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Singing to the self: Children’s private speech, private song, and executive functioning

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Abstract

The current study explored private speech (PS), private singing, and humming in relation to executive function (EF). Fifty-eight children (4–8 years)were observed as they performed a selective attention task (SAT)and engaged in PS. In addition, their EF was measured with tests of cognitive flexibility (Dimensional Change Card Sorting Task), inhibitory control (Go-No Go, Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders), and planning (Tower of London). Parents reported on child EF issues. Almost all (95%)participants engaged in PS. Nearly one third of the sample used private song, and children who sang engaged in more overt PS on average than children who did not sing. There were children who used little to no PS, but children who used more overt task-relevant speech typically also had lower inhibitory control and more parent-reported EF issues. Private singing was unassociated with EF. Directions for future research on PS and song are discussed.

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... Private speech is an overt talking to oneself that emerges naturally and spontaneously in early childhood (Thibodeaux, Bock, Hutchison, & Winsler, 2019;Winsler, 2009). It occurs when children are trying to solve problem, often in the absence of external guidance (Diaz, 1992;Fernyhough & Fradley 2005;Winsler, Diaz, & Montero, 1997). ...
... It occurs when children are trying to solve problem, often in the absence of external guidance (Diaz, 1992;Fernyhough & Fradley 2005;Winsler, Diaz, & Montero, 1997). The production of private speech helps children to regulate their thoughts and behaviors and to sustain control over their own actions (Aro et al., 2015;Thibodeaux et al., 2019). ...
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The study’s aims were to (a) evaluate preschoolers’ use of private speech (overt talk to themselves) during spelling; and (b) study how it is affected by the nature of orthography. Participants were 197 Hebrew speaking Israeli preschoolers (109 girls and 88 boys) (M = 5.6 years). Children spelled 12 words (N = 44 letters) that represented one of three phonological word structures in terms of their consonants (C) and vowels (V): CV.CVC, CV.CV.CVC, and CVC.CVC. Children’s private speech during spelling was documented and analysed. In this paper, we report the private speech units most frequently produced when spelling the letters correctly -- CV, CVC, and letter name. When using private speech, children succeeded in correctly spelling a greater number of letters (30.69%) than when not using private speech (17.64%). The private speech across word structures primarily contained CV units and letter names. Children used private speech mostly for words’ first letters and for CV.CVC words. The structure and position of the letters (first, second, last) had a combined effect on the production of private speech. CV units were used mostly in the first letter of CV.CVC words, CVC units in the second letter of a CVC.CVC word, and letter names in the first letter of CV.CVC words. These findings suggest that preschoolers are aware of the features of the orthography, as exemplified by their internal thought process when spelling words. Adults can support children’s understanding of the written language by encouraging them to use private speech during word writing.
... It may be possible to integrate singing into scaffolding for problem-solving with uncertainty. Especially in early childhood education contexts, such a scaffolding strategy can be integrated seamlessly considering private singing is often observed among children and used by teachers (Thibodeaux et al., 2019). Managing uncertainty is important in collaborative problem solving (Jordan, 2015;Jordan & McDaniel, 2014). ...
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In this qualitative study, preservice early childhood education teachers created block-based code to control robots and used the robots in field experience at local preschools. The study is grounded in a conceptual framework that weaves together playful programing and resilience, interlocking concepts that can explain sustained engagement during times of challenge. We investigated how and why preservice early childhood teachers exhibit resilience during collaborative programing. We analyzed their debugging processes, reflections, and interviews using a phenomenological lens. We conducted open and axial coding and analysis of discourse and actions during debugging episodes. Results suggest that teachers exhibited resilience due to the following three reasons: through playful coding, preservice early childhood teachers (a) learned that computer science is approachable and fun, (b) engaged in adaptive attribution, and (c) engaged in joint celebration when they observed each other’s successes during collaborative tinkering. These findings provide potential insights for teacher learning of computing but also for novices learning to program.
... Children begin talking to themselves almost as soon as they can speak. Self-talk is the term used to describe this phenomenon, and studies have shown that children utilize self-talk to control their thoughts and actions (1) This aids in children's intellectual (2), motor (3), and social and emotional competence (4). Youngsters who talk to themselves more often exhibit more emotional control, as well as greater effort and perseverance (5). ...
... In the present review, having searched for studies by the term self-talk limited the degree to which studies on private and inner speech (e.g. Thibodeaux et al., 2019) found their way into the literature synthesis. Yet, discussions took place within the interdisciplinary research team about the relevance of private and inner speech for the self-talk model. ...
Article
The present work synthesises the self-talk literature and constructs a transdisciplinary self-talk model to guide future research across all academic disciplines that engage with self-talk. A comprehensive research review was conducted, including 559 self-talk articles published between 1978 and 2020. These articles were divided into 6 research categories: (a) inner dialogue, (b) mixed spontaneous and goal-directed organic self-talk, (c) goal-directed self-talk, (d) spontaneous self-talk, (e) educational self-talk interventions, and (f) strategic self-talk interventions. Following this, critical details were extracted from a subsample of 100 articles to create an interdisciplinary synthesis of the self-talk literature. Based on the synthesis, a self-talk model was created that places spontaneous and goal-directed organic self-talk as well as educational and strategic self-talk interventions in relation to variables within their nomological network, including external factors (e.g. task difficulty), descriptive states and traits (e.g. emotions), behaviour and performance, metacognition, and psychological skills (e.g. concentration).
... The study on PS in the specific language impairment population (Lidstone et al., 2012) has been productive in studying PS in the ADHD and ASD populations (Winsler et al., 2007). For studying microgenetic (Benigno et al., 2011) and transversal relations between PS and executive functioning (Fernyhough and Fradley, 2005;Alarcón-Rubio et al., 2014;Thibodeaux et al., 2019) as well as the ontogenetic relation between PS and theory of mind (Fernyhough and Meins, 2009;Rivera, 2023), Berk's coding scheme has been highly fruitful. However, it is important to note that Berk's coding scheme is not the only coding scheme (please refer to Winsler et al., 2005) available for studying the internalization process of the self-regulation function. ...
... The study on PS in the specific language impairment population (Lidstone et al., 2012) has been productive in studying PS in the ADHD and ASD populations (Winsler et al., 2007). For studying microgenetic (Benigno et al., 2011) and transversal relations between PS and executive functioning (Fernyhough and Fradley, 2005;Alarcón-Rubio et al., 2014;Thibodeaux et al., 2019) as well as the ontogenetic relation between PS and theory of mind (Fernyhough and Meins, 2009;Rivera, 2023), Berk's coding scheme has been highly fruitful. However, it is important to note that Berk's coding scheme is not the only coding scheme (please refer to Winsler et al., 2005) available for studying the internalization process of the self-regulation function. ...
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Since the era of Piaget and Vygotsky, private speech (PS) has been widely discussed, but in recent years, the avenues for its study have greatly expanded. In this study, we explored the use of a recoding scheme for PS inspired by the studies of Pyotr Galperin. A coding scheme for social speech, PS, and the lack of speech, as the form of action (FA) has been proposed (i.e., external social speech, external audible speech, inaudible speech, and mental FA when no speech was produced). An exploratory study was conducted to elucidate the appropriateness of the coding scheme, both ontogenetically and during tasks. The results showed that both the coding scheme by type of speech and FA were adequate for differentiating ontogenetically between children. However, only the coding schemes of the FA were appropriate for differentiating between children as a function of their performance (i.e., time and scores) in a Tower of London task. Moreover, Galperin's scheme was more suitable when there was redundancy in performance between those with audible and inaudible external speech.
... We take this concept to the musical field and see that the use of private singing, and vocal, guttural, whistling, etc., have also been observed, and we propose it has two main functions: (a) self-guidance and selfregulation, e.g., cultural tool in the regulation of a child's behaviour in situations when they are falling asleep (Mead and Winsler, 2019), or (b) when learning a musical instrument (Casas-Mas et al., 2019), or managing waiting times (Winsler et al., 2011) with regard to the previous musical experience. Thibodeaux et al. (2019) found a relationship albeit incipient, between the production of private singing and private speech. During tasks of selective attention when one appears, so does the other, with several similar self-regulating uses. ...
... We take this concept to the musical field and see that the use of private singing, and vocal, guttural, whistling, etc., have also been observed, and we propose it has two main functions: (a) self-guidance and selfregulation, e.g., cultural tool in the regulation of a child's behaviour in situations when they are falling asleep (Mead and Winsler, 2019), or (b) when learning a musical instrument (Casas-Mas et al., 2019), or managing waiting times (Winsler et al., 2011) with regard to the previous musical experience. Thibodeaux et al. (2019) found a relationship albeit incipient, between the production of private singing and private speech. During tasks of selective attention when one appears, so does the other, with several similar self-regulating uses. ...
Article
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The awareness of the last twenty years about embodied cognition is directing multidisciplinary attention to the musical domain and impacting psychological research approaches from the 4E cognition. Based on previous research regarding musical teaching and learning conceptions of 30 young guitar apprentices of advanced level in three learning cultures: Western classical, jazz, and flamenco of oral tradition, two participants of flamenco with polarized profiles of learning (reproductive and transformative) were selected as instrumental cases for a prospective ex post facto design. Discourse and practice of the two flamenco guitarists were analyzed in-depth to describe bodily issues and verbal discourse on the learning practice in their natural contexts. Qualitative analysis is performed on the posture, gestures, verbal discourse, and musical practice of the participants through the System for the Analysis of Music Teaching and Learning Practices (SAPIL). The results are organized attending a) the Embodied mind through differential postures and gestures of flamenco participants that showed a fusion among verbal, body language, and musical discourse with respect to the musical literacy cultures; b) the Embedded mind and a detailed description of circumstances and relationships of the two flamenco participants, and how music is embedded in their way of life, family and social context, and therefore transcends musical activity itself; c) the Enactive mind, regarding the active processes that make differences between the reproductive and the transformative flamenco apprentices, then tentative relationship are observed in the discourse of each apprentice and the way in which they practice; and finally, d) the Extended mind through the bodily, technical and symbolic tools they use during learning. Flamenco culture of oral tradition made use of listening, and temporary external representations instead of notational, but also the body played a central role in a holistic rhythm processing through multimodality, such as singing, playing, and dancing. Conclusions point out the embodied mind as a result of the culture of learning reflected through the body and the gesture in instrumental learning.
... According to Vygotskian theory, an important tool that preschoolers use to develop their executive functioning skills and gain regulatory control over their behavior is private speech (PS)-namely, the overt and partially internalized self-talk that children use while engaging in challenging problem solving and play activities (Vygotsky, 1934(Vygotsky, /1962Winsler et al., 2009). PS is not only useful during calm 'cool' cognitive activities but has been studied as crucial for emotional self-regulation in 'hot' frustrating and emotionally charged situations (Barkley, 1997;Day & Smith, 2013;Thibodeaux & Winsler, 2019;Winsler, 2009). The presence of overt/loud PS has a particular inverted U shape developmental trajectory in childhood, originally described by Piaget and Vygotsky (Piaget, 1923;Vygotsky, 1934Vygotsky, /1962, who postulated that PS increases progressively during infancy, reaching a peak during preschool years (age 4-6), and then progressively decreases during primary school. ...
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Preschoolers spend much time with digital media and some are concerned about impacts on language development. Private speech (PS) is self-talk children use during play, representing a necessary form of self-regulation. This study examined whether modality (material vs. digital) matters for children’s PS. Twenty-nine White 5-yr-olds (52% female) completed the Tower of London task twice - once as a material version and once on a tablet. Children used more PS on the material than digital version of the task (d=0.46). During the material task, the typical pattern of increased PS as difficulty increased appeared. However, during the digital task, PS declined as difficulty increased. Digital games may inhibit children’s use of PS for self-regulation, having implications for executive function development.
... La metodología más clásica, que siguen la mayoría de los investigadores, se basa en realizar observaciones naturalistas de los menores en el contexto del aula, o, más comúnmente, en realizar grabaciones de vídeo y/ o audio para registrar el habla espontánea de los menores (Crescenzi-Lanna, 2020; Manfraa et al., 2016;Thibodeauxa et al., 2019;Winsler, 2009) mientras realizan determinadas tareas. Otros se apoyan en sistemas de reconocimiento de voz, para transcribir y categorizar sus producciones lingüísticas, aunque no siempre obtienen resultados positivos, al ser compleja la identificación y discriminación de las distintas voces (Katerenchuk, 2018). ...
Chapter
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El engagement es un constructo complejo relacionado con la motivación y la implicación, que se suele investigar con distintas metodologías y estrategias de análisis, dependiendo de su definición conceptual. Los sistemas de medidas automáticas computacionales empiezan a ser la forma más común de analizar las interacciones de los niños y niñas con herramientas y contenidos digitales. A continuación, se discute la aplicación de los distintos diseños de investigación del engagement durante el juego en la primera infancia y se reflexiona sobre la influencia de factores externos como el contexto, las diferencias culturales, el nivel de independencia de los adultos y las características de las apps seleccionadas.
... La metodología más clásica, que siguen la mayoría de los investigadores, se basa en realizar observaciones naturalistas de los menores en el contexto del aula, o, más comúnmente, en realizar grabaciones de vídeo y/ o audio para registrar el habla espontánea de los menores (Crescenzi-Lanna, 2020; Manfraa et al., 2016;Thibodeauxa et al., 2019;Winsler, 2009) mientras realizan determinadas tareas. Otros se apoyan en sistemas de reconocimiento de voz, para transcribir y categorizar sus producciones lingüísticas, aunque no siempre obtienen resultados positivos, al ser compleja la identificación y discriminación de las distintas voces (Katerenchuk, 2018). ...
Book
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Los estudios sobre el uso de tecnologías digitales por parte de niños y niñas indican un aumento de las pantallas en las escuelas, pero sobre todo en los hogares, desde 2013. Los menores ya emplean antes de los dos años smartphones y tablets para jugar, para comunicarse, para crear y para aprender. Para ellos las pantallas son parte de su vida cotidiana y una herramienta más de juego, mientras que para los educadores existen todavía importantes dudas sobre las posibilidades del medio interactivo para el desarrollo de los más pequeños a nivel cognitivo, afectivo y psicomotor. Investigar para conocer cómo los niños y niñas más pequeños interactúan con las tecnologías digitales es hoy más necesario que nunca. Este libro pretende contribuir a la investigación en el campo de la interacción de los menores con las pantallas interactivas durante la primera infancia, y se difunde en abierto para llegar a todos los académicos interesados en esta área, pero también a los educadores y familias preocupadas por seleccionar y ofrecer recursos de calidad que contribuyan a un uso saludable, responsable y educativo de la tecnología por parte de los más pequeños. El libro se estructura en dos partes, con una primera visión más conceptual y una consecuente perspectiva metodológica sobre la observación y el análisis de la interacción niño-pantalla.
... La metodología más clásica, que siguen la mayoría de los investigadores, se basa en realizar observaciones naturalistas de los menores en el contexto del aula, o, más comúnmente, en realizar grabaciones de vídeo y/ o audio para registrar el habla espontánea de los menores (Crescenzi-Lanna, 2020; Manfraa et al., 2016;Thibodeauxa et al., 2019;Winsler, 2009) mientras realizan determinadas tareas. Otros se apoyan en sistemas de reconocimiento de voz, para transcribir y categorizar sus producciones lingüísticas, aunque no siempre obtienen resultados positivos, al ser compleja la identificación y discriminación de las distintas voces (Katerenchuk, 2018). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Los estudios sobre el uso de tecnologías digitales por parte de niños y niñas indican un aumento de las pantallas en las escuelas, pero sobre todo en los hogares, desde 2013. Los menores ya emplean antes de los dos años smartphones y tablets para jugar, para comunicarse, para crear y para aprender. Para ellos las pantallas son parte de su vida cotidiana y una herramienta más de juego, mientras que para los educadores existen todavía importantes dudas sobre las posibilidades del medio interactivo para el desarrollo de los más pequeños a nivel cognitivo, afectivo y psicomotor. Investigar para conocer cómo los niños y niñas más pequeños interactúan con las tecnologías digitales es hoy más necesario que nunca. Este libro pretende contribuir a la investigación en el campo de la interacción de los menores con las pantallas interactivas durante la primera infancia, y se difunde en abierto para llegar a todos los académicos interesados en esta área, pero también a los educadores y familias preocupadas por seleccionar y ofrecer recursos de calidad que contribuyan a un uso saludable, responsable y educativo de la tecnología por parte de los más pequeños. El libro se estructura en dos partes, con una primera visión más conceptual y una consecuente perspectiva metodológica sobre la observación y el análisis de la interacción niño-pantalla.
... Self-directed speech-including its equivalent in sign language, self-directed signing-is universal among humans (e.g., Al Namlah et al., 2006;Zimmermann and Brugger, 2013;Thibodeaux et al., 2019), although its frequency and manner of application may vary between individuals and tasks (Alderson-Day and Fernyhough, 2015). The development of self-directed speech is thought to be completely intertwined with that of other cognitive functions such as EF and ToM (e.g., Newton and de Villiers, 2007;Lidstone et al., 2010Lidstone et al., , 2012. ...
Article
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Many individuals with developmental language disorder (DLD) and individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing (D/HH) have social–emotional problems, such as social difficulties, and show signs of aggression, depression, and anxiety. These problems can be partly associated with their executive functions (EFs) and theory of mind (ToM). The difficulties of both groups in EF and ToM may in turn be related to self-directed speech (i.e., overt or covert speech that is directed at the self). Self-directed speech is thought to allow for the construction of non-sensory representations (i.e., representations that do not coincide with direct observation). Such non-sensory representations allow individuals to overcome the limits set upon them by the senses. This ability is constrained by the development of word meaning structure (i.e., the way words are understood). We argue that the greater ability to construct non-sensory representations may result in more enhanced forms of EF and ToM. We conclude that difficulties in EF, ToM, and social–emotional functioning in those with hearing and language problems may be accounted for in terms of word meaning impairments. We propose that word meaning structure and self-directed speech should be considered in assigning EF and ToM treatments to individuals with DLD and those who are D/HH.
... Examining the links between private speech, singing and executive function in four-to nineyear-olds, Thibodeaux et al. (2019) suggest that private speech and song may both be used for self-regulation, but in different ways. In a recently published study of one child's crib speech, Mead and Winsler (2019) found a significant amount of singing and humming. ...
Article
This article uses explores how young children use self-directed spontaneous singing at home as a tool of personal agency. Although researchers are increasingly interested in spontaneous singing that takes place outside formal education and care settings, there remains little research into young children’s self-directed singing at home. With improvements in recording technology, it is now possible to continuously record children’s singing. Listening to and analysing singing that takes place when children are alone – and which would otherwise go unnoticed by adults – is a new development in the field of music and children studies. Fifteen children aged from 3:0 to 4:10 years were recorded at home using a continuous recording device and self-directed spontaneous singing was analysed using an interpretive framework of musical agency. The children used self-directed singing as a tool of personal agency to structure their experiences and to manage the self.
... There is evidence to warrant extending this hypothesis to other spontaneous activity in early and middle childhood. One recent study of 4-8 year-olds found that at least 95% of their sample engaged in spontaneous, self-directed singing or speaking, the amount of which was inversely associated with performance on a variety of cognitive tasks (Thibodeaux, Bock, Hutchison, & Winsler, 2019), suggesting that the children who engaged in less spontaneous behavior had more mature neural systems that support executive function. Taken together, this work supports our theory that activity at "rest" is developmentally expected and likely necessary to spur neural development. ...
Article
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In cognitive neuroscience, measurements of “resting baseline” are often considered stable across age and used as a reference point against which to judge cognitive state. The task-based approach—comparing resting baseline to task conditions—implies that resting baseline is an equalizer across participants and—in the case of studies of developmental changes in cognition—across age groups. In contrast, network neuroscience explicitly examines the development of “resting state” networks across age, at odds with the idea of a consistent resting baseline. Little attention has been paid to how cognition during rest may shift across development, particularly in children under the age of eight. Childhood is marked by striking maturation of neural systems, including a protracted developmental period for cognitive control systems. To grow and shape these cognitive systems, children have a developmental imperative to engage their neural circuitry at every possible opportunity. Thus, periods of “rest” without specific instructions may require additional control for children as they fight against developmental expectation to move, speak, or otherwise engage. We therefore theorize that the child brain does not rest in a manner consistent with the adult brain as rest periods may represent increased cognitive control. To shape this theory, we first review the extant literature on neurodevelopment across early childhood within the context of cognitive development. Next, we present nascent evidence for a destabilized baseline for comparisons across age. Finally, we present recommendations for designing, analyzing, and interpreting tasks conducted with young children as well as for resting state. Future work must aim to tease apart the cognitive context under which we examine functional brain development in young children and take considerations into account unique to each age.
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In the present study, the role of language in executive functioning was explored in 6- and 9-year-old children. The experimental paradigm of articulatory suppression (with tapping as a control condition) was used on three different tasks placing low (Flanker Task), middle (Cognitive Flexibility Task), and high (Complex Span Task) demands on memory. The extent to which articulatory suppression specifically impaired performance coincided with the memory demand of the tasks as it was strongest in the Complex Span, present in the Cognitive Flexibility, and absent in the Flanker Task. The impairment was larger in the 9-year-olds than in the 6-year-olds. Taken together, results suggest that the use of speech substantially contributes to developmental progression in executive functioning by supporting memory sustaining processes.
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The present study explored: (a) preschool children’s awareness of their own talking and private speech (speech directed to the self ); (b) differences in age, speech use, language ability, and mentalizing abilities between children with awareness and those without; and (c) children’s beliefs and attitudes about private speech. Fifty-one children between the ages of 3 and 5 completed a selective attention task from which a sample of private speech was video-recorded for use during a subsequent experimenter–child interview. Children also completed a standardized language assessment and a battery of mentalizing tasks. Roughly half of the children (54%) showed awareness of talking during the task, and 52% of the children who talked during the task stated that their speech was self-directed. Children who were aware of their private speech were significantly older, had greater expressive language skills, used more private speech, and had higher deceptive-box scores than children who were not aware of their private speech. Participants believed that private speech was positive and helpful. Implications of this work for researchers and early childhood educators are discussed.
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Research Findings: Although the role of language and private speech in the development of behavioral self-regulation has been studied, relations between behavioral self-regulation and children's experiences with other symbolic systems, such as music, have not yet been explored. Eighty-nine 3- and 4-year-old children (42 of whom had been enrolled in Kindermusik music and movement classes, and 47 demographically similar children who had not experienced structured early childhood music classes) completed a battery of laboratory self-regulation tasks and a selective attention task during which their private speech was reliably transcribed and categorized. Children currently enrolled in Kindermusik classes showed better self-regulation than those who were not currently enrolled (d = .41), and they also used more relevant private speech during the selective attention task (d = .57), a verbal strategy that was positively related to performance. Children exposed to the music program were also more likely to engage in the facilitative strategy of singing/humming to themselves during a waiting period in which they had to inhibit their desire to examine a gift, and they were less likely to call out socially to the experimenter, a strategy negatively associated with performance and self-regulation. Practice or Policy: Implications for early childhood education are discussed.
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Tested assumptions drawn from Vygotsky's (1934 [1962]) theory about the development of private speech (PS) and its relationship to task performance, attention, and motor behaviors accompanying task orientation. 75 1st and 3rd graders were observed in their classrooms while engaged in math seatwork. Results show a developmental trend toward increasingly task-relevant and less audible PS and a shifting relationship of intelligence to PS with grade, which was consistent with Vygotsky's assumption that PS undergoes a curvilinear course of development that is governed by cognitive maturity. The relationship of PS to task success, as measured by classroom assignment performance and scores on the mathematics portion of the Stanford Achievement Test, varied with grade and mental ability (Cognitive Abilities Test—Primary Battery). Findings suggest that using the type of PS that is in natural developmental ascendence, given the child's level of intellectual maturity, is positively related to performance, but reverting to less mature forms is negatively predictive. Use of task-relevant PS predicted greater task attentional focus and reduction of extraneous, tension-reducing motor behaviors. Findings support Vygotsky's theory of the functional significance of PS in children's cognitive development and the validity of the theory for children's task-related behaviors in natural classroom learning contexts. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This study examined gender differences in self-regulation in the fall and spring of kindergarten and their connection to gender differences in 5 areas of early achievement: applied problems (math), general knowledge, letter–word identification, expressive vocabulary, and sound awareness. Behavioral self-regulation was measured using both an objective direct measure (N = 268; Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task) and, for a subsample of children, a teacher report of classroom self-regulatory behavior (n = 156; Child Behavior Rating Scale). Results showed that girls outperformed boys in both assessments. Although gender differences in self-regulation were clear, no significant gender differences were found on the 5 academic achievement outcomes, as measured by the Woodcock–Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Self-regulation consistently predicted math and sound awareness, although links were stronger with the direct measure as compared with teacher reports. Implications for understanding the role of gender and self-regulation in early and later academic achievement and the role of self-regulation in particular areas of achievement are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Exploratory data analysis (EDA) is a well-established statistical tradition that provides conceptual and computational tools for discovering patterns to foster hypothesis development and refinement. These tools and attitudes complement the use of significance and hypothesis tests used in confirmatory data analysis (CDA). Although EDA complements rather than replaces CDA, use of CDA without EDA is seldom warranted. Even when well-specified theories are held, EDA helps one interpret the results of CDA and may reveal unexpected or misleading patterns in the data. This article introduces the central heuristics and computational tools of EDA and contrasts it with CDA and exploratory statistics in general. EDA techniques are illustrated using previously published psychological data. Changes in statistical training and practice are recommended to incorporate these tools. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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In Study 1 (N = 147), duration of music lessons was correlated positively with IQ and with academic ability among 6-to 11-year-olds, even when potential confounding variables (i.e., family income, parents' education, involvement in nonmusical activities) were held constant. In Study 2 (N = 150), similar but weaker associations between playing music in childhood and intellectual functioning were evident among undergraduates. In both studies, there was no evidence that musical involvement had stronger associations with some aspects of cognitive ability (e.g., mathematical, spatial–temporal, verbal) than with others. These results indicate that formal exposure to music in childhood is associated positively with IQ and with academic performance and that such associations are small but general and long lasting.
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Executive functions (EFs)-a set of general-purpose control processes that regulate one's thoughts and behaviors-have become a popular research topic lately and have been studied in many subdisciplines of psychological science. This article summarizes the EF research that our group has conducted to understand the nature of individual differences in EFs and their cognitive and biological underpinnings. In the context of a new theoretical framework that we have been developing (the unity/diversity framework), we describe four general conclusions that have emerged from our research. Specifically, we argue that individual differences in EFs, as measured with simple laboratory tasks, (1) show both unity and diversity (different EFs are correlated yet separable); (2) reflect substantial genetic contributions; (3) are related to various clinically and societally important phenomena; and (4) show some developmental stability.
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The effects of an eight-week instructional program in creative dance/movement on the social competence of low-income preschool children were assessed in this study utilizing a scientifically rigorous design. Forty preschool children from a large Head Start program were randomly assigned to participate in either an experimental dance program or an attention control group. Teachers and parents, blind to the children's group membership, rated children's social competence both before and after the program, using English and Spanish versions of the Social Competence Behavior Evaluation: Preschool Edition. The results revealed significantly greater positive gains over time in the children's social competence and both internalizing and externalizing behavior problems for the experimental group compared with the control group. Small-group creative dance instruction for at-risk preschoolers appears to be an excellent mechanism for enhancing social competence and improving behavior. The implications for early childhood education and intervention are discussed.
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Behavioral aspects of self-regulation, including controlling and directing actions, paying attention, and remembering instructions, are critical for successful functioning in preschool and elementary school. In recent years, several direct assessments of these skills have appeared, but few studies provide complete psychometric data and many are not easy to administer. We developed a direct measure of children's behavioral regulation, the Head-to-Toes Task, and report performance of participants aged 36–78 months, including a group of Spanish-speaking children, from two different sites (N = 353; N = 92). We examined construct validity, examiner reliability, sources of variation, and associations between task scores and background characteristics. Results showed that the task was valid, reliable, and demonstrated variability in children's scores. A cross-classified hierarchical growth curve analysis indicated that girls, participants assessed in English, and higher-socioeconomic status (SES) children achieved slightly higher average scores than did boys, Spanish-speaking and lower-SES children, but effect sizes were small. Older participants achieved higher scores than did younger children, and there were no effects for site. Results suggest that the Head-to-Toes Task is an informative and easy-to-administer direct assessment of children's behavioral regulation. We discuss implications for its use in early childhood settings.
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Based on the premise that what people think influences their actions, self-talk strategies have been developed to direct and facilitate human performance. In this article, we present a meta-analytic review of the effects of self-talk interventions on task performance in sport and possible factors that may moderate the effectiveness of self-talk. A total of 32 studies yielding 62 effect sizes were included in the final meta-analytic pool. The analysis revealed a positive moderate effect size (ES = .48). The moderator analyses showed that self-talk interventions were more effective for tasks involving relatively fine, compared with relatively gross, motor demands, and for novel, compared with well-learned, tasks. Instructional self-talk was more effective for fine tasks than was motivational self-talk; moreover, instructional self-talk was more effective for fine tasks rather than gross tasks. Finally, interventions including self-talk training were more effective than those not including self-talk training. The results of this study establish the effectiveness of self-talk in sport, encourage the use of self-talk as a strategy to facilitate learning and enhance performance, and provide new research directions. © The Author(s) 2011.
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Researchers have designed training methods that can be used to improve mental health and to test the efficacy of education programs. However, few studies have demonstrated broad transfer from such training to performance on untrained cognitive activities. Here we report the effects of two interactive computerized training programs developed for preschool children: one for music and one for visual art. After only 20 days of training, only children in the music group exhibited enhanced performance on a measure of verbal intelligence, with 90% of the sample showing this improvement. These improvements in verbal intelligence were positively correlated with changes in functional brain plasticity during an executive-function task. Our findings demonstrate that transfer of a high-level cognitive skill is possible in early childhood.
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The present study re-evaluated several hypotheses concerning the selfregulatory nature of children's private speech. It was hypothesised that if children's private speech is self-regulatory, it should differ systematically as a function of child's age, task difficulty, and the presence of another in a task situation, and it should be positively related to task performance. Twenty-four children at each of three age levels (2, 31/2, and 5 years) were videotaped while working alone and with a parent on different sets of 3 puzzles that varied in difficulty. Children's speech was recorded and coded as private or social. The proportion of total speech coded as private increased slightly with age and was curvilinearly related to puzzle difficulty, with the most private speech observed on moderately difficult puzzles. In addition, private speech was positively related to task performance, especially on medium and difficult tasks. These results are consistent with the view that private speech is self-regulatory. Parental presence had no effect on the percentage of private speech. These results suggest that parents' behaviour during joint problem-solving probably should not be taken to be strictly regulatory. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/67047/2/10.1177_016502548901200302.pdf
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Research and theorizing on executive function (EF) in childhood has been disproportionately focused on preschool age children. This review paper outlines the importance of examining EF throughout childhood, and even across the lifespan. First, examining EF in older children can address the question of whether EF is a unitary construct. The relations among the EF components, particularly as they are recruited for complex tasks, appear to change over the course of development. Second, much of the development of EF, especially working memory, shifting, and planning, occurs after age 5. Third, important applications of EF research concern the role of school-age children's EF in various aspects of school performance, as well as social functioning and emotional control. Future research needs to examine a more complete developmental span, from early childhood through late adulthood, in order to address developmental issues adequately.
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Crib speech, the monologue speech of a young child before s/he falls asleep, has been examined in very few studies to date. Private speech has been explored in relation to potential motivational and self-regulatory functions, but few studies have examined private speech in pretend play or pre-sleep contexts. This longitudinal case study examines the crib speech of a young girl between the ages of 46 and 50 months by exploring the content of her speech and how it changes over time, relations between types of speech content, and differences between the speech used on days when she did and did not fall asleep. A total of 57, 45-min recordings were collected over four months during her daily nap/quiet time. Utterances were coded as whispered or full volume, spoken or sung/hummed, and social or private. Speech was reliably coded into content categories: self-regulation, fantasy dialogue, emotion content, and language/literacy practice. Growth curve models examined changes in the frequency of different types of speech over time. Crib speech was common, occurring each day, with on average, 340 utterances with 1001 words per day and a mean length of utterance (MLU) of three words. Fantasy role-playing speech and private singing were particularly common, with sung utterances showing more complexity than spoken utterances. MLU followed a non-linear, inverted-U shape curve over time. Language/literacy practice increased over time, while emotional content, fantasy dialogue, and role-playing dialogue followed an inverted U-shape over time. Fewer undecipherable and more emotion-related utterances occurred on days that she fell asleep. Emotion-related speech was positively associated with self-regulatory utterances, and the more she engaged in word play/literacy practice, the less she engaged in fantasy dialogue.
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The aim of this paper is to explore a range of largely embodied vocalisations and sounds produced by learners of string instruments and how they relate to the potential self-regulatory use provided by such vocalisations. This type of 'singing' while learning to play an instrument may have similarities to the use of private speech in other types of learning tasks. This report describes a multiple case study based on the naturalistic observation of learners playing string instruments in different situations. We observed private rehearsals by six adult guitarists from different music cultures (classical, flamenco and jazz) who had different approaches to learning (traditional and constructivist). In addition, we observed the one-to-one lessons of a constructivist cello teacher with a 7-year-old beginner and a 12-year-old student. All sessions were recorded. We applied the System for Analysing the Practice of Instrumental Lessons to the video-lessons and/or practices and participant discourse for constant comparative analysis across all categories and participants. From the theoretical framework of private speech, we identified a set of qualities in private singing, such as whistling, humming, and guttural sounds, with different levels of audibility. Self-guidance and self-regulation appeared to be the functions underlying both psychomotor learning and reflective-emotional learning from an embodiment approach. Guitar learners from popular urban cultures seemed to use less explicit singing expression than classical guitar learners, the explicitness of which may be related to the instructional use of the notational system. In the one-to-one cello lessons, we observed a process of increasing internalisation from the younger to the older student. Both results are consistent with the literature on private speech, indicating that this process is a natural process of internalisation at higher literacy levels. Singing is not as frequent in music lessons as might be expected, and it is even less frequently used as a reflective tool or understood as an embodied process. The examples provided in this article shed light on the multiplicity of applications and on the potential benefits of private singing in instructional contexts as a powerful learning tool.
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Inspired by Vygotskian theory, a large number of studies have emerged in the past 4 decades investigating the mediation of self-regulation through children's use of private speech (Berk, 1992; Winsler, Chapter 1 of this volume; Zivin, 1979). It is now widely accepted that children use private speech as a tool for thinking and as a metacognitive mediator of self-regulatory function (Winsler, Díaz, & Montero, 1997; Winsler & Naglieri, 2003). Within the Vygotskian tradition, it is assumed that private speech represents children's capacity to verbally mediate their own thoughts and actions and that this capacity is social in origin (Berk & Spuhl, 1995; Berk & Winsler, 1995). Children essentially appropriate the capacity to collaborate with themselves from the collaborations they have had with others. Therefore, we now understand that private speech is speech for self that mediates the development of higher psychological processes (Wertsch & Stone, 1985). The focus of this chapter is to build on this consensus in the field and extend the discussion regarding private speech mediation into the more conative and motivational aspects of self-regulation. This discussion is based on two subtle, yet important, ideas found within Vygotsky's theory. The first notion embedded in his writings warns us that in order to truly understand the manner in which private speech mediates self-regulatory development, we must understand self-regulation as a union of intellectual and affective development. In his words: Among the most basic defects of traditional approaches to the study of psychology has been the isolation of the intellectual from the volitional and affective aspects of consciousness … thinking was divorced from the full vitality of life, from the motives, interests, and inclinations of the thinking individual (Vygotsky, 1934/1987, p. 50).
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This book is the magnum opus of one of the most influential cognitive psychologists of the past 50 years. This new volume on the model he created (with Graham Hitch) discusses the developments that have occurred in the past 20 years, and places it within a broader context. Working memory is a temporary storage system that underpins onex' capacity for coherent thought. Some 30 years ago, Baddeley and Hitch proposed a way of thinking about working memory that has proved to be both valuable and influential in its application to practical problems. This book updates the theory, discussing both the evidence in its favour, and alternative approaches. In addition, it discusses the implications of the model for understanding social and emotional behaviour, concluding with an attempt to place working memory in a broader biological and philosophical context. Inside are chapters on the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, the central executive and the episodic buffer. There are also chapters on the relevance to working memory of studies of the recency effect, of work based on individual differences, and of neuroimaging research. The broader implications of the concept of working memory are discussed in the chapters on social psychology, anxiety, depression, consciousness, and on the control of action. Finally, the author discusses the relevance of a concept of working memory to the classic problems of consciousness and free will.
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Researchers studying the role of music in human evolution and the role of music in everyday life suggest that music helps to promote social bonding. However, there is limited direct evidence to support this idea. The current experiment investigated the role of different pieces of music in the perceived social bonding of videotaped walkers. The participants watched one of two videos of three women walking away from the camera. In one video the women walked in synchrony and in the other the women were out of step with each other. Participants rated the perceived degree of rapport and entitativity among the three walkers. In each run of the experiment a different piece of music was paired with the videos for half the participants. Both music and synchrony of walkers influenced the perceived degree of entitativity. Even though there was no indication that the actors in the video heard the music, observers perceived that a social bond existed among the walkers when the music was present.
Article
Developmental relations between thought, language, and behavior have proved to be perennially interesting to psychologists, cognitive scientists, and philosophers (Nelson, 1996; Pinker, 1994; Vygotsky, 1934/1987). To what extent is language separate from thinking? How does language development influence cognitive development? To what extent is language development dependent upon cognitive growth? How is language used by children as a tool for guiding one's thinking, behavior, or problem solving? One phenomenon that falls at the intersection of many such discussions is children's private speech – children's overt and sometimes partially covert (whispered) self-talk while they are working on something or playing. Children's private speech provides an empirical window for exploring many interesting questions about mind, behavior, and language, especially those having to do with language serving a role in the development of children's executive function or self-regulation. Private speech is typically defined as overt, audible speech that is not addressed to another person (Winsler, Fernyhough, McClaren, & Way, 2004). Inner speech, on the other hand, refers to fully internal, silent verbal thought – that is, speech fully inside one's head. Research on children's private speech, largely that which originated from within the Vygotskian theoretical tradition, has been summarized and reviewed before on two occasions – first, in Zivin's (1979a) volume entitled The Development of Self-Regulation Through Private Speech (Zivin, 1979b), and then 13 years later in Díaz and Berk's (1992) volume, entitled Private Speech: From Social Interaction to Self-Regulation (Berk, 1992). Since then, however, research on private speech and self-talk has blossomed.
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This paper is a pioneering attempt to bring together the notions of musical play and self-regulation and reports on a study aiming to explore 6-year-old children's self-regulation during musical play. While musical play is one of the first manifestations of musicality, a fundamental aspect of human functioning [Trevarthen, C. (2000). Musicality and the intrinsic motive pulse: Evidence from human psychobiology and infant communication. Musicae Scientiae, 3(1), 155–215], self-regulation is crucial in children's learning. Self-regulatory abilities flourish in playful contexts [Bruner, J. S. (1972). Nature and uses of immaturity. American Psychologist, 27(8), 687–708], since play's specific characteristics promote self-regulatory development. Even though musical play shows these characteristics, its relationship with self-regulation is under-researched. This paper presents observations of ten 6-year-old children while they were engaged in musical play sessions. Having adopted a mixed-methods approach, the results suggested that musical play allowed for self-regulatory behaviours to emerge. An understanding of the link between musical play and self-regulation could inform not only the theoretical underpinnings suggesting a relationship between play and self-regulation, but also current teaching practice in relation to music education.
Article
This work presents an experimental study to contrast the Vygotskian hypothesis on the influence of private speech on task performance, modulated by task difficulty, and its development between 3 and 7 years of age. We employed a method to manipulate private speech, an individual calibration method for establishing task difficulty, and a comparison between different age groups (5, 7 and 9 years). Our results show a significant interaction between use of private speech and task difficulty on the number of self-addressed utterances: only in the free speech condition does the number of utterances adopt an inverted U distribution as a function of task difficulty. When utterance content is considered, the relationship appears only for utterances classified as “task relevant”. Another significant interaction effect appears on task performance. In the free speech condition with medium and high levels of difficulty, private speech makes a significant contribution to task performance. No significant age effects were found either on the number of utterances or on task performance.
Article
Children often talk themselves through their activities. They produce private speech (PS), which is internalized to form inner speech (silent verbal thought). Twenty-five 8–10-year-olds completed four tasks in a laboratory context (Tower of London, digit span, and two measures of spatial IQ). PS production was recorded. Eleven months later, the same participants completed the Tower of London and academic numeracy tasks, again in a laboratory context, as well as numeracy tasks in a classroom context. Rates of PS production and its level of internalization showed large positive correlations across time, tasks, and contexts. The results are interpreted in terms of the psychometric properties of PS production and are taken as evidence for the development of a domain-general system for verbal self-regulation in childhood.
Article
Group defence of territories is found in many gregarious mammalian carnivores, including lions, canids, and hyenas. In these taxa, group members often mark territory boundaries and direct aggressive behaviour towards alien conspecifics found within the territory (Boydston et al., 2001). Middle Pleistocene hominids such as Neanderthals occupied an ecological niche similar to such large carnivores (Stiner, 2002), and so could be expected to share with them a suite of behavioural traits. Complex, coordinated vocalizations that function, at least in part, to advertise the group defence of a territory is one behavioural trait exhibited by several social carnivores, as well as many other gregarious animals, including primates. Hagen and Bryant (2003) proposed that the evolution of human music and dance was rooted in such coordinated auditory and visual territorial advertisements, an hypothesis we develop and expand upon here. Human proto-music, in essence, might have been functionally analogous to the howling of wolves. © 2009 by ESCOM European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music.
Article
This study addressed the question of how young children's spontaneous use of private speech in the kindergarten classroom varies as a function of contextual variables, such as type of activity, immediate presence of others, degree of teacher-given structure, and classroom age composition. Twenty children from two classrooms (one mixed-age, one same-age) were systematically observed in their regular kindergarten classroom during a period of four weeks, using a time-sampling procedure. Results from ANOVA, chi-square, and logistic regression analyses indicated that young children's use of private speech does vary systematically according to the immediate physical and social context. More specifically, children were found to use more self-regulatory language when they were: (1) engaged in goal-directed task activity, as compared to free play or other activities; (2) in a classroom context which provided an intermediate degree of teacher regulation, compared to contexts in which either very little or a great deal of external structure was present; and (3) with their younger classmates, compared to either their same-age or older peers. No differences in overall private speech usage were found between the mixed-age and same-age classes. Frequency of private speech did not vary significantly depending on whether children were alone, with other children, or with adults. Classroom contexts vary in the degree to which they promote self-direction. This study suggests that if one is interested in fostering young children's development of self-regulation or in observing children's use of private speech, the optimum context is one which provides an intermediate amount of structure and allows children to spontaneously engage in challenging goal-directed activity.
Article
The purpose of this study was to examine the relation between children's metacognitive private speech and their mastery motivation when working on 3 age-appropriate but challenging tasks. Metacognitive private speech was defined as children's nonsocial utterances that reflected heightened awareness and regulation of their own thinking. Mastery motivation referred to the young children's disposition to work for a challenging goal. A total of 31 preschoolers, aged 3 to 5 years, participated in this study. The proportion of metacognitive private speech for each task to children's overall private talk across the 3 tasks was analyzed. Results for the 3 tasks indicated that children's metacognitive private speech was correlated with their mastery behavior. Specifically, young children who engaged in higher proportion of metacognitive private speech were more likely to strive to complete the challenging tasks or work without the direct assistance of an adult. Implications of these findings for research and education are considered.
Article
Although a number of studies have demonstrated the effects of self-talk on sport performance, the research literature on the antecedents of self-talk in competitive sport is sparse. The purpose of this study was to examine both the antecedents and the consequences of self-talk during competitive tennis performance. Eighteen adult tournament players were observed during US Tennis Association–sanctioned matches. Players' audible self-talk, observable gestures, and tennis scores were recorded using the Self-Talk and Gestures Rating Scale (J. L. Van Raalte, B.W. Brewer, P. M. Rivera, and A. J. Petitpas, 1994b). Results indicated that all players used observable self-talk and gestures during their matches. Furthermore, for all players, match circumstances (e.g., point outcome, serving status) predicted the use of negative self-talk. Positive and instructional self-talk were predicted by match circumstances for some players. The results suggest that match circumstances contribute to the generation of self-talk and provide useful information for researchers interested in better understanding the antecedents of self-talk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Children's reported use of single and multiple search strategies during a matching numbers task, along with accompanying verbal (private speech, self-talk) and motoric (finger pointing, place-holding) strategic behaviors were examined with a large, nationally representative cross-sectional sample (n = 1979) of children between the ages of 5 and 17. Strategic searching increased with age, especially between the ages of 5 (15% strategic) and 9 (63%), with 9-year-olds' strategy use being similar in many ways to that of 17-year-olds. Use of multiple search strategies similarly increased with age. Relations between reported strategy use and task performance were positive for 5-to 7-year-olds, nonexistent for 8-to 12-year-olds, and slightly negative for adolescents. Self-talk, although relatively rare during this task, was a performance asset for young children who were strategic and a liability for young children who were non-strategic. Pointing was negatively related with performance for those who were strategic and irrelevant for those non-strategic.
Article
In a repeated measures factorial experiment, private speech was recorded while young adult university students worked on computer and paper-folding tasks during two ses-sions. Each session included an easy computer task, a difficult computer task, a repeti-tion of the difficult task, and three trials copying an origami model. All 53 participants used private speech. Private speech was more frequent on the first trial on the difficult computer task than on either the second trial or the easy task, and its frequency de-creased across paper-folding trials within each session. Predicted short-term changes in temporal relations between speech and action and in structural characteristics of private speech were also observed. The present findings of high rates of private speech use and of its self-regulatory and predicative characteristics among young adults call into question longstanding generalizations regarding the ontogeny of private speech. Changes in pri-vate speech may reflect localized knowledge based on particular experiences and activity rather than — or in addition to — generalized developmental patterns.
Article
This study compared private speech of children with ADHD and normal controls during problem solving and inhibition tasks. Thirty-two children (16 children with ADHD and 16 matched controls) aged 6–11 years participated. Consistent with previous studies, children with ADHD produced more task-irrelevant and task-relevant external private speech than control children during problem-solving tasks, but did not differ in their use of task-relevant internal private speech. During the inhibition/attention task (Continuous Performance Test-II), children with ADHD produced more task-relevant external and more task-relevant internal private speech, suggesting that they may have employed a less mature strategy to aid in self-regulation. The educational implications of the current study are that there should be an increased awareness of the developmental nature and functional significance of private speech and how private speech usage may differ in children with ADHD.
Article
This study examined the correspondence between ontogenetic and microgenetic change in private speech, the association of private speech with task performance, and the relationship of maternal interaction during a teaching session to preschoolers' verbal self-regulation and success in independent problem solving. Thirty 4- and 5-year-olds were observed while their mothers assisted them in solving two challenging tasks. In three subsequent sessions, children's private speech and performance were tracked as they worked on tasks requiring skills similar to those taught in the mother-child session. Correspondences between age- and session-related trends in private speech and task performance appeared that are consistent with Vygotsky's assumption that private speech undergoes progressive internalization with increasing cognitive competence. Contrary to Vygotskian assumptions, utterances accompanying action were not replaced by those preceding action (planning statements) with advancing age and task mastery. Private speech predicted gain in task performance more effectively than concurrent performance. A global index of authoritative parenting was a better predictor of private speech and task performance than were microanalytic measures of scaffolding, suggesting that microanalytic indices may miss critical features of maternal teaching behavior that promote transfer of cognitive strategies from adult to child.
Article
Measures of private speech and task performance were obtained for a sample of 46 5- and 6-year-olds engaged on a mechanical version of the Tower of London (ToL) task. Two different sets of four puzzles of increasing difficulty were attempted on two occasions. In line with Vygotskian predictions, there was a quadratic relation between private speech and task difficulty, but no evidence of a shift towards self-regulatory sub-types of private speech with increasing task difficulty. Levels of self-regulatory private speech were significantly related to concurrent, but not subsequent, task performance. We discuss the significance of these findings for the Vygotskian view that private speech has an adaptive function in the self-regulation of behaviour.
Article
This study was designed to examine the following central Vygotskian hypotheses about the functions of preschool children's private speech: (1) that private speech facilitates the transition from collaborative to independent task performance, and (2) that children's use of private speech is conducive to task success. Age-related changes in children's use of private speech were also examined. Forty preschoolers, ranging in age from three to five, completed a selective attention task with scaffolded assistance given from an experimenter when needed. In an effort to overcome several methodological limitations found in previous research, a new microgenetic method of analyzing speech-performance relations based on assigning task items to discrete categories reflecting six possible co-occurrences between private speech (item-relevant speech, item-irrelevant speech, silence) and performance (success, failure) was introduced. Results were that (1) item-relevant speech was used more often during successful than during failed items while the opposite was true for item-irrelevant speech; (2) children were more likely to use private speech on successful items after scaffolding than they were on similar items not following scaffolding; (3) after scaffolding, children were more likely to succeed on the next item if they talked to themselves than if they were silent; and (4) hypothesized curvilinear, age-related patterns in children's item-relevant private speech and silence were found, however, only when analyzing speech during successful items. Implications of this research for preschool teachers and parents are discussed.
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Examined the efficacy of a cognitive self-instructional (SI) training procedure in altering the behavior of impulsive school children. Study I, with 15 2nd graders, employed an individual training procedure which required the impulsive child to talk to himself, initially overtly and then covertly, in an attempt to increase self-control. Results indicate that the SI group improved significantly relative to attentional and assessment control groups on the Porteus Maze Test, performance IQ on the WISC, and on a measure of cognitive impulsivity. The improved performance was evident in a 1-mo follow-up assessment. Study II, with 8 kindergartners and 7 1st graders, examined the efficacy of the components of the cognitive treatment procedure in altering the impulsive child's performance. Results indicate that cognitive modeling alone was sufficient to slow down the impulsive child's response time for initial selection, but only with the addition of SI training was there a significant decrease in errors. Treatment and research implications of modifying S's cognitions are discussed. (45 ref.)
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We examined the effect of individualizing student instruction (ISI; N=445 students, 46 classrooms) on first graders' self-regulation gains compared to a business-as-usual control group. Self-regulation, conceptualized as a constellation of executive skills, was positively associated with academic development. We hypothesized that the ISI intervention's emphasis on teacher planning and organization, classroom management, and the opportunity for students to work independently and in small groups would promote students' self-regulation. We found no main effect of ISI on self-regulation gains. However, for students with weaker initial self-regulation, ISI was associated with greater self-regulation gains compared to peers in control classrooms. The ISI effect on self-regulation was greater when the intervention was more fully implemented.
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Children often talk themselves through their activities, producing private speech that is internalized to form inner speech. This study assessed the effect of articulatory suppression (which suppresses private and inner speech) on Tower of London performance in 7- to 10-year-olds, relative to performance in a control condition with a nonverbal secondary task. Experiment 1 showed no effect of articulatory suppression on performance with the standard Tower of London procedure; we interpret this in terms of a lack of planning in our sample. Experiment 2 used a modified procedure in which participants were forced to plan ahead. Performance in the articulatory suppression condition was lower than that in the control condition, consistent with a role for self-directed (private and inner) speech in planning. On problems of intermediate difficulty, participants producing more private speech in the control condition showed greater susceptibility to interference from articulatory suppression than their peers, suggesting that articulatory suppression interfered with performance by blocking self-directed (private and inner) speech.
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The usefulness of frontal lobe (FL) dysfunction as a conceptual model for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) was investigated. Twenty-four ADHD and 24 normal control (NC) children were tested using two batteries of tasks. The first was sensitive to FL deficits in motor control and problem solving skills. The second consisted of memory tasks sensitive to temporal lobe dysfunction. ADHD children differed significantly from NCs on measures of FL function, but not on tests of temporal lobe functions. Where norms were available for normal children on the same FL tests, ADHDs performed like 6- to 7-year-olds, despite their mean age of 10 years and minimum age of 8 years. The differential performance of ADHDs on tasks sensitive to FL and temporal lobe dysfunction supports the hypothesis that ADHD deficits are analogous to FL dysfunction and demonstrates that the children's deficits do not reflect generalized cognitive impairment.