ...
Soil erosion valuation at a spatial scale is crucial for assessing natural resource quality in a farming country like Ethiopia. The study’s goal was to determine the rate of soil erosion in the Megech-Dirma catchment in Northwest Ethiopia using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation model aggregation with Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing. Sediment yield and transport were also estimated using sediment delivery ratio. Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation model data inputs included precipitation data for the R value, soil data for the K value, land cover data from satellite images for the C and P value, and topographical data from a Digital Elevation Model for the LS component. It was completed using the ArcGIS 10.4 software. The mean annual soil loss is 110.60 t ha−1 yr−1. Each year, a total of 8499.74 t ha−1 yr−1 of soil eroded and on average resulting in 1605.30 t/km2/yr, sediment material has been transported to the stream channels and deposited with a sediment delivery ratio of 1.87. The strength of soil erosion in the area is divided into six categories. The erosion rate classes were 46.38 percent (0–12 t ha−1 yr−1) low, 13.63 percent (12–20 ha−1 yr−1) moderate, 9.22 percent (20–35 ha−1 yr−1) high, 12.30 percent (35–50 ha−1 yr−1) very high, 7.20 percent (50 up to 100 ha−1 yr−1) severe, and 11.27 percent (>100 ha−1 yr−1) very severe erosion. According to erosion severity, 46.38 percent of the watershed is at risk of low erosion, while 11.27 percent is at risk of extremely severe erosion. The north and northeastern sections of the watershed have a moderate to extremely severe erosion risk due to steep slopes, high rainfall, and weak conservation measures. The severely eroded parts of the plateau and steep portions are proposed to be covered by plantation, stone bund, and check dam constructions.
... Soil carbon sequestration is another aspect of promoting SOC pools and other nutrients for maintenance of agroforestry system. In contrast to open type of nutrient cycling in sole cropping systems, agroforestry promotes close type of nutrient cycling that helps in conserving nutrients and make them available for plants for their proper growth and development [15]. In this context, a better soil management practices are very important for maintaining soil-food-climate security in developing countries where soil related problems are prominent such as desertification's, soil salinity, alkalinity and degraded land are extensively distributed which can be manage through a better practices of agroforestry systems of different models practices are also determine the sequestration potentials of agroforestry systems in the most parts of developing countries in the tropical world. ...
Bioremediation is a sustainable and eco-friendly approach which has gained prominence as a powerful tool in mitigating the adverse environmental impacts of soil and aquatic contamination. In contaminated soil, bioremediation techniques harness the remarkable metabolic capabilities of microorganisms to degrade, transform, or immobilize pollutants. Microbes, including bacteria, fungi, and archaea play pivotal roles in breaking down organic contaminants, such as hydrocarbons and pesticides, and in facilitating the removal of heavy metals through processes like biomineralization. Plant-assisted phytoremediation and engineered systems, like bio-augmentation and biostimulation, offer tailored solutions to address diverse soil contaminants. Recent research has explored the potential of synthetic biology to design custom microbes with enhanced remediation capabilities. In aquatic environments, bioremediation strategies are equally essential in combatting water pollution. Microbial communities, both free-living and associated with plants, contribute significantly to removing contaminants, including nutrients, petroleum hydrocarbons, and toxic metals. Natural systems such as wetlands and constructed treatment wetlands have proven effective in water purification. Additionally, biofilm-based approaches and genetically modified microorganisms promise to enhance the degradation of recalcitrant pollutants. This study provides an overview of the fundamental principles, strategies, and recent advancements in bioremediation; focusing on its application in both soil and aquatic environments with the importance of considering environmental conditions, microbial diversity, and biogeochemical processes. Moreover, it underscores the need for interdisciplinary collaboration among microbiologists, environmental engineers, ecologists, and geneticists to develop innovative and sustainable solutions. As society grapples with increasing pollution and its ecological consequences, bioremediation offers hope for restoring contaminated ecosystems, ultimately contributing to a more sustainable and healthier planet. The continuous evolution and refinement of bioremediation technologies are poised to play a pivotal role in addressing the pressing environmental challenges of our time.
Soil enzymes, which are crucial catalysts in soil nutrient cycling, are sensitive to heavy metals and metalloids (HMMs). Yet, the mechanistic understanding of soil enzyme activities (EAs) response to HMMs is still only rudimentarily known. By analyzing 1989 paired observations from 145 studies investigating HMMs effect on 14 enzymes, we found that HMMs decreased the activity of β-D-glucosidase (–25.3 %), cellulase (–10.3 %), urease (–26.8 %), protease (–22.5 %), phosphatase (–21.0 %), arylsulphatase (–37.0 %), catalase (–19.2 %) and dehydrogenase (–33.1 %), with natural ecosystems being more severely affected than croplands. This decrease in EAs was mainly due to decreased microbial biomass content and abundance and increased microbial metabolic quotient. However, HMMs increased polyphenol oxidase activity (82.2 %), possibly because HMMs can serve as cofactors or activators for polyphenol oxidase and/or because microbes produced it as a defense mechanism under stress. The response ratio of EAs is driven by cation exchange capacity (CEC) and dominantly influenced by soil organic carbon (SOC), clay, and bulk density (BD). Increased CEC, SOC and clay content and decreased BD reduced the negative effect of HMMs on EAs. Climate impact on the response ratio of EAs was mediated through soil properties. Our analysis provides a more holistic representation of EAs response to HMMs, offering comprehensive insights into the ecological consequences of HMMs on ecosystem functioning.
Soil degradation, resulting from improper agricultural practices and chemical processes, leads to nutrient depletion and pH changes, which affect soil fertility and crop productivity. However, understanding its impact on soil health and identifying mitigation strategies are crucial for improving and sustaining agricultural production and food security. Exposure of the soil environment to abiotic stresses intensifies chemical degradation, further compromising soil health and posing threats to agricultural production. On the other hand, agronomic practices such as tillage management, cropping geometry, nutrient application, and waste handling are crucial for sustainable crop cultivation in degraded soils. In this review, we discuss the harmful effects of elevated soil pH, salinity, and heavy metal stresses on soil degradation, as well as the reduction in nutrient availability and uptake, leading to nutrient deficiency in plants. This review explores various conventional methods, particularly organic and inorganic fertilizer management, to improve nutrient uptake and translocation in plants under chemically degraded soil conditions. In addition, we discuss sensor-based precision agricultural technologies that accurately monitor soil parameters to improve soil health. The potential of microbial biostimulants and biofortification techniques to enhance soil microbial health, promote long-term soil biodiversity, and ensure sustainable plant production is also addressed.
As the greatest repository of carbon on the planet’s surface, soil contains twice as much of the element as the atmosphere and two to three times more than all living things combined. A living, breathing natural object comprises solids, liquids, and gases in the soil. It acts as a home and food source for all living things, has water-filtering qualities, recycles waste, and may be used as a building material. However, our main focus will be on soil nutrition because of its vital functions in retaining water and nutrients for plant growth while also giving plants structural stability. Odisha’s tropical climate, deltaic and coastal areas, and geological development all contribute to the production of various soil types. In Odisha, eight major soil types may be divided into groups: red, red, yellow, black, laterite, deltaic alluvial, coastal saline, brown forest, and mixed red and black. This chapter includes a brief overview of Odisha’s soil nutrition, additional readily available geomaterials, common natural risks, the use of soils in various applications, the state-built structures, and a case study of soil data collected from several districts. This chapter’s material also addresses soil health and its application, giving readers a comprehensive overview of soil functionality and the state of soil conservation in Odisha. The scientific advancements, present knowledge, and outlook for future soil nutrient management practices in the agriculture industry are highlighted in this paper. The biological, chemical, and physical characteristics of soil critical to long-term, sustainable agricultural productivity with little negative environmental effect in various sections of Odisha are covered in this book chapter.
In the context of twenty-first-century challenges, a significant concern pertains to the ever-growing population and its need for food. This entails an increase in crop production by 50% to feed the projected global population of 9 billion by the year 2050. However, intensive agricultural practices, including monocropping, tillage, and excessive use of fertilisers and herbicides have been a major contributor to land degradation and several environmental issues.
The adoption of conservation farming practices has gained prominence in various regions across the globe as a response to the pressing need to combat land degradation while simultaneously contributing to food security and climate change adaptation. The few centimetres of topsoil serve as the bedrock upon which all civilisations rely, therefore, soil conservation is considered a critical aspect of sustainable land management, essential for preventing erosion, preserving soil health, and maintaining agricultural productivity. This chapter delves into various approaches, tools, and techniques employed in soil conservation. This work investigates both traditional and innovative methods, aiming to offer comprehensive insights into their effectiveness, limitations, and applicability across different environmental contexts. Soil conservation practices encompass conservation tillage, the adoption of mixed crop rotations, and the implementation of measures to increase and retain crop residues, all aimed at enhancing soil carbon sequestration and the associated co-benefits. These include improvement of soil structure, enhancement of nutrient cycling, increase in soil biological activity and diversity, preservation of water resources, and reduction of CO2 emissions. The use of erosion control structures and bioengineering techniques based on plant materials contribute also to mitigate the adverse effects of soil erosion along with fostering biodiversity and sustainability. Nonetheless, soil conservation practices must be tailored to fit pedo-climatic conditions, crop species, farmers’ socio-economic conditions, and technological advancement. Furthermore, diversification and combination of different soil conservation techniques and tools together with the use of the latest technologies such as GIS, remote sensing, and precision agriculture are required to effectively manage soil resources across scales. While economic constraints, knowledge gaps, and resistance to change may hinder the widespread adoption of soil conservation practices, strategies such as increased education, financial incentives, supportive policies, community cooperation, and advanced technologies can help overcome these barriers and promote sustainable soil management. By analyzing the latest research and case studies, this chapter seeks to provide a valuable resource for policymakers, land managers, and researchers to make informed decisions in promoting soil conservation and ensuring the future viability of our ecosystems.
This work is the result of a qualitative assessment of water erosion in the Oued Lakhdar watershed, located within the larger Oum Erbia watershed. The PAP/CAR model and geomatic tools were used for this evaluation. The Oum Erbia watershed, spanning 1664 km2, experiences severe erosion due to factors such as heavy and aggressive rainfall, steep slopes, sparse vegetation, and the predominance of soft rocks. Human activities, including deforestation, vegetation degradation, and inappropriate agricultural practices, have further exacerbated the erosion problem in the Oued Lakhdar watershed. The PAP/CAR method allowed for a qualitative assessment of erosion throughout the entire watershed and the identification of priority erosion zones. Data analysis using the PAP/CAR method revealed five main erosion states: extreme erosion (20.57%), strong erosion (18.56%), moderate erosion (23.02%), notable erosion (27.02%), and weak erosion (10.84%). In total, 62.15% of the watershed experiences moderate to extreme erosion.
The growing rate of climate change poses significant challenges to the health and functionality of soil, a crucial component of Earth’s ecosystems. As global temperatures rise and weather patterns grow more unpredictable, the effects on soil fertility, structure, and microbial diversity become more obvious. This research looks at the complex interaction between sustainable soil management methods and the dynamic difficulties offered by a changing climate. Drawing on multidisciplinary agronomy, soil science, ecology, and climatology research, we investigate novel ways to improve soil health, increase carbon sequestration, and mitigate climate-induced stresses. This study seeks to provide a complete overview of sustainable soil management options that combine agricultural production and environmental sustainability by reviewing current scientific knowledge and recent breakthroughs. This research is an invaluable resource for scientists, policymakers, and practitioners, providing a comprehensive knowledge of the complexity of soil management in light of climate change. Finally, the findings given herein aim to lead efforts toward guaranteeing soil long-term resilience and promoting sustainable land use practices for the sake of our world.
The study of the whole of the genetic material contained within the microbial populations found in a certain environment is made possible by metagenomics. This technique enables a thorough knowledge of the variety, function, and interactions of microbial communities that are notoriously difficult to research. Due to the limitations of conventional techniques such as culturing and PCR-based methodologies, soil microbiology is a particularly challenging field. Metagenomics has emerged as an effective technique for overcoming these obstacles and shedding light on the dynamic nature of the microbial communities in soil. This review focuses on the principle of metagenomics techniques, their potential applications and limitations in soil microbial diversity analysis. The effectiveness of target-based metagenomics in determining the function of individual genes and microorganisms in soil ecosystems is also highlighted. Targeted metagenomics, including high-throughput sequencing and stable-isotope probing, is essential for studying microbial taxa and genes in complex ecosystems. Shotgun metagenomics may reveal the diversity of soil bacteria, composition, and function impacted by land use and soil management. Sanger, Next Generation Sequencing, Illumina, and Ion Torrent sequencing revolutionise soil microbiome research. Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) and Pacific Biosciences (PacBio)'s third and fourth generation sequencing systems revolutionise long-read technology. GeoChip, clone libraries, metagenomics, and metabarcoding help comprehend soil microbial communities. The article indicates that metagenomics may improve environmental management and agriculture despite existing limitations.Metagenomics has revolutionised soil microbiology research by revealing the complete diversity, function, and interactions of microorganisms in soil. Metagenomics is anticipated to continue defining the future of soil microbiology research despite some limitations, such as the difficulty of locating the appropriate sequencing method for specific genes.
Yoruba homes are one of their most unique cultural representations of ecological connection to nature in everyday life. This is unmistakable in the different types of non-ornamental gardens that are usually in contiguity to the home buildings or in their courtyards. Also, planting of trees around home environments are usual practices. In view of the colonial origin of building and planning regulations in Nigeria like many other former colonies and the global realization of the efficacy of nature-based solutions to biogeophysical problems, understanding of these practices can shed light on the ecosystem services of the gardens to underscore Yoruba homes as multispecies settings. The aim of this chapter is to examine the operational mechanisms of wellbeing through indigenous knowledge system (IKS) of urban homegardens and situate them within the wider discourse of Yoruba ecological urbanism. This was carried out by transcending social, spatial, temporal, economic, intellectual, and religious boundaries in the Yoruba cities. Ecosystem services are discovered to be means of culturally institutionalizing kinship, ‘living’ memories, landscape management, tangible and intangible heritages. Others are environmental sustainability, soil management, ethnobotany, and general ethnobiological and ecological lifestyles. Likewise, the practices of urban homegardening by Yoruba people are embedded with deep IKS of many branches of agriculture and ecology. These include agronomy, soil science, horticulture, food science, agrometrology, agricultural economics, plant pathology, agricultural entomology, agro-forestry, poultry, fishery, snailry, among many others. These are discovered through interrogation of provisioning, supporting, regulating, and cultural ecosystem services of homegardens. The chapter concludes by arguing for the need to incorporate these IKS of homegardening into a review of the current planning and building regulations for human wellbeing. The current regulations have colonial origins and are situated within worldviews of the Global North. The next Chapter of the book discusses the distinctions between biophilic ideology and sacralisation of natural elements in Yoruba urbanism. This is to argue for the differences between the Global North and South on human relationships with the physical world of ecological elements of urban nature.KeywordsYoruba indigenous knowledge systemHomegardensProvisioning ecosystem servicesMedicinal plantsCultural ecosystem servicesHuman wellbeing
Land degradation is a pervasive environmental and economic challenge of the present time, especially in developing countries. Soil erosion caused by water is considered as one of the major types of land degradation processes. Soil loss estimation and detection of soil erosion-prone areas are the most important for agricultural planning and various other land management plannings in the recent era. The amount of annual average soil loss was calculated by using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model. This model was popularized for identifying soil loss zone areas or zones and soil erosion risk areas. This study provided a creditable prediction of soil erosion and the probable soil erosion severity zones of Jalpaiguri Sadar Block in Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal. GIS Environment was used to create the raster layer in the RUSLE factors. RUSLE data layers including rainfall erosivity (R), soil erodibility (K), slope length and steepness (LS), cover management (C), and conservation practice (P) factors were calculated to account for the average annual soil loss of the study area. The results of this work show that the range of soil erosion is >100.00 tons hac-1year-1 to <25.00 tons hac-1year-1 while the amount of soil erosion is more in the upper part of the Jalpaiguri Sadar block, mainly along the right bank of the Tista river and the bank of the Karala river, because the soil texture is very loose in nature and the area also receive heavy rainfall. Therefore, the high level of risk of soil erosion can be checked through the processes of various soil conservation techniques.
Turag, among all the rivers, is vital lifeblood for the metropolis of Dhaka. This study was carried out to investigate the vital causes of Turag River pollution and subsequent consequences for local inhabitants. The data for this exploratory study were gathered through qualitative analysis and a review of the relevant literature. Field visits were conducted, and relevant data were gathered through individual in-depth interviews (IDIs, N=70), focus group discussions (FGDs, N=02), and researcher observations combined with transect walk along the adjacent areas. The investigation discovered various causes of pollution in the Turag River, the two most significant of which are industrial effluents along with municipal and illegal residential sewage outfalls that release directly into the river. Likewise, abundant different types of garbage, fecal excrement, pesticides from nearby agricultural land, slaughterhouse wastes, spills from a variety of water vehicles, and other human activities such as housing projects and brickfield construction contribute to Turag water pollution. Manifest evidence has been found regarding the consequences of Turag River pollution having of dark color and perilous odor of the Turag River water; local people suffering from diseases such as allergy, skin infection, cold cough, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis, typhoid, respiratory problem, and various others; impact on aquatic lives, fisheries, and livestock; reduced agricultural production; shifts in occupational status; breeding ground for mosquitoes; and many more. This study provides a thoughtful perspective on the origin of Turag River pollution and its various repercussions on riverine communities. To reduce pollution from diverse sources, efforts should be made to decrease the concentration of contaminants.
Home gardening is an indigenous practice of cultivation that has effectively adapted to local ecological conditions over generations. This study examined the effects of disturbance and garden size on biodiversity to develop a better understanding of vegetation cover and its role in livelihood and provision of forest management in the Vindhyan highlands. Data were collected from 60 gardens which were classified into large (> 650 m 2), medium (400-650 m 2), and small (< 400 m 2), based on size and disturbance gradients viz., high, medium, and low. A total of 133 species from 50 families were recorded, in which trees (47.4%) were dominant followed by shrubs (18%) and herbs (16.5%). With respect to disturbance, the highest number of tree species (39) were found at low disturbance (LD) followed by 33 species in medium disturbance (MD) and 32 species in high disturbhance (HD). The total mean richness of species was greater at LD (20.3 ± 2.3) and lowest at HD (18.5 ± 2.2). Tree density was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) higher at LD (293.75 ± 16.1 individual ha −1) as compared to MD (221 ± 11.5 individual ha −1) and HD (210 ± 10.3 individual ha −1). However, the results for shrubs and herbs density were considerably different, where shrubs density was highest at HD (70 ± 6.9 individual per 1,000 m 2) and lowest at LD (62.5 ± 5.8 individual per 1,000 m 2), while the maximum density of herbs was recorded at MD (466.25 ± 29.8 individual per 100 m 2) and minimum at LD (370 ± 21.4 individual per 100 m 2). The summed dominance ratio indicated frequent use of garden plants in bio-fencing, vegetables, ornamental, and ethnomedicine. Diversity (P < 0.01) and species richness (P < 0.05) showed a significant positive correlation with garden size. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that the first component (PC1) accounted for 28.6% of variance, whereas the second explained 21.9% of variance in both disturbance and garden size with a cumulative variance of 50.5%. These components depicted the positive association with HD (14.34), SDiv (13.91), TCD (12.47), and HDiv (12.09). We concluded that the diversity of home gardens changed with disturbance, which crucially served as a refuge for native tree species in a degraded landscape. This pattern highlighted the importance of home gardens for plant biodiversity conservation and local livelihood, which must be a viable option for regeneration of deforested dry tropics, while also reducing the burden on dry tropical forest regions.
Environmental pollution and our survival are among the biggest challenges of future as pollution and contamination of natural resources are adversely affecting global livelihood. Global warming, greenhouse gas emission due to industrialization and urbanization, and residual chemicals being applied in industries and agricultural sector are taking 100 million lives per annum. Critical increase in health risks due to carcinogenic compounds by 20% is another effect of living in polluted habitats. Statistics suggest that till 2050, if no sustainable measures are taken, the world rain forests will diminish resulting into loss of biodiversity. Global warming is resulting into decline in world glacier reserves causing a noticeable rise of 3.3 mm in sea levels annually. Demographic growth and urbanization and industrialization, and agricultural developments are major environmental sustainability challenges and future strategies to mitigate their effects have been discussed in detail. We have discussed the conservation and restoration strategies and have put much of the emphasis to sustainable approaches toward environmental restoration. This chapter also explains the future perspectives of environmental sustainability and the scope of novel industrial and agricultural developments leading toward environmental sustainability. Using recent literature and a case study, we have elaborated the role of ecological pest management and industrial development that need to be focused toward sustainable environmental protection.
Global warming and its threatening impression on global yield of agricultural and horticultural crops and food security have engrossed the scientific attraction across the continent. Insects are arthropods, with greater adaptive mechanisms for survival in diverse habitats. The climatic variations due to global warming influence the insect diversity by disturbing their ecosystem. Being poikilothermic, insects are greatly affected by the alterations in abiotic factors with heavy impact owed by elevated temperature. Insect experiences higher fecundity rate and increased life cycles with rapid growth rate causing outbreak which severely affects agricultural production due to climatic variations. Globally 40% of food production is minimized by pests, and the reforecasting pest population is essential to ensure global food security. The pest management strategies should focus on reducing crop losses induced by pests by enhancing services of ecosystem and the flexibility of crop ecosystem in the face of climate change. This review highlights the impact of climatic factors on behavior of insects and possible tactics to mitigate climate-induced changes in insects for their effective management.KeywordsClimate changeEcosystemEnvironmentGlobal warmingInsectsManagement
With the escalating world population along with urbanization and changing consumption patterns, the global need for food is projected to elevate. Econometric models predict that global cereal demand will increase by 1.3% annually through 2015; cereal yields must increase by 1% annually to meet this demand. This scenario projects 50 Mha (million hectares) rise in cereal production area. Climate smart agriculture (CSA) is a new and trending approach towards improving livelihood and food security. CSA is often defined as a combination of practices and technologies. Practicing CSA leads to reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. CSA helps farmers to meet the global food demand by coping changing climatic conditions. CSA and sustainable intensification are complementary with each other. Under the scenario of changing climate, there is increase in competition for energy, water, labor, and land for food production. Many agricultural practices contribute in formation of GHG (anthropogenic). CSA possesses three objectives: enhancing agricultural productivity, developing capacity to adapt at multiple levels, and eliminating emission of GHG along with encouraging carbon sinks. Sustainable intensification involves improving and maintaining soil biodiversity and monitoring and balancing the biogeochemical cycles. Negative influence of the ongoing agricultural activities involves acidification, erosion, soil structure loss, soil organic matter reduction, gradual buildup of toxic elements in soil, biodiversity loss, and land utilization for nonagricultural purposes. These influences further the enhancement of soil quality from the agronomic side. Physical and chemical properties of soil are governed by glomalin, and economical and ecological importance in this aspect is the actual outcome of mycorrhiza. Glomalin is recalcitrant, difficult to dissolve in water, and heat resistant and forms soil aggregates. This therefore promotes the productivity of the soil and helps to cope with the food security issues.KeywordsAgroecosystem managementClimate smart agricultureFood securityGlomalinSoil health
Resources sustain the ecosystem, but its depletions are the major concern of the present times. Natural resources such as agriculture, forestry, agroforestry, soils, animals, etc. enhance the biodiversity which intensify ecosystem services in tangible and intangible ways and regulate ecosystem processes. These ecosystem services not only maintain soil-food-climate security but also make a door for achieving the goal of sustainable development. However, overexploitation, deforestation , faulty land use practices, unsustainable land management, intensive agriculture, high synthetic inputs, etc. disturb our pathway of natural ecosystem by affecting resources and its depletions. The FAO mentioned that every year around 6.5 Mha (million hectare) areas of tropical forest are converted into agricultural land due to rising populations and human needs that affects the natural resources by depriving health, quality, and quantity of other resources
such as forest trees, wild animals, soil quality, etc. Soil is another important
natural resource which is degraded up to 147.0 Mha in Indian land areas. Among
this, water erosion, acidification, flooding, wind erosion, and salinity contributed
94, 16, 14, 9, and 6 Mha of land, whereas combination of other factors affects
7.0 Mha, respectively. This resource supports human and livestock by 18 and
15% of the global population, whereas different land use systems like agriculture,
forestry, and fishery systems contribute to GDP (gross domestic product) and
employment generations by 17 and 50%, respectively. Therefore, resource conservation
and its management are having prime importance duse to their uncountable
contributions in national and international sustainable-based development
along with addressing environmental sustainability. In this context, the practices
of ecology-oriented and sustainable intensification become good strategies for the
conservation and management of natural resources. Contrary to intensive agriculture,
the characteristics, principles, and practices of both ecological and
sustainable intensification are much clear. These practices will ensure soil-foodclimate
security along with the maintenance of environmental sustainability and
ecological stability. Thus, these practices must approach the further research and
development through better methods and technology for promising resource
conservation and sustainable development.
Agroecosystem itself represents a managed ecosystem in agricultural land by human-managed crops and livestock's integration that are highly productive, profitable, and ecologically sustainable. Growing populations and related food demands necessitate intensive practices in agriculture systems. Deforestation and other anthropogenic factors promote forest land conversion into arable lands. Intensive agroecosystem ensures higher crop productions but at the cost of ecosystem and environmental health. High intensive inputs of chemical fertilizers and heavy mechanizations resulted in land degradation and poor soil health. Intensive agroecosystem practices further destroy soil and environmental quality along with poor ecosystem services. In this context, applying sustainable
practices in agroecosystem is based on ecological concept that enhances cropsoil
productivity in sustainable ways without destroying our environment. Sustainable
intensification in agroecosystem enhances biodiversity that intensifies
ecosystem services in both tangible (direct) and intangible (indirect) ways.
Production services (tangible) include the timber biomass, fuelwood, food
products, and several non-wood forest products that are delivered directly from
the agroecosystem. Climate change mitigation, soil fertility improvement, watershed
management, pest disease control, water regulation, food and nutritional
security, etc. come under the protection services. Sustainable intensificationbased
agroecosystem enhances climate-resilient and soil health management.
Climate-resilient agroecosystem ensures less emission of greenhouse gases
(GHGs) and makes sustainable ecosystem. Conservation agriculture, use of
cover crops, and no-tillage practices are key drivers that promote sustainable
agroecosystem. An effective policy for scientific research and design must be
included to promote sustainable agroecosystem practices that promise food-soilclimate
security at global scale. This chapter discusses about ecosystem services
through sustainable-based agroecosystem rather than intensive practices. A rigorous
discussion is also made on theoretical models of agroecosystem, significance
of sustainable agroecosystem, and drivers for sustainable intensification in
agroecosystem. Climate- and soil-resilient agroecosystem makes this chapter
more comprehensive and informative for academicians, policy makers, and
researchers worldwide.
Allelopathic plants affect other plants in their vicinity by releasing chemicals in many ways. The main factors that drag this phenomenon are allelochemicals, which after release effect the plant positively or negatively. The present study was carried out to find the allelopathic effect of dandelion (Taraxacum officinale L.) on wheat (Triticum aestivum L. var. Janbaz). Fresh dandelion was taken from the wheat fields, and their different parts were shade dried for experimental purposes. All the parts of dandelion were grounded into powder, filtered for the extract, and applied to wheat seeds germinated on twofold filter papers in petri dishes. Five replicates were taken for each treatment. After a few days of germination, it was found that dandelion extract had a prominent effect on wheat germination. The present study will provide a baseline for future researchers toward analyzing the allelopathic potential of different weeds on wheat varieties. It will guide the future researches regarding the amount of extract and biomass that should be allowed in wheat fields.
Soil health and quality are key aspects upon which various ecosystem processes depend. Ongoing series of land degradations, deforestation, intensive agricultural practices, etc. affects the soil health. These deleterious unsustainable practices deprive soil fertility and affect overall ecosystem services (ES). Depleting nature of soil affects tree-crop productivity that is not fruitful for satisfying global hunger populations. Healthy soil promises food-income-climate security and maintains overall environmental sustainability and ecological stability. Human and livestock's health are entirely dependent upon soil quality. Therefore, the query "how does soil maintain plant-human-animal health and productivity?" arises. This indicates toward synergistic concept between soil and living
organisms. However, adopting eco-model in varying land use (agriculture, forestry,
agroforestry, and other farming practices) helps to minimize the soil
degradation and ensures higher productivity. But the main problem is that “how
does eco-designing of varying land use systems ensure healthy and quality soil?”.
Climate-smart agriculture, conservation agriculture, zero-tillage practices, use of
cover crop, mulching, and soil water conservation practices are intrinsic parts of
eco-designing or eco-models. These practices ensure healthy and productive
ecosystem that makes a pathway for sustainable development (SD).
Eco-designing for sustainable soil management practices promotes the storage
and sequestration of carbon (C) as soil organic C pools which leads to C balance.
Above- and belowground biomass productions, rhizosphere biology, microbial
populations, earthworm and other organisms, etc. modify soil health and productivity.
Higher nutrient use efficiency, C cycling, water regulation and purification,
erosion control, higher biomass and C stocks, food and nutritional security, and
higher economy of farmers can be ensured through healthy eco-models. Therefore,
eco-designing of different land use systems ensures a healthy ecosystem and
environment. Eco-modeling modifies ES in more sustainable ways without
disturbing our environment. Thus, adopting eco-designing models in soils
promises higher productivity and profitability and ensures SD of the world. In
this context, a government and public policy will strengthen the ecosystem health
by adopting a sustainable soil-based eco-model. A scientific-based research and
design add another effort to drive these eco-design practices in more efficient and
productive way to ensure the global SD.
Researches in agriculture are the essence of well-being for human civilization. It is a technology that boosts up the growth and development of the society considering the environmental aspect. Nowadays, the agriculture sector is suffering from multidimensional problem in terms of agro-pollution, resource depletion, climatic vulnerability, and reduction in productivity and yield followed by imbalance in the homeostatic of agroecosystem. Therefore, the major aim is to reduce the environmental consequences and achieve sustainable yield for the well-being of human society. Maintaining sustainable yield, pollution reduction, and eco-friendly approaches along with nutritive food production are some of the major agroecosystem services and part of management which needs to be addressed, scientifically, technically, and sustainably. Moving through this path, one needs to recognize the intensification practices followed by traditional culture that help to maintain ecosystem resiliency of the agroecosystem under the
peril of climatic perturbations. Approach should be such that it should address the
issue of poverty, food crisis and security, and gender sensitization followed by
international collaborations. In such approach, farmers and local dwellers are the
main actors who should play a key role in adopting the latest techniques and
methodology to create a food-secure and ecologically sustainable world. This
should be supported by the scientific community at both national and international
levels with their technical expertise to achieve all-round sustainability and
services of agroecosystem.
Agroecology refers to the process based on ecological principles to be applied in the agroecosystem for effective soil management and gain sustainable yield. The scientific application leads to a diversified agroecosystem which addresses the issue of environmental sustainability. It also focuses on various ecosystem services in the form of maintaining soil fertility, proper biogeochemical cycling, and proper nutrient exchange between crop and soil ecosystem. The process includes an integrated approach with diversified crops and animal husbandry practices all at a time. Thus, it would be successful to address the issue of food security, crisis, and help to build up climate-resilient agroecosystem. Agroecosystem is also helpful in terms of maintaining a daily livelihood, production of fuel, fodder, food for rural stakeholders, and socioeconomic well-being of people across the globe. Thus, agroecological addresses the sustainable agriculture practice on a large scale to promote eco-friendly, self-sustaining agriculture
practices. The aim of this article is to reflect an all-round aspect of agroecology
along with its roadmap towards environmental sustainability.
The mega event of climatic perturbations has its severe impact on human health and also on the well-being of the global ecosystem. The major issue of changing climate has affected various ecosystems globally in terms of acidification of oceans followed by elevated level of carbon dioxide. It has its severe impacts in various forms of habitat degeneration leading to huge loss of biodiversity. Therefore, there is an urgent need to inventory the climatic risks and its vulnerability issues and their subsequent management for developing ecosystem resil-iency toward climate change. Mitigating the changes in the climate solution based upon natural systems needs to be scientifically explored. The present chapter is an attempt to understand the climatic risks and vulnerabilities of ecosystem along with suitable strategies for the effective management of ecosystem change. The chapter concludes by finding the challenging opportunities and research initiatives toward the issue of nexus between climatic changes and ecosystem
vulnerability and risks.
This chapter is about the role of agrobiodiversity which acts as a significant component of the issue of nutrition as food security, helps in poverty eradication as one of the major goals of MDGs (Millennium Development Goals). Most importantly, the chapter describes about the Gedeo Agrobiodiversity including the major agroforestry system, which you couldn't find in other parts of the country. Agrobiodiversity in Gedeo is highly diverse in species composition and richness, and essentially sustaining the livelihoods and wellbeing of the rural community. Despite high population density in Africa, the Gedeo people has rich agroforestry system due to their indigenous knowledge of conserving trees and shrubs intercropped in their home garden. The role, status, uses, and worldwide contribution is discussed in the whole paper.
Environmental cleanup and pollution control are the foremost task and challenges in the 21st century by means of coeffective, eco-friendly, and sustainable technologies. In this context, nanotechnology is an emergent and potential techniques that is considered to act as a magic bullet in latest environmental science arena. Literature has demonstrated the potential of Np (Nanoparticle) to detoxify the atmosphere with reference to their application in sewage treatment, oxidation of dyes, etc. The research discusses NPs thoroughly for the elimination of numerous chemical pollutants and heavy metals, including Cd2 +, Cu2 +, Co2 +, and Ni2 + and also for the remedial work of chlorinated organic compounds. Considering the potentiality of nanotechnology, the global business has increased up to 3668 million US dollar within a span of 8 years. More than 1200 nanotech items are available in the market for public use. The major contribution of nanotech would be reflected in abiotic components such as water (> 20%), air (> 2%), and soil (> 15%). Globally the patent on nanotechnology research has increased up to 12,552 within a span of 17 years. United states have more than 50% patent application among all the countries across the globe. The modern physicochemical approaches have often demonstrated that they influence the climate, as they require the use of harmful substances. Green nanotechnology has therefore gained significant attention as an environmentally sustainable substitute approach for nanotechnology goods. Nanotechnology has multiple major capacities that can be used in the environmental fields: remediation, sensing, detection, and prevention. Np has enormous surface area and surface vitality that makes them to absorb huge quantity of pollutants and quickly catalyze the reactions. This article aims to reveal various prospects and exhaustive data with respect to the function of nanotechnology in environmental remediation and pollution cleanup.
Attaining efficient usage of natural resources is a concern for developers, administrators and policy-makers owing to the intrinsic lack of energy, the precarious nature of the environment, and the growing stresses of rising anthropoid and animal populations in numerous areas of the globe. Natural resources seem to be the cornerstone of any economic development. Concerns and anxieties regarding assets and environmental problems are cross-sectorial, but sometimes lead to rising deprivation and people’s destitute situations in any field. About 71% of IFAD’s rural poverty-relief programs are situated in biologically vulnerable and poor habitats. Throughout these regions, the vulnerable are still trapped throughout natural resource depletion cycles owing to their lack of exposure to agricultural capital, social infrastructure, finance and innovation. The increasing strain on the field by erosion, habitat loss and over cultivation causes soil productivity to decrease, thus exacerbating deprivation. Nevertheless, the quality and reliability of these essential natural properties are constantly in jeopardy. Major economic damages arise from inefficiency of the atmosphere and natural capital. For example, $80 billion is wasted annually due to poor management of the marine fisheries. A comprehensive policy structure is needed to enable resource efficiency and waste management throughout all sectors of the economy. In a global perspective represented by constant population increase, hastened urbanization in developing economies and the world’s least developed areas, environmental pressures are increasing. The principal objective of this chapter is to highlight the challenges of resource management and ecological sustainability and even about influence of climate shifts on natural resource sustainability. The article also discussed at the end some issues regarding various challenges of resource management and ecological sustainability in India.
Exploitation of the infinitive natural resources is an alarming issue on the plate. Therefore, estimation and swift observation of the natural resources is a need of the hour. Geospatial technological development is playing an important role to collect the information from the targeted objectives. Geospatial technological is helpful to analyze the natural resources viz., land, water, air, energy, nutrients, forest, watershed, etc. for policy and planning toward their conservation in order to achieve food, nutritional, environmental, and economic security. Agriculture is a key sector on the planet for exploitation and interfere the natural resources. For collecting reliable and timely information about the nature, the extent and geographical boundaries, temporal behavior of natural resources is the first step in the way of their monitoring, management and efficient use of them in the agriculture. Remote sensing (RS) has emerged as a powerful geospatial tool for the identification, characterization, and land marking of these resources over a larger surface area in agricultural system. It provides valuable, accurate and timely information in high spatial and spectral resolutions about the agricultural urbanization, crop use patterns, soil, water, watersheds, desertification, agroforestry, rangelands, and climatic variations and their impact on agriculture. In crop production, RS provides the spatial information of crop type and area estimation followed by assessing the yield potential, ecosystem health and proper management of insect-diseases and weeds based on the spectral reflectance of the object by using modeling and vegetative indices. Moreover, RS has a potential to study the soil system like soil characteristics, types, spatial variability, assessment of land suitability, land capability, carbon dynamics, soil moisture, land use/land cover change, soil degradation, erosion identification, and remediation for agriculture applications. RS helps to generate a precise database in short time from the field. Predication for the advance planning, yield estimation of the covering areas, crop sections, drought management help in policymaking for the better production and reduce the risk from the aberrant weather conditions. It helps in proper use and sustainable management of the costly resources in agriculture. This chapter extensively discusses the potential of RS in management of agriculture and natural resources in a sustainable manner. In this context, in India, several programs/projects such as FASAL, CAPE, NNRMS, NADAMS, IMSD, CHAMAN, etc. are effectively running for management of agricultural system in one and another way. In this context, this chapter is useful for the policymaker students, scientists, producers for the agroecosystems management and promote the advance food and environmental security targeted as one of the United National Sustainable Development Goals.
Environmental degradation is an alarming issue in the planet. The main reasons behind the problem are industrial revolution and population explosion and high demand of luxury items in the life. Presently, lack of proper education, awareness, knowledge and approach of people towards environment degrades the nature and its resources. Thus, sustainable development appears to be a doom stay approach for various countries across the globe. There is a need of hour to develop a strong environmental education (EE) system with the responsiveness of human towards the nature for sustainability and environmental security. United Nation and various countries are taking active steps in this aspect to develop collaboration with the society. Various initiatives in the form of awareness campaigning and community development programmes are running across various countries of the globe in this connection. This chapter focusses on the major emphasis of EE programmes towards sustainability to develop the awareness and perception on the environmental issues among the students, researcher, policymakers and society. However, success stories rely on the concept of public participation, awareness and knowledge to gain environmental security. Proper policy and planning in-terms of locality and sector-specific approaches are required very much at the present moment. Further the potential role of women along with recognizing traditional culture needs to be recognized for successful implementation of EE on the earth.
Soil plays a significant role in enhancing food security of the world population. However, only 10%–12% of the natural soils are suitable for agriculture. Consequently, food insecurity is a global phenomenon. More than 75% of the world’s population lack one or more of the essential mineral elements, which leads to the inherent malnutrition of micronutrients, the hidden hunger. It is threatened to decline due to soil erosion, soil acidification and salinization, loss of soil organic carbon/organic matter, soil compaction, soil contamination, soil sealing, and recently climate change. The global mean rates of erosion are estimated between 12 and 15 tons ha− 1 year− 1. Furthermore, about 30% of ice-free land is estimated as acidic soil. More than 1.5 million hectares of land are used in the production process annually due to soil stress in the soil environment. Therefore, maintaining optimum food production proper land-use policies should be framed considering the salinity event that is degrading the soil ecosystem day by day.
Arid and semiarid areas composed about one-third of the earth’s surface. Climate change leads to more land degradation in these regions and extensive drought in other parts of the world. Environmental degradation and arable land are serious problems caused by pollution and global warming. The misuse or inadequate land-use of renewable natural resources and soil erosion leads to excessive soil depletion. However, the main cause of this phenomenon is resulting from the population explosion and its increase. Harsh environmental factors, such as the succession of droughts have aggravated the problem. Desertification affects agricultural lands and pastures necessary to provide food, water, and air; food production decreases, water sources dry up, and residents of affected areas are forced to move to better places, which threatens not only its countries but also the entire world is an urgent priority to save the environment. In developing countries that constitute the aridest and semidesert zones in the world, land degradation and desertification affect these countries’ ability to produce food. Many problems facing by these countries are the absence of development plans, modest government policies, pollution of soil, water, air and desertification of millions of hectares.
To combat desertification, avoiding and reducing soil degradation, and restoring degraded soil by the use of unconventional soil stabilization solutions, grow drought-tolerant plants like Stipa tenacissima, Retama sphaerocarpa, Ampelodesmos mauritanicus, and Salicornia europaea with other plants. They would resist the harsh environmental conditions and have the ability to stop soil degradation in drought lands, followed by acting as a barrier to the movement of sand dunes. The polymer materials and biomaterials and their polymeric derivatives, which are mixing with soils, are leading to the cohesion of its grains; these materials are nontoxic, noncorrosive compounds that do not pollute groundwater. They were used as soil-stabilizer, soil deterioration, and degradation and finally stop desertification.
In order to combat land degradation and desertification through the good management of natural resources, establishing governmental and nongovernmental institutions, concerned with preserving the environment by appropriate desertification methods and techniques, is required. Forest protection through the plantation and firefighting is to be done. Encourage scientific research in the field of combating desertification and drought along with the use of spatial tools such as geographic information systems to control desertification.
Environmental variables are key factors that affect the babul gum production by altering anatomical and physiological gummosis processes. Temperature and humidity play a significant role in gum production; even varying climatic parameters have significant impact on overall gum production in babul (Acacia nilotica) tree. Thus, we have tried to explore the impacts of environmental variables on ethephon induced gum production. This study involved a scientific basis of gum tapping technique using two varying concentrations of ethephon concentrations (15.6 or 62.4 mg/tree), 02 levels of girth classes (≥ 30.1 to ≤ 50.0 cm and ≥ 50.1 cm), 02 levels of holes/injuries (single and double) and 03 levels of season (rainy, winter and summer) on yield potentials of babul in Chhattisgarh. In this experiment, we have reported much fluctuation in environmental variables and analyzed their impacts on ethephon induced gum productions. The gum exudation rate was maximum (97.5 mg/tree/day) in November followed by 83.8 and 71.0 mg/tree/day in October and September during rainy season which reflects increase in gum production with relative lowering of the relative humidity. Similar trends of impacts were seen in winter and summer seasons. The gummosis process was correlated positively with temperature, while the same was correlated negatively with relative humidity, thus both having their respective effects significantly in opposite directions. The rate of gum exudation (RGE) was observed to be in the order of summer (137.10 mg/tree/day) > rainy (84.10 mg/tree/day) > winter (70.63 mg/tree/day). Gum exudation rate increases with increasing concentrations of ethephon from 15.6 to 62.4 mg/tree, number of injury from single to double and girth class of tree. In nutshell, this study could help in achieving sustainable gum production which is modified by ethephon concentration, seasons, hole and tree girth class under varying environmental parameters.
Soil is a very important and largest natural resource that supports biodiversity including the plant community (cultivated and natural forests), nurturing plants through the uptake of essential nutrients for growth, development, and reproduction. This metabolic activity varies as per soil types, nutrient mobility, uptake mechanism, root structure, and plant species/varieties. Of course, many nutrient elements (both micro- and macronutrients) are actively taken up by plants for metabolic activity and growth. Of all the important nutrients, nitrogen uptake, assimilation, and its remobilization in the plants are important mechanisms based on plant genetics, regulatory enzymatic and biochemical processes involving proper growth, and developmental processes of crops and tree species in both cultivated and natural forests. Also, nitrogen uptake and its dynamics vary as per varying ecosystems such as marine, grassland, cultivated, and forest ecosystems. However, both quantity and quality of nitrogen uptake by the plants depends on both biotic and abiotic stresses and prevailing environmental stress conditions such as soil moisture stress, soil salinity, drought stress, etc. All these biotic and abiotic stresses will affect plant yield and productivity by decreasing the overall yield and biomass under varying salinity type, drought, and other environmental stress. Therefore, there is an urgent need to conduct extensive research in the direction of minimizing stresses without affecting plant growth, productivity, and overall soil-plant health and sustainability.
Tropical forests are considered for greater species diversity and ensure climate change mitigation through carbon (C) sink which maintains terrestrial C storage in the world. Tree provides both tangible (timber, fuelwood, etc. For humans) and intangible benefits (as climate security through C sink) that maintains ecosystem processes. Tropical Sal forests are gaining popularity due to its remarkable contribution as C sink, storage, budget and flux. In the present study, an effort has been made to explore vegetational statistics along with C storage, budget and flux in four different site qualities (SQ) of Sal dominating tropical deciduous forest of Chhattisgarh, India. The density (individuals/ha) and basal area (m²/ha) varied from 710 to 1010 and 33.5–46.8 in tree, 2000–2500 and 0.32–0.33 in sapling and 9750–14500 and 17.96–21.43 in seedling, respectively in varying SQ. The total biomass varied from 182.27 to 375.84 t/ha in varying SQ. The total C in trees varied from 79.86 to 163.63 t ha⁻¹. Quantity of C in above ground and below ground portions in trees on different sites were 72.32–143.36 t/ha and 7.54–20.27 t/ha, respectively. Total aboveground tree C sequestration values ranged between 5.12 and 11.68 t C ha⁻¹yr⁻¹ on different SQ. The C storage and net fluxes were represented in compartment models to assess the various SQ. As per models, forest received 14.63, 10.81, 8.19 and 6.83 t/ha/yr of C input through net primary production (NPP) in SQ-I, SQ-II, SQ-III and SQ-IV, respectively which are depleted as 3.55, 3.12, 2.77 and 2.33 t/ha/yr as total C input in the soil. Moreover 1.77 (SQ-I), 1.60 (SQ-II), 1.46 (SQ-III) and 1.30 (SQ-IV) t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹of C were transferred from foliage to litter compartment, respectively. These dynamics, budgeting and flux of C represents “how C stored and moved within an ecosystem”. Similarly, it affects overall terrestrial C pools that is governed by varying SQ.
Tropical Sal forests are gaining wide recognitions due to its multifarious significance. An estimation of vegetational structure and biomass would be helpful for evaluating both productivity and sustainability of the forest ecosystems. Information regarding vegetational biomass, litter mass and fine root biomass, and overall dry matter dynamics are very limited. Therefore, the present work deals the vegetation biomass influenced by four different site quality of Sal dominating tropical deciduous forest of Chhattisgarh, India. The current study provides a framework under which all vegetational attributes can be quantified under varying site quality which is modified by different seasons. Our study revealed a significant increase in vegetational attributes and biomass as per increasing quality of sites. The density value (individuals/ha) and basal area (m2/ha) of tree, sapling and seedling in different sites were ranged from 710 to 1010, 2000 to 2500, 9750 to 14,500 and 33.5 to 46.8, 0.32 to 0.33, 17.96 to 21.43, respectively. The total biomass varied from 187.39 to 383.46 t ha−1. The fine root and forest floor biomass varied between 2.44 and 4.20 t ha−1, and 2.32 and 2.83 t ha−1, respectively among different sites and seasons. The total litter fall varied from 4.18 to 5.69 t ha−1 yr−1 across the site quality. It reflected that highest value of forest floor, litter floor and fine root biomass were seen in site quality (SQ) SQ-I followed by SQ-II, SQ-III and SQ-IV, respectively in different seasons. A great synergy exists among site quality, stand structure and biomass which surely affect ecosystem structure and its functions. Seasonal impacts are another factor that regulates vegetational statistics, forest floor, fine roots and pattern of litterfall in varying site qualities. Thus, a management implication is needed to understand site quality variation which entirely affects vegetational structure and biomass pattern that would help in strengthening sustainable forest management program.
A field experiment was conducted to find out the management strategy with fertility and lime levels in an acidic soil, and its response to mungbean production. The experiment was laid out in factorial randomized block design with three replications, assigned 16 treatments combinations consisting four levels of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) i.e. (0, 75%, 100%, 125% RDF) and lime (0, 100, 200 and 300 kg/ha), the RDF was 20:40:20 kg /ha (N2: P2O5: K2O). Results were obtained at critical difference (CD) values p=0.05 level. Among the treatments,significant improvement was recorded in 100% RDF on dry matter accumulation (g/plant) of root (9.121), leaf (1.573), stem (8.230), total dry matter/plant (14.37), number of trifoliate (13.03), Soil-Plant Analyses Development (SPAD) value (nmol/mg) of chlorophyll (49.09), yields kg/ha of grain (524), straw (1425) and biological (1949). Similarly, the application of 200 kg lime/ha was significantly increase in dry matter accumulation (g/plant) of root (9.041), leaf (1.559), stem (8.158), total dry matter/plant (14.25), number of trifoliate (12.41), SPAD value of chlorophyll (48.59), yields kg/ha of grain (520), straw (1419) and biological (1930). Hence, on the basis of conducted field experiment recommended @ 100% RDF and 200 kg lime/ha for better mungbean crop productivity in the vindhyan region, India.
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the important staple foods for more than 50% of
the world’s population providing major source of the food energy. It is grown in
114 countries across the world on an area of 161 million hectares with annual
production of 678.7 million tons (FAO, 2009). The option of intensifying the area
under rice in the near future is limited. Consequently, this extra rice production
needed has to come from a productivity gain. The major challenge is to achieve
this gain with less water, labor and chemicals, thereby ensuring long-term
sustainability. Furthermore, puddling and transplanting needs huge amount of
water and labor, whereas both of these are becoming scarce and expensive,
resulting less profitable rice production, also protect soil productivity and
environment by checking methane gas emission from submerged water cultivation
practices (Krishna et al., 2008) leading to cost effective rice production (Uphoff,
2007). All these factors stipulate a major shift from traditional puddled-transplanted
rice production to direct seeding of rice (DSR) in irrigated areas(Pandey and
Velasco, 2005). Depending on water and labor paucity, farmers are altering either
their rice establishment methods from transplanting to dry direct seeding in
unpuddled soil with adopting DSR, it is possible to save water (Thiyagarajan et
al., 2002). The main concern was to determine the effect of spacing on the
performance of different crop cultivars (Meena et al., 2015). Agronomic practices
for rice cultivars under direct seeded conditions are different from that of traditional
transplanted methods. An attempt was therefore made to test the yield and potential
of five cultivars of rice under dry direct seeded conditions with narrow or wider
spacing at Varanasi.
The impacts on yields of cluster bean were assessed for normal (15 July) and late (30 July) sowing environments and foliar spray of thiourea (500, 1000 ppm) and salicylic acid (50, 100 ppm) at 45 and 60 days after sowing (DAS).Significantly higher yield parameters, yield, economics, protein content and nutrient uptake were recorded with foliar spray of thiourea at 500 ppm as compared to all other bio regulator sprays. Similarly, spray of salicylic acid at 100 ppm enhanced yield and other growth parameters which were statistically at par with those for thiourea 500 ppm foliar spray at 45 and 60 DAS. The data show that the foliar application of bio regulators at normal sowing date enhances seed yield of clusterbean by improving the physiological processes. The interaction effects were significant between the sowing date and bio-regulators on the seed yield. The highest seed yield of 993 and 845 kg/ha was obtained with foliar spray of thiourea at 500 ppm in normal and late sowing, respectively, while the lowest yield of 775 and 769 kg/ha was obtained for the water spray control in normal and late sowing, respectively.
Tropical forests are well known to have great species diversity and contribute substantial share in terrestrial carbon (C) stocks worldwide. Shrubs are long-neglected life form in the forest ecosystem, playing many roles in the forest and human life. Shrub has great impact on vegetation attributes which in turn modify the C storage and capture. In the present investigation, an attempt has been made to explore the dynamics of shrub species in four fire regimes, viz. high, medium, low, and no fire zones of Bhoramdeo Wildlife Sanctuary of Kawardha forest division (Chhattisgarh), India. The variations in structure, diversity, biomass, productivity, and C sequestration potential in all the sites were quantified. The density and basal area of shrub varied from 1250 to 3750 individuals ha−1 and 2.79 to 4.92 m2 ha−1, respectively. The diversity indices showed that the value of Shannon index was highest in medium fire zone (3.77) followed by high, low, and no fire zones as 3.25, 3.12, and 2.32, respectively. The value of Simpson’s index or concentration of dominance (Cd) ranged from 0.08 to 0.20, species richness from 0.56 to 1.58, equitability from 1.41 to 1.44, and beta diversity from 1.50 to 4.20, respectively. The total biomass and C storage ranged from 6.82 to 15.71 and from 2.93 to 6.76 t ha−1, respectively. The shrub density, importance value index (IVI), and abundance to frequency ratio (A/F) significantly correlated between high fire and medium fire zone. The basal area was found to be significantly positively correlated between high fire and medium fire, and low and no fire zones, respectively. Two-way cluster analysis reflected various patterns of clustering due to influence of the forest fire which showed that some species have distant clustering while some have smaller cluster. Principal component analysis (PCA) reflects variable scenario with respect to shrub layer. Ventilago calyculata and Zizyphus rotundifolia showed higher correlation between themselves in terms of basal area (BA). The total shrub production was 1.59–3.53 t ha−1 year−1 while the C sequestration potential of 0.71–1.57 t ha−1 year−1 under different fire regimes. Shrub community in the medium fire zone reflected higher productivity and higher C sequestration in comparison to other fire zone. Among the different plant parts, the biomass accumulation ratio was highest in the root of shrub community among various fire regimes. Screening of species for restoration and different land-use pattern on the basis of biomass accumulation and carbon sequestering potential would be an effective strategy for decision-making in sustainable forest management.
The present study was carried out in naturally growing Acacia nilotica (babul) trees at New Rajdhani area in Raipur district (Chhattisgarh) during rainy, winter and summer season of 2014-2015. Four factors viz., ethephon doses (0, 2 and 4 ml), girth classes (≥ 30.1 to ≤ 50.0 cm and ≥ 50.1 cm), injury (single and double) and seasons (rainy, winter and summer) were subjected to statistical analysis of factorial CRD for understanding their interactions and combined effect on gum exudation. Quality parameter of gum such as pH, moisture content and ash content were 4.5, 15.2% and 2.63%, respectively. The results on quantity of gum exudation (g/tree) in different studied months revealed that exudation per plant was in order: May (5.0) > April (3.88) > March (3.77) > November (2.93) > October (2.60) > February (2.30) > September (2.13) > December (2.05) > January (1.99). Significantly highest quantity (0.727 g/tree) of gum exudation was observed in summer season under the treatment of 4 ml of ethephon in double injury of ≥ 50.1 cm of girth class of babul. In the same season, the quantity of gum was significantly highest (0.690 and 0.625 g/tree) under the treatment of 4 ml of ethephon in ≥ 50.1 cm of girth class and same 4 ml treatment of ethephon in double injury of babul. Seasonally quantity of gum per tree (g/tree) was in the order: summer (4.21) > rainy (2.36) > winter (2.31).
Soils are both sinks and sources of C with great potential to mitigate climate change. Global estimates indicate that they contain between 1,206 Pg of soil organic carbon (SOC) to 1-m depth to more than 1,550 Pg C, which is twice the amount of C present in the atmosphere. Nevertheless the overall the C stocks could reach as much as five times that of the atmosphere considering that many soils are much deeper than 1 m. Instead, emissions from land use change are estimated to make up to 20 % of atmospheric CO2 through loss of biomass and SOM. Notwithstanding these critical outcomes, soil’s impact in climate change scenarios is generally not well understood and the UNFCCC after CoP 21 in Paris started to increase attention to the potential for soil C sequestration thanks to the French “4 pour 1000” initiative. We argue that SLM can increase productivity particularly by improving water use efficiency, optimizing nutrient cycles and their supply for crop production, enhancing vegetation cover, and improving food security level. Healthy soils produce healthy food, support healthy living, and promote a healthy environment.
. In this forum paper we discuss how soil scientists can help to reach the recently adopted UN Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) in the most effective manner. Soil science, as a land-related discipline, has
important links to several of the SDGs, which are demonstrated through the functions of soils and the ecosystem
services that are linked to those functions (see graphical abstract in the Supplement). We explore and discuss how
soil scientists can rise to the challenge both internally, in terms of our procedures and practices, and externally, in
terms of our relations with colleague scientists in other disciplines, diverse groups of stakeholders and the policy
arena. To meet these goals we recommend the following steps to be taken by the soil science community as a
whole: (i) embrace the UN SDGs, as they provide a platform that allows soil science to demonstrate its relevance
for realizing a sustainable society by 2030; (ii) show the specific value of soil science: research should explicitly
show how using modern soil information can improve the results of inter- and transdisciplinary studies on SDGs
related to food security, water scarcity, climate change, biodiversity loss and health threats; (iii) take leadership
in overarching system analysis of ecosystems, as soils and soil scientists have an integrated nature and this places soil scientists in a unique position; (iii) raise awareness of soil organic matter as a key attribute of soils to illustrate
its importance for soil functions and ecosystem services; (iv) improve the transfer of knowledge through
knowledge brokers with a soil background; (v) start at the basis: educational programmes are needed at all levels,
starting in primary schools, and emphasizing practical, down-to-earth examples; (vi) facilitate communication
with the policy arena by framing research in terms that resonate with politicians in terms of the policy cycle or
by considering drivers, pressures and responses affecting impacts of land use change; and finally (vii) all this is
only possible if researchers, with soil scientists in the front lines, look over the hedge towards other disciplines,
to the world at large and to the policy arena, reaching over to listen first, as a basis for genuine collaboration.
The majority of the Earth’s terrestrial carbon is stored in the soil. If anthropogenic warming stimulates the loss of this carbon to the atmosphere, it could drive further planetary warming1, 2, 3, 4. Despite evidence that warming enhances carbon fluxes to and from the soil5, 6, the net global balance between these responses remains uncertain. Here we present a comprehensive analysis of warming-induced changes in soil carbon stocks by assembling data from 49 field experiments located across North America, Europe and Asia. We find that the effects of warming are contingent on the size of the initial soil carbon stock, with considerable losses occurring in high-latitude areas. By extrapolating this empirical relationship to the global scale, we provide estimates of soil carbon sensitivity to warming that may help to constrain Earth system model projections. Our empirical relationship suggests that global soil carbon stocks in the upper soil horizons will fall by 30 ± 30 petagrams of carbon to 203 ± 161 petagrams of carbon under one degree of warming, depending on the rate at which the effects of warming are realized. Under the conservative assumption that the response of soil carbon to warming occurs within a year, a business-as-usual climate scenario would drive the loss of 55 ± 50 petagrams of carbon from the upper soil horizons by 2050. This value is around 12–17 per cent of the expected anthropogenic emissions over this period7, 8. Despite the considerable uncertainty in our estimates, the direction of the global soil carbon response is consistent across all scenarios. This provides strong empirical support for the idea that rising temperatures will stimulate the net loss of soil carbon to the atmosphere, driving a positive land carbon–climate feedback that could accelerate climate change.
The Sub-Saharan Africa needs urgent sustainable crop production for economic development. Poverty and hunger, soil degradation and decline soil quality are increasingly alarming in the region. Soil science is the mainstay of the economic development for the Sub-Saharan African region. Soil science provides support to crop production, raw materials to million industries, water quality for biota, animal and human survival, recycling of abundant dead materials, landscaping for engineering and research purposes, foreign exchange for national income and accommodation for animal and human interactions. This study outlined and discussed these functional services of soil science as an answer to sustainability and renewability of crop production for economic development in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Soil organic carbon (SOC) and rainfall are generally
positively related, whereas a negative relationship
between soil inorganic carbon (SIC) and rainfall with
some exception is observed. Land use pattern in black
soil region (BSR) of the semi-arid tropical (SAT)
India, consists of 80% under agriculture, followed by
forest, horticulture, wasteland and permanent fallow.
For sustainable agriculture on these soils, there is a
concern about their low OC status, which warrants
fresh initiatives to enhance their OC status by suitable
management interventions. In the BSR region, cotton,
soybean and cereal-based systems dominate but it is
not yet clear as to which cropping system in the SAT
black soils is most suitable for higher OC sequestration.
Many short-term experiments on cotton or
cereal-based systems clearly suggest that cotton or
cereal-based cropping systems including leguminous
crops perform better in terms of SOC sequestration
whereas soybean–legume combination do not add any
substantial amount of OC. In sub-humid bioclimatic
zones (1053–1209 mm mean annual rainfall), soybean is
grown successfully with wheat or fallowing, and SOC
concentration is maintained at 0.75% in the 0.30 m soil
layer under integrated nutrient management. In view of
enhancement and maintenance of OC in many shortterm
experiments conducted in various agro-climate
zones of SAT, it is realized that OC accumulation in
soils of the semi-arid ecosystem with suitable cropping
and management practices could be substantial especially
in cotton–pigeon pea rotation, and thus the discussed
crop rotations in each major bio-climatic zone
stand for wide acceptance by the SAT farmers.
The present experiment was conducted in 2012-13 at G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar. It was laid out in split plot design with two farming systems (viz., Soybean crop under open farming system and Soybean crop under poplar based agroforestry system) as main plots and four varieties of soybean (PS 1042, PS 1225, PS 1347 & PS 1024) as sub-plots with three replication.Soil pH, EC, organic carbon, available soil nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium was significantly higher under poplar based agroforestry system as compared to open farming system. There was mark improvement of 11.65 % (OC), 12.41 % (available P) and 6.20 % available (K) in agroforestry system over open farming system.AU the soil nutrients (N, P and K) were found maximum in the plot of PS 1225. The values of nutrients (N, P and K) were higher in upper soil layer (0-15 cm) as compared to (15-30 cm) lower profile soil sample. Growth parameters like germination count, plant height, number of trifoliate leaves per plant and dry matter accumulation were found higher under open farming system as compared to poplar based agroforestry system. However, the nodule numbers in the root of soybean was found higher in poplar based agroforestry system as compared to open farming system.Among soybean varieties maximum germination count was found in PS 1225. Plant height was found higher in PS 1225 at all the growth stages. However, number of trifoliate leaves per plant; number of root nodules per plant and dry matter accumulation were found higher in PS 1225 at all the growth stages.
The present study entitled “Evaluation of Gummosis Potential in Acacia nilotica L. Using Various concentration of Ethephon” was carried out in plantation area of babul trees at New Rajdhani area in Raipur district (Chhattisgarh) during rainy, winter and summer season of 2014-2015. Four factors viz., ethephon concentration (0, 2 and 4 ml), girth classes (≥ 30.1 to ≤ 50.0 cm and ≥ 50.1 cm), injury (single and double) and seasons (rainy, winter summer) were subjected to statistical analysis of factorial CRD for understanding their interaction and combined effect on yield parameter of gum exudation. Quality parameter of gum such as pH, moisture content and ash content were 4.5, 15.2% and 2.63%.
The results of study on rate of gum exudation (mg/tree/day) revealed that gum exudation was in order: May (160.7) > April (129.2) > March (121.4) > Nov (97.5) > Oct (83.8) > Feb (82.1) > Sep (71.0) > Dec (65.7) > Jan (64.1). Significantly highest rate (22.502 and 20.382 mg/tree/day) of gum exudation was observed in summer season under the treatment of 4 ml of ethephon in ≥ 50.1 cm of girth class and same 4 ml treatment of ethephon in double injury of babool. Under controlled condition gum was produced only in the month of May. The rate of gum production under ethephon treatment was observed 0.140 g/tree/day, which is 7 times more than in controlled having 0.0207 g/tree/day in the month of May. Moreover, rate of gum production under ethephon treatment was 42 times more than controlled in rainy, winter and summer seasons.
The results of study on quantity of gum exudation (g/tree/month) revealed that exudation per plant (g/tree/month) was in order: May (5.0) > April (3.88) > March (3.77) > November (2.93) > October (2.60) > February (2.30) > September (2.13) > December (2.05) > January (1.99). Significantly highest quantity (0.690 and 0.625 g/tree/month) of gum exudation was observed in summer season under the treatment of 4 ml of ethephon in ≥ 50.1 cm of girth class and same 4 ml treatment of ethephon in double injury of babool.
Seasonally overall rate of gum exudation (mg/tree/day) and quantity of gum per tree (g/tree/month) were in order: summer (137.1, 4.21) > rainy (77.40, 2.36) > winter (77.35, 2.31). This was due to climatic factors viz., temperature with relative humidity, ethephon with different concentration (from 0.78 to 1.56%) along with different doses (0, 2, 4ml), number of hole and girth of tree. Moreover, it was observed that chemical method using ethephon was safe and scientific techniques for gum production in sustainable way.
Agroforestry (AF) is an ecofriendly and sustainable modern farming land use practice that maintains overall farm productivity by combining herbaceous food crops with woody perennial trees and livestock on the same piece of land, either alternately or at the same time, using scientific management practices that improve the socioeconomic condition of people. It is the new name for an ancient land use practice and just a compromise between agriculture and forestry. It plays a major role in enhancement of overall farm productivity, soil enrichment through litter fall, maintaining environmental services such as climate change mitigation (carbon sequestration), phytoremediation, watershed protection and biodiversity conservation.
It is an effective and alternative management system to meet the target of increasing forest cover to 33 % as given by the national forest policy. Their scope and potential in any state including Chhattisgarh is tremendous. Farmers use generally N2-fixing trees like some from the Leguminosae family including Acacia
spp., Dalbergia sissoo, etc., on their farmland for enhancing their field crops and generating incomes and employment. Therefore, rural people should make some strategy for the implementation of agroforestry model with suitable combination of trees and field crops, and this combination does not only generate income for the upliftment of socioeconomic value but also concerns the ecological and environmental stability on the sustained basis, i.e. emphasis should be more on scientific management of these models.
2015 is the International Year of Soils, as adopted by the United Nations, and reflects the global importance of soil resources in ecosystem sustainability. Soil is not only required for food production, but is also critical for biodiversity conservation and a broad range of ecosystem services. However, soil degradation and loss through anthropogenic activities is highly worrying and reaching a crisis point. Protecting the physical, chemical, and biological integrity of soil is, therefore, of vital importance in securing human and ecosystem health.
The global soil organic carbon (SOC) mass is relevant for the carbon cycle budget and thus atmospheric carbon concentrations. We review current estimates of SOC stocks and mass (stock * area) in wetlands, permafrost and tropical regions and the world in the upper 1 m of soil. The Harmonized World Soil Database (HWSD) v.1.2 provides one of the most recent and coherent global data sets of SOC, giving a total mass of 2476 Pg when using the original values for bulk density. Adjusting the HWSD's bulk density (BD) of soil high in organic carbon results in a mass of 1230 Pg, and additionally setting the BD of Histosols to 0.1 g cm-3 (typical of peat soils), results in a mass of 1062 Pg. The uncertainty in BD of Histosols alone introduces a range of -56 to +180 Pg C into the estimate of global SOC mass in the top 1 m, larger than estimates of global soil respiration. We report the spatial distribution of SOC stocks per 0.5 arcminutes; the areal masses of SOC; and the quantiles of SOC stocks by continents, wetland types, and permafrost types. Depending on the definition of "wetland", wetland soils contain between 82 and 158 Pg SOC. With more detailed estimates for permafrost from the Northern Circumpolar Soil Carbon Database (496 Pg SOC) and tropical peatland carbon incorporated, global soils contain 1325 Pg SOC in the upper 1 m, including 421 Pg in tropical soils, whereof 40 Pg occurs in tropical wetlands. Global SOC amounts to just under 3000 Pg when estimates for deeper soil layers are included. Variability in estimates is due to variation in definitions of soil units, differences in soil property databases, scarcity of information about soil carbon at depths > 1 m in peatlands, and variation in definitions of "peatland".
Open access, available from http://www.soil-journal.net/1/351/2015/soil-1-351-2015.html
The presence of organic C in soil is a key determinant for soil quality and productivity. Soil, being the largest C sinks, also controls the global warming. In this regard, this review focused onto the soil C dynamics, C sequestration potential of soil and related C pools. Detailed discussion of several researches depicted that, C sequestration depends onto soil C saturation deficit, presence of biochemically protected recalcitrant C fractions, aggregation and aggregate associated physically shielded C. On the other hand, labile organic C is the soil nutrient reservoir and is closely related with diversified soil biology. For the sustainable and holistic soil resource management and to mitigate climate change, this study also highlighted the possible management practices towards longer residence time of C in soil.
Since humans worldwide obtain more than 99.7% of their food (calories) from the land and less than 0.3% from the oceans and aquatic ecosystems, preserving cropland and maintaining soil fertility should be of the highest importance to human welfare. Soil erosion is one of the most serious threats facing world food production. Each year about 10 million ha of cropland are lost due to soil erosion, thus reducing the cropland available for world food production. The loss of cropland is a serious problem because the World Health Organization and the Food and Agricultural Organization report that two-thirds of the world population is malnourished. Overall, soil is being lost from agricultural areas 10 to 40 times faster than the rate of soil formation imperiling humanity’s food security.
According to the IPCC, global temperatures are expected to increase between 1.1 and 6.4 °C during the 21st century and precipitation patterns will be altered. Soils are intricately linked to the atmospheric/climate system through the carbon, nitrogen, and hydrologic cycles. Because of this, altered climate will have an effect on soil processes and properties. Recent studies indicate at least some soils may become net sources of atmospheric C, lowering soil organic matter levels. Soil erosion by wind and water is also likely to increase. However, there are many things we need to know more about. How climate change will affect the N cycle and, in turn, how that will affect C storage in soils is a major research need, as is a better understanding of how erosion processes will be influenced by changes in climate. The response of plants to elevated atmospheric CO2 given limitations in nutrients like N and P, and how that will influence soil organic matter levels, is another critical research need. How soil organic matter levels react to changes in the C and N cycles will influence the ability of soils to support crop growth, which has significant ramifications for food security. Therefore, further study of soil-climate interactions in a changing world is critical to addressing future food security concerns.
Tropical forests play a key role for functioning of the planet and maintenance of life. These forests support more than half of the world's species, serve as regulators of global and regional climate, act as carbon sinks and provide valuable ecosystem services. Forest floor biomass and litterfall dynamics was measured in different sites influenced by fire in a seasonally dry tropical forest of Bhoramdeo wildlife sanctuary of Chhattisgarh, India. The forest floor biomass was collected randomly placed quadrats while the litterfall measured by placing stone-block lined denuded quadrat technique. The seasonal mean total forest floor biomass across the fire regimes varied from 2.00-3.65t\;ha^{-1}. The total litterfall of the study sites varied from 4.75-7.56t\;ha^{-1}\;yr^{-1}. Annual turnover of litter varied from 70-74% and the turnover time between 1.35-1.43 years. Monthly pattern of forest floor biomass indicated that partially decayed litter, wood litter and total forest floor were differed significantly. The seasonal variation showed that leaf fall differed significantly in winter season only among the fire regimes while the wood litter was found non significant in all the season. This study shows that significant variation among the site due to the forest fire. Decomposition is one of the ecological processes critical to the functioning of forest ecosystems. The decomposing wood serves as a saving account of nutrients and organic materials in the forest floor. Across the site, high fire zone was facing much of the deleterious effects on forest floor biomass and litter production. Control on such type of wildfire and anthropogenic ignition could allow the natural recovery processes to enhance biological diversity. Chronic disturbances do not provide time for ecosystem recovery; it needs to be reduced for ecosystem health and maintaining of the high floral and faunal biodiversity.
The great importance of the soil biota in soil pedogenesis and in the maintenance of structure and fertility is not always fully appreciated by physical and chemical soil scientists. Earthworms are arguably the most important components of the soil biota in terms of soil formation and maintenance of soil structure and fertility. Although not numerically dominant, their large size makes them one of the major contributors to invertebrate biomass in soils. Their activities are important for maintaining soil fertility in a variety of ways in forests, grasslands, and agroecosystems.
World food production is to some extent dependent upon biological nitrogen (N) fixation (about 100 million tons per year globally) in agroecosystem. Legumes reflect multidimensional activity towards developing soil nutrient pool and improving soil fertility. Increased level of CO2 (0.04%) associated with addition of N in a system is dependent upon various abiotic (temperature, humidity, soil) and biotic (species interaction, resource partitioning, biotic interference) factors. As a consequence there may be a significant level of variation in the N cycle in different ecosystems. In comparison with cropland soils of Europe and North America, soils of India are strongly depleted of their N reserves. Such deficiency can be mitigated through the inherent N-fixing ability and improvement of soil condition by leguminous tree species. Such approaches also promote proper enhancement of forest floor biodiversity in terms of various living communities. Leguminous trees are often found to be a key instrument towards combating climate change due to their higher C sequestration potential and wide ecological amplitude at various conditions. Such potentiality often hampers the flourishment of legume trees in nature due to over exploitation and improper regeneration. Community-based natural resource management practices are the suitable solution for these problems. Exploration of areas with higher density of legumes and management of legumes in captivity and under natural condition needs to be prioritized. In this context appropriate research work should be aimed towards proper exploration of potentiality among leguminous vegetation in fixing atmospheric N. Wider application of such species has become a thrust area of research in modern science perspectives. All these issues are periodically reviewed with research-oriented database for the benefits of soil sustainability. The present chapter deals with the beneficial and multipurpose role of leguminous tree species towards soil sustainability and plant growth.
This volume highlights important links existing between soils and human health which up to now are not fully realized by the public. Soil materials may have deleterious, beneficial or no impacts on human health; therefore, understanding the complex relationships between diverse soil materials and human health will encourage creative cooperation between soil and environmental sciences and medicine. The topics covered in this book will be of immense value to a wide range of readers, including soil scientists, medical scientists and practitioners, nursing scientists and staff, toxicologists, ecologists, agronomists, geologists, geochemists, public health professionals, planners and several others. © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2018. All rights reserved.
Efficient utilization of rice (Oryza sativa L.) fallow (∼11.6 million hectares) systems can accelerate the growth of Indian agriculture. But, bringing more area under cultivation is an energy-demanding process and a source of gaseous emissions in the era of climate change. Hence, development of environmentally sustainable cropping systems require for efficient use of rice-fallow lands for sustainable productivity. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the objective to identify sustainable and environmentally safer cropping systems with low global worming potential (GWP) and low energy requirement for rice fallow land of India. Seven diverse crops (e.g., toria (Brassica campestris var. toria), lentil (Lens culinaris), field pea (Pisum arvense), garden pea (Pisum sativum L.), green gram (Vigna radiata), black gram (Vigna mungo) and maize (Zea mays)) were introduced in rice-fallow system by adopting no-till (NT) production technology to develop sustainable and environmentally cleaner production systems in a subtropical climate of Tripura, India. All these rice-based cropping systems were evaluated on the basis of the energy requirements and system productivity. Results indicated that rice had the highest energy input followed by that for maize and the least for lentil. System productivity regarding equivalent rice yield was the highest in rice–garden pea system. The relative amount of energy input in all cropping systems involved 44–54% for chemical fertilizers, 13–17% for land preparation, 12–15% for diesel and 11–14% for labor. Total energy input of 28,656 mega joules per hectare (MJ/ha) was the highest for rice–maize and the lowest of 22,486 MJ/ha for rice–lentil systems. The highest system productivity and the highest energy productivity were obtained for the rice–garden pea system. The GWP was lower for legume-based than that for cereal and oilseed-based cropping systems. The lowest GWP of 7.97 Mg CO2e/ha per yr was observed for the rice-lentil cropping system and the highest GWP of 8.39 Mg CO2e/ha per yr for the rice-maize cropping system. The rice-vegetable pea and rice-lentil cropping systems also had low greenhouse gas emission intensity. The rice–pea and rice–lentil cropping systems are recommended for the region because of their low energy requirement, high energy and system productivity and low GWP. These systems are suited for the efficient utilization of rice fallow lands of eastern India to sustain productivity while adapting and mitigating the climate change.
We assess climate impacts of global warming using ongoing observations and paleoclimate data. We use Earth’s measured energy imbalance, paleoclimate data, and simple representations of the global carbon cycle and temperature to define emission reductions needed to stabilize climate and avoid potentially disastrous impacts on today’s young people, future generations, and nature. A cumulative industrial-era limit of ~500 GtC fossil fuel emissions and 100 GtC storage in the biosphere and soil would keep climate close to the Holocene range to which humanity and other species are adapted. Cumulative emissions of ~1000 GtC, sometimes associated with 2°C global warming, would spur “slow” feedbacks and eventual warming of 3–4°C with disastrous consequences. Rapid emissions reduction is required to restore Earth’s energy balance and avoid ocean heat uptake that would practically guarantee irreversible effects. Continuation of high fossil fuel emissions, given current knowledge of the consequences, would be an act of extraordinary witting intergenerational injustice. Responsible policymaking requires a rising price on carbon emissions that would preclude emissions from most remaining coal and unconventional fossil fuels and phase down emissions from conventional fossil fuels.
Plants do not grow as axenic organisms in nature, but host a diverse community of microorganisms, termed the plant microbiota. There is an increasing awareness that the plant microbiota plays a role in plant growth and can provide protection from invading pathogens. Apart from intense research on crop plants, Arabidopsis is emerging as a valuable model system to investigate the drivers shaping stable bacterial communities on leaves and roots and as a tool to decipher the intricate relationship among the host and its colonizing microorganisms. Gnotobiotic experimental systems help establish causal relationships between plant and microbiota genotypes and phenotypes and test hypotheses on biotic and abiotic perturbations in a systematic way. We highlight major recent findings in plant microbiota research using comparative community profiling and omics analyses, and discuss these approaches in light of community establishment and beneficial traits like nutrient acquisition and plant health.
Measurements of CO2 fluxes in temperate climates have shown that urban areas are a net source of CO2 and that photosynthetic CO2 uptake is generally not sufficient to offset local CO2 emissions. However, little is known about the role of vegetation in cities where biogenic CO2 uptake is not limited to a 2–8 months growing season. This study used the eddy covariance technique to quantify the atmospheric CO2 fluxes over a period of 12 months in a residential area in subtropical Auckland, New Zealand, where the vegetation cover (surface cover fraction: 47%) is dominated by evergreen vegetation. Radiocarbon isotope measurements of CO2 were conducted at three different times of the day (06:00–09:00, 12:00–15:00, 01:00–04:00) for four consecutive weekdays in summer and winter to differentiate anthropogenic sources of CO2 (fossil fuel combustion) from biogenic sources (ecosystem respiration, combustion of biofuel/biomass). The results reveal previously unreported patterns for CO2 fluxes, with no seasonal variability and negative (net uptake) CO2 midday fluxes throughout the year, demonstrating photosynthetic uptake by the evergreen vegetation all year-round. The winter radiocarbon measurements showed that 85% of the CO2 during the morning rush hour was attributed to fossil fuel emissions, when wind was from residential areas. However, for all other time periods radiocarbon measurements showed that fossil fuel combustion was not a large source of CO2, suggesting that biogenic processes likely dominate CO2 fluxes at this residential site. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of vegetation in residential areas to mitigate local CO2 emissions, particularly in cities with a climate that allows evergreen vegetation to maintain high photosynthetic rates over winter. As urban areas grow, urban planners need to consider the role of urban greenspace to mitigate urban CO2 emissions.
The new edition of this comprehensive textbook has been updated, and is aimed at students in soil science, agronomy, agriculture and related disciplines. Both urban and rural land use are considered, including discussions of lawns, greenhouse soils and turfgrass. The 20 chapters are arranged to give continuity to the material and so that succeeding chapters build on earlier material. After a beginners' guide, there are introductory chapters on: soil formation; physical properties; soil water; soil organic matter; soil mineralogy, and soil chemistry. Soil amendment, particularly liming and the treatment of alkaline and saline soils, as well as fertilizer use, are also covered. Next, the role of nitrogen; phosphorus; potassium; calcium, magnesium and sulphur; micronutrients are described. A final group of chapters is concerned with: effects on plant composition and crop yield; soil classification and survey; land use and soil management; soil water management; soil erosion and its control; and soil pollution and "depollution'. Study questions have been added to the end of each chapter and a glossary and index are included. -J.W.Cooper
Plants have incredible developmental plasticity, enabling them to respond to a wide range of environmental conditions. Among these conditions is the presence of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in the soil. Recent studies show that PGPR affect Arabidopsis thaliana root growth and development by modulating cell division and differentiation in the primary root and influencing lateral root development. These effects lead to dramatic changes in root system architecture that significantly impact aboveground plant growth. Thus, PGPR may promote shoot growth via their effect on root developmental programs. This review focuses on contextualizing root developmental changes elicited by PGPR in light of our understanding of plant-microbe interactions and root developmental biology.
Soil health constitutes the foundation for the production of healthy food and thus contributes to local and global food security. Recent findings indicate that there will need to be a 60 % increase in global food production and associated ecosystem services by 2050. However, one-third of global soils are currently facing moderate to severe degradation through soil erosion, nutrient depletion, salinity, sealing and contamination. Evidence-based decisions and soil information are crucial for achieving sustainable soil management at all levels. In 2012, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations established the Global Soil Partnership to highlight effective and concerted actions against soil degradation and to advocate healthy soils for a food secure world.
Agricultural production is an important issue and challenge for providing nutritious and quality food for increasing global populations as well as to maintain the soil fertility and health. The various challenges (e.g., climate change, food security, energy, water and land shortage, high demands of food, land degradation, fossil fuel consumption etc.) affect agricultural production (Lal, 2010). During the green revolution, high yielding verities, unbalanced chemical fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation were used to enhance the production of food grains for providing feed to the growing human population. The green revolution caused serious problems for soil degradation, loss of soil fertility and health, soil acidification, nitrate leaching, and loss of biodiversity (Tilman et al., 2002). Other major problems were nutrient deficiency which caused various diseases in human beings and animals by protein, vitamin and micronutrient deficiency. In agriculture, pesticides are applied to prevent pest attack to protect crops but these pesticides are bioactive, contain toxic substances, and influences soil fertility and health as well as agroecosystem quality (Lo, 2010; Joergensen and Emmerling, 2006). In this perspective, sustainable agriculture is highly needed as an eco-system approach where soil, water, plants, environment and living organisms survive in harmony. In the present review, we have discussed regarding issues and challenges about sustainable agriculture production for management of natural resources to sustain soil fertility and health by help of the book “Sustainable Agricultural Development” edited by Behnassi Mohamed, Shabbir A. Shahid, and Joyce D'Silva (2011).
Intensive agriculture is often criticized for negative impacts on environment and human health. This issue may be solved by a better management of organisms living in crop fields. Here, we review the benefits of earthworms for crops, and we present techniques to increase earthworm abundance. The major points are the following: (1) Earthworms usually improve soil structural stability and soil porosity and reduce runoff. (2) Earthworms modify soil organic matter (SOM) and nutrient cycling. Specifically, earthworms stabilize SOM fractions within their casts, and they also increase the mineralization of organic matter in the short term by altering physical protection within aggregates and enhancing microbial activity. (3) The positive correlation between earthworm abundance and crop production is not systematic, and contrasting effects on yields have been observed. Earthworms induce the production of hormone-like substances that improve plant growth and health. (4) Direct drilling increases earthworm abundance and species diversity, but the beneficial effect of reduced tillage depends upon the species present and tillage intensity. (5) Organic amendments enhance earthworm abundance. (6) Earthworms feeding at soil surface are the most exposed to pesticides and other agrochemicals. Finally, we discuss how to combine management practices, including inoculation, to increase the earthworm services. We conclude that using earthworm services in cropping systems has potential to boost agricultural sustainability.
A field experiment was conducted during kharif season, 2011 to evaluate different row ratio of pearl millet with mungbean in the arid region of Rajasthan. The treatments comprised of sole pearl millet at 45 cm spacing, one sole mungbean and ten pearl millet with mungbean treatments row in different ratio. The intercropping of pearl millet with mungbean in 1 : 7, followed by 2 : 6 and 1: 3 row ratio produced maximum pearl millet equivalent yield (PMEY), land equivalent ratio (LER), aggresivity , net returns,benefit cost (B : C) ratio and also better nutrient uptake by these treatments compared to sole and other intercropping treatments. Aggressivity values showed that inter crop mungbean did not offer any competition to pearl millet in different row ratio, while relative crowding coefficient (RCC) values indicated was a yield disadvantage in mungbean in all the intercropping system except 1: 7 row ratio.
Natural capital and ecosystem service concepts are embodied in the ecosystems approach to sustainable development, which is a framework being consistently adopted by decision making bodies ranging from national governments to the United Nations. In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment soils are given the vital role of a supporting service, but many of the other soil goods and services remain obscured. In this review we address this using and earth-system approach, highlighting the final goods and services soils produce, in a stock-fund, fund-service model of the pedosphere. We also argue that focusing on final goods and services will be counterproductive in the long run and emphasize that final goods and services are derived from an ecosystem supply chain that relies on ecological infrastructure. We propose that an appropriate ecosystems framework for soils should incorporate soil stocks (natural capital) showing their contribution to stock-flows and emergent fund-services as part of the supply chain. By so doing, an operational ecosystems concept for soils can draw on much more supporting data on soil stocks as demonstrated in a case study with soils data from England and Wales showing stocks, gaps in monitoring and drivers of change. Although the focus of this review is on soils, we believe the earth-system approach and principles of the ecosystem supply chain are widely applicable to the ecosystems approach and bring clarity in terms of where goods and services are derived from.
Hardwood forests of the Great Lakes Region have evolved without earthworms since the Last Glacial Maximum, but are now being invaded by exotic earthworms introduced through agriculture, fishing, and logging. These exotic earthworms are known to increase soil mixing, affect soil carbon storage, and dramatically alter soil morphology. Here we show, using an active earthworm invasion chronosequence in a hardwood forest in northern Minnesota, that such disturbances by exotic earthworms profoundly affect inorganic nutrient cycles in soils. Soil nutrient elemental concentrations (Ca, Mg, K, and P) were normalized to biogeochemically inert Zr to quantify their losses and gains. This geochemical normalization revealed that elements were highly enriched in the A horizon of pre-invasion soils, suggesting tight biological recycling of the nutrients. In the early stage of invasion, epi-endogeic earthworm species appeared to have been responsible for further enriching the elements in the A horizon possibly by incorporating leaf organic matter (OM). The arrival of geophagous soil mixing endogeic earthworms, however, was associated with near complete losses of these enrichments, which was related to the loss of OM in soils. Our study highlights that elemental concentrations may not be sufficient to quantify biogeochemical effects of earthworms. The geochemical normalization approach, which has been widely used to study soil formation, may help when determining how invasive soil organisms affect soil elemental cycles. More generally, this approach has potential for much wider use in studies of belowground nutrient dynamics. The results support the existing ecological literature demonstrating that invasive earthworms may ultimately reduce productivity in formerly glaciated forests under climate change.
