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J Nut Res (2015) 3(1): 45-49
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Abstract
Sensitivity to gluten results in a wide spectrum of manifestations
triggered by ingestion of the gluten-containing grains such as
wheat, barley and rye. Celiac Disease, also known as gluten
sensitivity enteropathy , is characterized by inflammation of the
small –intestinal mucosa that results from a genetically based
immunologic intolerance to ingested gluten. Rising demands for
gluten free products parallels the increase in celiac disease
.Humans have many options when it comes to fueling their
bodies, but the benefits of some options are so nutritious that they
are labeled as “Superfoods”. The new emerging super food
quinoa (chenopodium quinoa) was the international food of the
year 2013 and it is a staple food got originated in the Andean
region of South America. It is a pseudo cereal rather than a
true cereal, as it is not a member of the true grass family. It is a
small seed which look like a cross between sesame seeds and
millets. It has exceptionally high protein containing balanced set
of essential amino acid such as methionine, cysteine and lysine as
compared to wheat .Quinoa protein is free of gluten with a low
Glycemic Index, and thus it is ideal for celiac patients. Quinoa
contained good amount of total dietary fibre consisting of both
insoluble fibre and soluble fibre, essential fatty acids such as
linoleic and linolenic acid. The use of quinoa in diet can be
considered beneficial in the prevention and treatment of risk
factors related to celiac disease, cardiovascular diseases,
gastrointestinal problems and reducing lipid peroxidation. Quinoa
can be cooked as a cereal such as porridge, add it to salads,
dessert and can be used as flour for preparation of gluten free
bread and bakery products. Thus, variety of products can be
developed from Quinoa alone or in combination with other food
material and therefore, Quinoa is considered to be an excellent
novel source of natural health promoting food and can be used for
prevention of many diseases.
Keywords: Chenopodium quinoa, celiac disease, superfood,
nutrients, product.
Introduction
Sensitivity to gluten results in a wide spectrum of manifestations
triggered by ingestion of the gluten-containing grains such as
wheat, barley and rye (Catassi and Fasano 2008). Celiac disease,
also known as gluten-sensitive enteropathy, is characterized by
inflammation of the small-intestinal mucosa that results from a
genetically based immunologic intolerance to ingested gluten.
The inflammation occurring in celiac disease classically produces
a malabsorption syndrome, with diarrhoea, steatorrhea, and loss
of weight or failure to thrive. Deficiencies of the fat-soluble
vitamins A, D, E, and K, iron, folic acid and calcium are also
common. Due to these changes the improvement is usually
observed by gluten withdrawal from the diet or inclusion of
gluten free food products. Rising demands for gluten free
products parallels the increase in celiac disease. Products made
from corn, rice, soybean, tapioca, amaranth seeds and pseudo
cereal such as quinoa can be included in diet.
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)
It is a staple food of ancient civilizations and got originated in the
Andean region of South America and is now finding its place
under “Project Anantha” in which Quinoa was grown both at
Hyderabad a year back and in Ananthapuramu district of Andhra
Pradesh and was met with a runaway success and are also found
in Himalayan region. It is a pseudo cereal rather than a
true cereal, as it is not a member of the true grass family. It is a
small seed which look like a cross between sesame seeds and
millets. Quinoa is a multipurpose crop for agricultural
diversification. The United Nations General Assembly declared
2013 as the "International Year of Quinoa" in recognition of
ancestral practices of the Andean people, who have preserved
quinoa as food for present and future generations, through
knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. Three
most widely cultivated varieties of quinoa are available: white,
red, and black. It is rich in various nutrients and due to its wider
acceptability it is also used for the development of various
products and has numerous health benefits.
Quinoa - a treasure trove of nutrients
Simran Bhathal*, Kiran Grover and Navjot Gill
Received: 19 May 2015 / Received in revised form: 30 May 2015, Accepted: 28 May 2015, Published online: 29 June 2015
© The Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism 2013-2015
Simran Bhathal*, Kiran Grover and Navjot Gill
Department of Food and Nutrition, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana-141001
*Email: simrankaurbhathal@yahoo.com
46
J Nut Res (2015) 3(1): 45-49
Chemistry: quality aspects
Leaves
Quinoa leaves contain ample amount of ash (3.3%), fibre (1.9%),
nitrates (0.4%), vitamin E (2.9 mg-te/100 g) and Sodium (289
mg/100 g).
Study on fresh leaves revealed abundant moisture (83.92–
89.11%), chlorophyll a (0.48–1.82 mg/g), chlorophyll b (0.25–
0.07 mg/g) and much higher amount of leaf carotenoid (230.23–
669.57 mg/kg) than that reported earlier.
Grain
Quinoa is referred as pseudo-oilseed crop due to exceptional
balance between oil, protein and fats. Perisperm, embryo and
endosperm are the three areas where reserve food is stored in
quinoa seed. The nutritional value of quinoa grain has long been
known to be superior to cereals and also gave similar value for
starch content (52–60% of grain weight) and found varying size
of starch granules (0.7 and 3.2m). Quinoa starch has the potential
that can be used for specialized industrial applications due to its
small granules and high viscosity. The ash content of quinoa
(3.4%) is higher than that of rice (0.5%), wheat (1.8%) and other
traditional cereals.
Quinoa is a treasure trove of nutrients. It has exceptionally high
protein (16-18%) and more than 37% of the protein in quinoa
comprises of essential amino acids like that of the milk protein,
casein. Unlike wheat, rice and corn which are low in lysine,
quinoa contain balanced set of essential amino acid such as
methionine, cysteine and lysine and also making quinoa a good
complement to legumes, which are limiting in these amino acids(
Drzewiecki et al 2003). The protein quality of quinoa grain is
superior to most cereal grains including wheat. Albumin and
globulins are the major protein fraction (44–77% of total protein)
while the percentage of prolamines is low (0.5–0.7%). Quinoa
protein is low in prolamins (0.5-7.0%), which indicates that it is
free of gluten and, therefore, non-allergenic. Quinoa has shown
some hypoglycemic effects and has been used as an alternative to
traditional ingredients in the production of cereal-based gluten-
free products with a low Glycemic Index (Berti et al 2004).
Several studies have revealed that the oil content in quinoa ranges
from 1.8 to 9.5%, with an average of 5.0–7.2% that is higher than
that of maize (3–4%).Quinoa oil is rich in essential fatty acids,
like linoleate and linolenate (koziol, 1992) and has a high
concentration of natural antioxidants like α-tocopherol (5.3
mg/100 g) and β-tocopherol (2.6 mg/100 g) and appreciable
amounts of thiamin (0.4 mg/100 g), folic acid (78.1 mg/100 g)
and vitamin C (16.4 mg/100 g) (ruales and nair, 1992).
Quinoa contained total dietary fibre content of 13.4% in quinoa
consisting of 11.0% insoluble fibre and 2.4% soluble fibre.
Quinoa’s fatty acids have been shown to maintain their quality
because of quinoa’s naturally high value of vitamin E, which acts
as a natural antioxidant (Ng, S et al., 2007)
The riboflavin and carotene content as 0.39 mg/100 g and 0.39
mg/100 g respectively (Koziol 1992). In terms of 100 g edible
portion, quinoa supplies 0.20 mg vitamin B6, 0.61 mg
pantothenic acid, 23.5µg folic acid and 7.1µg biotin.
Quinoa grains contain large amounts of minerals like Ca, Fe, Zn,
Cu and Mn (repo-carrasco et al., 2003).Calcium and iron are
significantly higher than most commonly used cereals. It is also
reported large amounts of iron (81 mg/kg) and calcium (874
mg/kg) in quinoa. It has about 0.26% of magnesium in
comparison to 0.16% of wheat and 0.14% of corn (Ruales and
nair, 1992).
Quinoa may also be germinated to boast its nutritional value.
Germination activates its natural enzymes, improves its vitamin
status and softens the grain. Quinoa has a short germination
period of 2-4 hours as other grains require 12-14 hours
germination process overnight.
Economic uses
Quinoa is highly nutritive and is being used to make flour, soup,
breakfast and alcohol. It is sold either as whole grain that is
cooked as rice or in combination dishes. It can be fermented to
make beer, or used to feed livestock. Whole plant is also used as
green fodder to feed cattle, pigs and poultry. Quinoa is being
considered as a potential crop for NASA’s controlled ecological
life support system (celss), which aims to utilize plants to remove
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and generate food, oxygen
and water for the crew of long-term space missions (schlick and
bubenheim, 1993). Quinoa flour, in combination with wheat flour
or corn meal, is used in making biscuits, bread and processed
food. The seed flour has good gelation property, water-absorption
capacity, emulsion capacity and stability.
It is evaluated the sugar content and chemical composition of
seed flour of quinoa and stated that it has high proportion of d-
xylose (120 mg/100 g), and maltose (101 mg/100 g), and a low
content of glucose (19 mg/100 g) and fructose (19.6 mg/100 g).
Thus, quinoa could be effectively utilized in the beverage
industry for the preparation of malted drink formulations
(Ogungbenle, 2003)
Saponins - antinutritional factors
Saponins are the principle antinutritional factors present in the
seed coat of quinoa. The saponin content in seeds of sweet
genotypes varies from 0.2 to 0.4 g/kg dry matter and in bitter
genotypes from 4.7 to 11.3 g/kg dry matter (mastebroek et al.,
2000).
Saponins in quinoa are basically glycosidic triterpenoids with
glucose constituting about 80% of the weight. Saponin content is
affected by soil-water deficit, high water deficit lowering the
saponin content.
They are removed either by the wet method, i.e. Washing and
rubbing in cold water, or by dry method, i.e. Toasting and
subsequent rubbing of the grains to remove the outer layers. On
commercial scale, saponins are removed by abrasive dehulling
but in this method, some saponin remains attached to the
perisperm.
Saponins have immense industrial importance and are used
in the preparation of soaps, detergents, shampoos, beer, fire
extinguishers and photography, cosmetic and
pharmaceutical industries.
They have the ability to induce changes in intestinal
permeability which aids in the absorption of particular
drugs.
Research has proved that quinoa saponins may have the
potential to serve as adjuvants for mucosally administered
vaccines.
J Nut Res (2015) 3(1): 45-49 47
Seeing the pharmaceutical potential of saponins, efforts
should be made towards the utilization of quinoa saponins
for this purpose.
Health benefits
Quinoa plays a vital role in various diseases and has a large no. of
health benefits.
Celiac disease
Celiac disease most common lifelong disorders worldwide with
an estimated mean prevalence of 1% of the general population.
The only acceptable treatment for celiac disease is the strict
lifelong elimination of gluten from the diet (catassi and fasano
2008).
The prevalence of celiac disease among school children in
Ludhiana district of Punjab, North India and final analysis was
studied that the disease prevalence was one in 310 children (Sood
et al 2006). Although this disease frequency of one in 310 is
thought to be an under-assessment, it clearly shows that celiac
disease is not rare in wheat-eating areas of North India.
Effect of Diet Supplemented (administration of quinoa seeds
310 g/kg fodder) with Quin oa Seeds on Oxidative Status in
Plasma and Selected Tissues of High Fructose-Fed Rats
study demonstrate that quinoa seeds can act as a moderate
protective agent against potential of fructose-induced changes in
rats by reducing lipid peroxidation and by enhancing the
antioxidant capacity of blood (plasma) and heart, kidney, testis,
lung and pancreas. Pasko et al (2010).
Gastro-Intestinal Effects
Gastrointestinal effects of eating quinoa in celiac patients was
studied by the nineteen treated celiac patients had consumed 50g
of quinoa every day for 6 weeks as part of their usual gluten free
diet. Diet, serology, and gastrointestinal parameters were
evaluated. Gastrointestinal parameters were normal. The ratio of
villus height to crypt depth improved from slightly below normal
values (2.8:1) to normal levels (3:1), the addition of quinoa to the
gluten free diet of celiac patients was well tolerated and did not
exacerbate the condition (zevallos et al.,2014).
Quinoa is a mild laxative, good for insomnia, combats dandruff
and is a good hair tonic. Likewise, the cooking water from the
cooked grain mixed with milk and almond oil is used to wash the
ears where there is pain, noise and deafness. The broth, soup or
warm grain of quinoa is a nutritive tonic, increases breast milk, is
restorative and protects against tuberculosis. Quinoa soup
immediately increases the milk supply of lactating women . It is a
good sudorific is produced by cooking five tablespoons of quinoa
seeds in two bottles of water. The same decoction, sweetened
with honey or molasses, is a proven remedy against bronchial
disorders, colds, cough and inflammation of the tonsils.
The fresh leaves of quinoa 'chiwa', consumed either as a soup or
dessert, are a remedy against scurvy and other illnesses or
diseases caused by vitamin deficiency. It is a proven remedy
against anthrax, herpes, urticaria, 'llejti' and other skin conditions
(zalles and de lucca, 2006).
The oxidative stability of lipids in processed quinoa was
investigated. Ground quinoa was subjected to accelerated aging
for 30 days at 25, 35, 45, and 55 °C. Three samples were
removed from each temperature treatment every 3 days. Free
fatty acids, conjugated diene hydroperoxides, and hexanal were
used as indicators of lipid oxidation. Storage time and
temperature had significant effects (p ⩽ 0.05) on all three
parameters, while the interaction between storage time and
temperature was not significant for conjugated diene
hydroperoxides produced. The results from these tests suggest
that quinoa lipids are stable for the period of time studied. With
vitamin E as a naturally antioxidant occurring abundantly in
quinoa, the potential for quinoa to be a new oilseed could be
enhanced (Chuen et al., 2007).
Cardiovascular Disease
The effects of quinoa on the biochemical and anthropometric
profile and blood pressure in humans, parameters for measuring
risk of cardiovascular diseases was studied.(farinazzi et al., 2012)
twenty-two 18 to 45-year-old persons were treated daily for 30
days with quinoa in the form of a cereal bar. Blood samples were
collected before and after 30 days to determine glycemic and
biochemical profile of the group. Results indicated that quinoa
had beneficial effects since the levels of total cholesterol,
triglycerides, and LDL showed reduction. It was concluded that
the use of quinoa in diet can be considered beneficial in the
prevention and treatment of risk factors related to cardiovascular
diseases.
Product development
The pseudocereal proved to be a suitable substrate for dough
aeration using yeast, since considerably more glucose and a
higher activity of α-glucosidase were found in comparison to rice
and corn flour. Quinoa white flour enhanced the specific volume
by 33%.Moreover, the crumb featured homogeneous and finely
distributed gas bubbles and the taste was not compromised. Thus,
it was possible to improve the quality of gluten-free bread by
using quinoa white flour, which might be a relief for celiac
patients.
Quinoa may also be germinated to boast its nutritional value.
Germination activates its natural enzymes, improves its vitamin
status and softens the grain. Quinoa has a short germination
period of 2-4 hours as other grains require 12-14 hours
germination process overnight. Quinoa can be cooked as a cereal
such as porridge, used as an alternative to rice or poha, add it to
salads, dessert or even can be used to thicken the soups. It can be
used as flour for preparation of gluten free bread and bakery
products.
Calcium, magnesium and iron are minerals that are deficient in
gluten-free products and in the gluten-free diet (Hopman et al
2006). The pseudocereals amaranth, quinoa and buckwheat are
generally a good source of these and other important minerals
(Alvarez et al 2009).
Cake quality was acceptable with 5% and 10% of quinoa flour.
Cake grain became more open and the texture less silky as the
level of quinoa substitution increased. Cake taste improved with
either 5% or 10% quinoa flour in the blend. Flavor improved up
to 20% quinoa flour in the blend. Cookie spread and cookie
appearance was improved with a quinoa/low-spread flour blend
by using 2% lecithin. (lorenz k, 2002).
The study was conducted in which oat and quinoa malts were
produced and incorporated in rice and potato based gluten free
formulation. Germination of oat led to a drastic increase of α-
amylase activity from 0.3 to 48 U/g, and minor increases in
48
J Nut Res (2015) 3(1): 45-49
proteolytic and lipolytic activities. Little change was observed in
quinoa except a decrease in proteolytic activity from 9.6 to 6.9
U/g. Oat malt addition decreased batter viscosities at both
proofing temperature and during heating. These changes led to a
decrease in bread density from 0.59 to 0.5 g/ml and the formation
of a more open crumb, but overdosing of oat malt deteriorated the
product as a result of excessive amylolysis during baking. Quinoa
malt had no significant effect on the baking properties due to low
α-amylase activity. Despite showing a very different impact on
the bread quality, both malts influenced the electrophoretic
patterns of rice flour protein similarly. This suggests that malt
induced proteolysis does not influence the technological
properties of a complex gluten free formulation. Makinen et al
(2013).
Research was conducted in which Quinoa flour was subjected to
a variety of thermal processes. Both unprocessed and processed
quinoa samples were subjected to successive extractions in
methanol and ethyl acetate solvents. Quinoa flour subjected to
processing via roasting and extrusion resulted in a significant
impact on the chemical profile when compared to unprocessed
quinoa flour. Steam pre-conditioning had minimal effects on the
chemical profile of quinoa flour. This research suggests that
thermal processing of quinoa flour can result in degradation of
saponin molecules. Saponin decomposition may influence
sensory or pharmacological properties (Brady 2007).
The performance of quinoa-wheat flour blends (5/95, 10/90,
20/80, 30/70) in breads, cakes and cookies was evaluated. Breads
baked with 5% and 10% quinoa flour were of good quality. Loaf
volume decreased, crumb grain became more open and the
texture slightly harsh at higher usage levels of quinoa flour. Cake
quality was acceptable with 5% and 10% of quinoa flour. Cake
taste improved with either 5% or 10% quinoa flour in the blend.
Cookie spread and top grain scores decreased with increasing
levels of quinoa flour blended with high-spread cookie flour.
Flavor improved up to 20% quinoa flour in the blend. Cookie
spread and cookie appearance was improved with a quinoa/low-
spread flour blend by using 2% lecithin (Lorenz and Coulter,
1991)
The starch that was isolated from lysine-rich high
protein Chenopodium quinoa grains for physicochemical and
functional properties. In contrast to corn starch which showed a
two-stage swelling, C. quinoa showed a single-stage swelling in
the temperature range of 65–95 °C. However, C. quinoa starch
had a lower solubility and lower viscosity than corn starch at
same concentration. The unique property of C. quinoa starch was
its unusual freeze-thaw stability, a fact difficult to explain. The
opaque nature of C. quinoa starch paste suggests applications in
emulsion food products such as salad dressings (Ahamed et al.,
1996)
The rheological properties of doughs prepared from wheat flour
with buckwheat and quinoa flour addition (2.5 mass %, 5.0 mass
%, 7.5 mass %, and 10 mass %) was investigated using a
farinograph and compared with those of standard dough (without
addition of pseudocereals). The following characteristics were
determined: water absorption capacity, water consumption, dough
growth time, level of dough softening, dough stability,
mechanical resistance, and dough elasticity. Dough stability
showed a linear decrease with the increasing content of
pseudocereals. Doughs containing quinoa flour were more stable
than those with buckwheat flour addition. Dough growth time
was reduced with increasing amounts of buckwheat flour but it
was not affected in the case of quinoa flour addition. From the
comparison of the studied characteristics it can be concluded that
an addition of lower amounts of quinoa (up to 5.0 mass %) to
wheat flour will not significantly impair rheological properties of
the dough but provides for enhanced nutritional value of the
prepared bakery products ( Jancurova 2009).
Experts recommend that the bulk of carbohydrate-containing
foods consumed have a low glycemic index (GI), i.e. slowly
digested carbohydrates (FAO/WHO 1997). Good glycemic
control is particularly important in Celiac Disease (CD), as there
appears to be a higher incidence of type I diabetes among CD
patients. The limited data available on the GI of gluten-free foods
suggests the need for an improvement in the formulation of these
food products. Quinoa has shown some hypoglycemic effects in
vivo and has been recommended as an alternative to traditional
ingredients in the production of cereal-based gluten-free products
with a low GI (Berti et al 2004).
Quinoa in Indian perspective
India, located between 8◦ and 38◦n and 68◦ and 93.5◦e, exhibits
enormous diversity for agro-climatic regions and edapho-climatic
conditions. An increasing population in this region of the world
demands not only an increase in food grain production but also a
shift towards environmentally sound sustainable agriculture.
In India, a large portion of the population has little access to
protein-rich diet, since rice and wheat are the principal food
crops.
Quinoa’s highly proteinaceous grain can help to make diets more
balanced in this region. Making quinoa popular in india would
require dissemination of information about the crop among the
farmers as well as the consumers, proper marketing and efficient
post-harvest technologies. Quinoa has the potential to shed its
underutilized status and become an important industrial and food
crop of the 21st century.
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Supplementary Material
Quinoa, uncooked, per 100 g
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,539 kJ (368 kcal)
Carbohydrates 64 g
Dietary fibre 7 g
Fat 6 g
Saturated 0.7 g
Monounsaturated 1.6 g
Polyunsaturated 3.3 g
Protein 14 g
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv. 1 μg
Thiamine (B1) 0.36 mg
Riboflavin (B2) 0.32 mg
Niacin (B3) 1.52 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.77 mg
Vitamin B6 0.49 mg
Folate (B9) 184 μg
Choline 70.2 mg
Vitamin C 0 mg
Vitamin E 2.44 mg
Trace metals
Calcium 47 mg
Iron 4.6 mg
Magnesium 197 mg
Phosphorus 457 mg
Potassium 563 mg
Zinc 3.1 mg
Water 13 g
Units : µg=micrograms, mg=milligrams; IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for
adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Essential amino acids in quinoa and other foods (g/100 g protein) (Koziol
1992)
Quinoa Maize rice wheat
Histidine 3.2 2.6 2.1 2
Isoleucine 4.9 4 4.1 4.2
Leucine 6.6 12.5 8.2 6.8
Lysine 6 2.9 3.8 2.6
Methionine 5.3 4 3.6 3.7
Phenylalanine 6.9 8.6 10.5 8.2
Threonine 3.7 3.8 3.8 2.8
Tryptophan 0.9 0.7 1.1 1.2
Valline 4.5 5 6.1 4.4
