![Current Human-Mediated Introgression of Western Honey Bee Populations in Europe and Africa. In its native range, the populations of Apis mellifera are represented by different evolutionary branches; namely, the M branch (in red), the A branch (in green), and, in blue, the C and O branches that are not distinguishable using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis. This mtDNA molecular approach estimates the introgression rate of multiple haplotypes (pie charts) in a population (i.e., the number of colonies, shown by number). A large-scale synthesis of published mtDNA data (black points show the sampling sites) shows evidence of human-mediated introgression at the lineage level in many European regions. For instance, in Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Poland, Sweden, and the UK where pure M populations are presumed (highlighted areas), sampled populations reveal frequent introgression of the combined C and O branches. Although no mtDNA data are available to assess the introgression rate in Germany, it is well established that the managed honey bee populations are highly hybridized in this region, through the deliberate replacement and use by beekeepers of A. m. carnica since the 1950s [70,71]. Evidence of human-mediated introgression also occurs in the Maghreb and the Indian Ocean islands (Republic of Mauritius, Rodrigues Island, and La Réunion) where the presumed pure A populations face introgressions of other lineages. In some regions where naturally evolved lineages overlap, such as in Spain, Italy, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East, human-mediated introgression is intertwined with natural hybridization. Details on the synthesis method and the complete list of references are available in Section S1 in the supplemental information online. The size of the map of Africa was reduced since fewer data are available from this region.](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332902470/figure/fig3/AS:764544020410368@1559292907484/Current-Human-Mediated-Introgression-of-Western-Honey-Bee-Populations-in-Europe-and_Q320.jpg)
![Proposed Conservation Planning for the Western Honey Bee in Its Native Range. We propose a generic step-by-step approach to conduct honey bee conservation programs across (A) Europe and (B) Africa. After large-scale monitoring of wild western honey bee populations in large protected areas (in red) in mixed landscapes, we recommend a genetic assessment analysis to identify and protect populations with low levels of human-mediated hybridization. In cases where genetic analyses identify a sufficiently high level of a local subspecies genotype in a population proposed for conservation [e.g., up to 90% in the case of artificially hybridized populations, as found in France, Germany, and the UK (orange dots)], a census of available tree cavities can be undertaken and measures to increase nesting sites that support wild colonies implemented. Management interventions are applied to exclude risks of human-mediated hybridization and pest transmission from managed colonies (purple beehives) in a radius of 4–6 km surrounding the protected area (in green), where bee-friendly practices are needed to mitigate direct risks of pesticides and flower scarcity. While no beehives should be placed inside the protected core area to minimize human-mediated disturbance (black line), small-scale beekeeping should be allowed in the buffered bee-friendly area (in green) if the local subspecies genotype is used. This concept could help to protect wild colonies from the impacts of managed beehives and promote the use of local subspecies by beekeepers (so-called conservation beehives). In the case of African populations, in agroforestry and natural areas no spatial separation is necessary, as traditional beekeeping (white beehives) does not entail human-mediated hybridization.](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332902470/figure/fig4/AS:764544183959553@1559292946299/Proposed-Conservation-Planning-for-the-Western-Honey-Bee-in-Its-Native-Range-We-propose_Q320.jpg)
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The Conservation of Native Honey Bees Is Crucial
Abstract and Figures
Recent studies have emphasized the role of the western honey bee, Apis mellifera, as a managed agricultural species worldwide, but also as a potential threat to endangered wild pollinators. This has resulted in the suggestion that honey bees should be regulated in natural areas to conserve wild pollinators. We argue that this perspective fails to appreciate the multifaceted nature of honey bees as native or introduced species with either managed or wild colonies. Wild populations of A. mellifera are currently imperiled, and natural areas are critical for the conservation of local subspecies and genotypes. We propose that a differentiation between managed and wild populations is required and encourage integrated conservation planning for all endangered wild bees, including A. mellifera.
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... Furthermore, European subspecies are largely parapatric and meet in natural contact zones where admixture occurs [28,30,49]. More importantly, due to beekeeping activities involving large-scale colony transhumance and queen trading, many subspecies belonging to the same or different lineages now occur in artificial sympatry, leading to further erosion of the boundaries between subspecies and to the breakdown of subspecies integrity [10,32,[50][51][52][53]. These phenomena help explain the large dispersion of the probability values observed for the different locations, both within and between subspecies ( Figure 2). ...
... The detection of wing venation patterns corresponding to the divergent A. m. ligustica and A. m. carnica in France, Switzerland, the UK, Ireland, Poland, and Russia, therefore mismatching the expected M lineage, can be explained by beekeeper-mediated gene flow and is consistent with molecular surveys reporting variable C-derived introgression in A. m. mellifera across Europe [9][10][11][12][13]25,50,[54][55][56][57][58][59]. However, A. m. iberiensis detected with high probabilities (> 0.950) in colonies located far from the native range in Iberia (French islands, Ireland, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Sweden, Poland, and Russia) was likely confounded by DeepWings© with its close relative A. m. mellifera, as international trading of Iberian queens is very uncommon. ...
... They largely agreed in Iberia, Groix, Ouessant, Santa Maria, São Miguel, Ireland, and Russia, which are known for harboring honey bee populations with high genetic integrity [27,28,47,60,61,[69][70][71][72][73][74]. Yet, they often disagreed in the areas where the M-lineage gene pool was threatened by a history of importations of foreign queens, such as in France, UK, or the Azores [9,12,15,47,50,54]. Previous research found that morphological and molecular markers can produce congruent results, supporting the validity of morphometric methods [38,39,75,76]. ...
DeepWings© is a software that uses machine learning to automatically classify honey bee subspecies by wing geometric morphometrics. Here, we tested the five subspecies classifier (A. m. carnica, Apis mellifera caucasia, A. m. iberiensis, Apis mellifera ligustica, and A. m. mellifera) of DeepWings© on 14,816 wing images with variable quality and acquired by different beekeepers and researchers. These images represented 2601 colonies from the native ranges of the M-lineage A. m. iberiensis and A. m. mellifera, and the C-lineage A. m. carnica. In the A. m. iberiensis range, 92.6% of the colonies matched this subspecies, with a high median probability (0.919). In the Azores, where the Iberian subspecies was historically introduced, a lower proportion (85.7%) and probability (0.842) were observed. In the A. m mellifera range, only 41.1 % of the colonies matched this subspecies, which is compatible with a history of C-derived introgression. Yet, these colonies were classified with the highest probability (0.994) of the three subspecies. In the A. m. carnica range, 88.3% of the colonies matched this subspecies, with a probability of 0.984. The association between wing and molecular markers, assessed for 1214 colonies from the M-lineage range, was highly significant but not strong (r = 0.31, p < 0.0001). The agreement between the markers was influenced by C-derived introgression, with the best results obtained for colonies with high genetic integrity. This study indicates the good performance of DeepWings© on a realistic wing image dataset.
... However, in Tanzania a study has identified butterfly species that could be considered Miombo woodland specialists (Jew et al., 2015). In addition, unlike elsewhere, most honeybees in Africa are still wild nesting (Requier et al., 2019) and, as they are cavity nesters, trees would be necessary to maintain honeybee colonies. In Malawi, farmers may provide honeybees with nesting opportunities by constructing traditional beehives (Figure 1.4), but these are passively colonised by nest-seeking colonies, not actively inoculated. ...
... Notably, in contrast to temperate agricultural landscapes, up to 90 % of African honeybees are wild-nesting (Requier et al., 2019), and even human-manufactured hives are passively colonised and in our study region are not actively placed near fields for pollination purposes. ...
... Although honeybees are native to the area (Requier et al., 2019), we found no honeybee hives in any of the fields across our study area. Moreover, none of the farmers we worked with kept honeybees on any of their fields. ...
Biodiversity is in rapid decline worldwide. These declines are more pronounced in areas that are currently biodiversity rich, but economically poor – essentially describing many tropical regions in the Global South where landscapes are dominated by smallholder agriculture. Agriculture is an important driver of biodiversity decline, through habitat destruction and unsustainable practices. Ironically, agriculture itself is dependent on a range of ecosystem services, such as pollination and pest control, provided by biodiversity. Biodiversity on fields and the delivery of ecosystem services to crops is often closely tied to the composition of the surrounding landscape – complex landscapes with a higher proportion of (semi-)natural habitats tend to support a high abundances and biodiversity of pollinators and natural enemies that are beneficial to crop production. However, past landscape scale studies have focused primarily on industrialized agricultural landscapes in the Global North, and context dependent differences between regions and agricultural systems are understudied. Smallholder agriculture supports 2 billion people worldwide and contributes to over half the world’s food supply. Yet smallholders, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, are underrepresented in research investigating the consequences of landscape change and agricultural practices. Where research in smallholder agriculture is conducted, the focus is often on commodity crops, such as cacao, and less on crops that are directly consumed by smallholder households, though the loss of services to these crops could potentially impact the most vulnerable farmers the hardest. Agroecology – a holistic and nature-based approach to agriculture, provides an alternative to unsustainable input-intensive agriculture. Agroecology has been found to benefit smallholders through improved agronomical and food-security outcomes. Co-benefits of agroecological practices with biodiversity and ecosystem services are assumed, but not often empirically tested. In addition, the local and landscape effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services are more commonly studied in isolation, but their potentially interactive effects are so far little explored. Our study region in northern Malawi exemplifies many challenges experienced by smallholder farmers throughout sub-Saharan Africa and more generally in the Global South. Malawi is located in a global biodiversity hotspot, but biodiversity is threatened by rapid habitat loss and a push for input-intensive agriculture by government and other stakeholders. In contrast, agroecology has been effectively promoted and implemented in the study region. We investigated how land-use differences and the agroecological practices affects biodiversity and ecosystem services of multiple taxa in a maize-bean intercropping system (Chapter 2), and pollination of pumpkin (Chapter 3) and pigeon pea (Chapter 4). Additionally, the effects of local and landscape scale shrub- to farmland habitat conversion was investigated on butterfly communities, as well as the potential for agroecology to mitigate these effects (Chapter 5).
... However, some scientists and conservation biologists have recently raised concerns about the detrimental effects of large numbers of introduced honey bees on the abundance and diversity of local wild bees (Angelella et al., 2021;Prendergast & Ollerton, 2021;Wignall et al., 2020). For example, introduced honey bees can transfer parasites and pathogens to native bee populations, compete for nesting sites with wild bees, and compete for flower resources (Renner et al., 2021;Requier et al., 2019). This may impact the species richness and abundance of native wild bees (Renner et al., 2021;Russo et al., 2021). ...
... Linkages between the density of introduced honey bees and the species richness and abundance of native bumble bees Introduced honey bees can transfer parasites and pathogens to native bee populations, compete for nesting sites with wild bees, and compete for flower resources (Requier et al., 2019;Thomson, 2004). Our study showed that a high density of introduced bees was associated with a decreased species richness and abundance of native bumble bees (Figures 1 and 2). ...
... Introduced honey bees can transfer parasites and pathogens to native bees (Requier et al., 2019;Thomson, 2004). In this study, we did not monitor viruses in honey bees. ...
Long-term variation in the population density of introduced honey bees (Apis
mellifera) has been shown to be associated with variations in floral traits in alpine
lotus (Saussurea nigrescens). However, it remains to be determined whether a
high density of honey bees affects the abundance of nectariferous plants and the
species richness and abundance of native bumble bees. We predicted that a high
density of introduced honey bees lasting three decades would decrease the species
richness and abundance of native bumble bees but increase the abundance of
honey bee host plant species. Here, the field experiments were conducted to
examine the diversity of nectariferous plants and native bumble bees along the
typical gradients of honey bee density (high density of honey bee at close apiary
and low density of honey bee at distant of apiary). We investigated nectariferous
plant abundance, floral and seed traits, and bumble bee species richness and
abundance at sites with either a high or low honey bee density in an alpine
meadow. Our results demonstrated that an increased population of introduced
honey bees was associated with increased host plant abundance and flower/
capitulum number per plant but decreased nectar volume per flower, seed mass,
and species richness and abundance of native bumble bees. The bumble bee visitation rate was positively correlated with nectar volume per flower at sites close to
and far from apiaries. The honey bee visitation rate was positively correlated with
flower/capitulum number per plant at sites close to apiaries and nectar volume
per flower at sites far from apiaries. Seed mass was negatively correlated with
nectariferous plant abundance. Our findings showed that introduced honey bees
decreased the species richness and abundance of native bumble bees, attributed
to evolutionarily decrease nectar resources among honey bee host plant species,
but increased the abundance of nectariferous plants, attributed to the production
of many small seeds by plants. This suggests that long-term high-density beekeeping affects the biodiversity of honey bee host plants and native bumble bees. Our
results provide new insights into the mechanisms of maintaining the biodiversity
of nectariferous plants and native bumble bees.
... Although some stingless bee, bumble bee, mason bee and leafcutter bee species are managed for pollination, we restrict the discussion to the honey bee species that are managed for pollination and hive products, Apis mellifera, Apis cerana and Apis koschevnikovi. These species have a double status, being both managed and wild-living (Pirk et al., 2016(Pirk et al., , 2017Requier et al., 2019). In the latter category we include "feral" colonies -which can be native to the area or not-, once managed but reverted to a wild-living condition. ...
... The worldwide introduction of Apis mellifera subspecies outside of their native ranges has led to biological invasions (e.g., Africanized honey bees in the Americas). Moreover, the wide use of migratory beekeeping, queen trade and breeding beyond the native ranges led to many events of human-mediated hybridization (De la Rúa et al., 2009;Requier et al., 2019). While admixture can increase genetic diversity in the immediate term (Harpur et al., 2012;Oldroyd, 2012), it may also lead to large scale homogenization and the subsequent decrease of genetic diversity driving the loss of local adaptations (De la Rua et al., 2013;Espregueira Themudo et al., 2020). ...
... Conservation of native honey bees is needed to preserve their genetic diversity, both for wild and managed populations (Alaux et al., 2019;Requier et al., 2019). In the case of equally abundant wild and managed colonies in the population, an integrated conservation approach for both populations could be applied. ...
Many parts of the globe experience severe losses and fragmentation of habitats, affecting the self-sustainability of pollinator populations. A number of bee species coexist as wild and managed populations. Using honey bees as an example, we argue that several management practices in beekeeping threaten genetic diversity in both wild and managed populations, and drive population decline. Large-scale movement of hive stocks, introductions into new areas, breeding programs and trading of queens contribute to reducing genetic diversity, as recent research demonstrated for wild and managed honey bees within a few decades. Examples of the effects of domestication in other organisms show losses of both genetic diversity and fitness functions. Cases of natural selection and feralization resulted in maintenance of a higher genetic diversity, including in a Varroa destructor surviving population of honey bees. To protect the genetic diversity of honey bee populations, exchange between regions should be avoided. The proposed solution to selectively breed all local subspecies for a use in beekeeping would reduce the genetic diversity of each, and not address the value of the genetic diversity present in hybridized populations. The protection of Apis mellifera's, Apis cerana's and Apis koschevnikovi's genetic diversities could be based on natural selection. In beekeeping, it implies to not selectively breed but to leave the choice of the next generation of queens to the colonies, as in nature. Wild populations surrounded by beekeeping activity could be preserved by allowing Darwinian beekeeping in a buffer zone between the wild and regular beekeeping area.
... Conservation actions require a clear definition of target species or subspecies and the differentiation of evolutionary factors from contemporary human disturbance. Although both may influence populations, the latter can be immediately ameliorated by implementing proper actions (Gutiérrez & Helgen, 2013;Morrison III et al., 2009;Requier et al., 2019). ...
... Clarification of subspecies boundaries is crucial in prioritizing conservation efforts. Once these target units are defined, further dissection of potential historical and contemporary threats can help to identify conservation priorities, in line with the concept of evolutionarily significant units (ESUs) (Ryder, 1986), which have been extensively discussed in the context of conservation biology (Casacci et al., 2014;De Guia & Saitoh, 2007;Dogantzis & Zayed, 2019;Requier et al., 2019). ...
... However, only one case of numerous unmanaged colonies is reported in urban areas in Europe 32 . The presence of wild/ feral honey bee populations in Europe implores the need to increase knowledge about free-living A. mellifera populations 33,34 . For this study we used the existing database with reports of the numerous thriving honey bee colonies, living free and completely without human interference or treatment in Belgrade (more in 32 ). ...
... This study represents the first population genetics study on honey bee colonies in highly urban landscapes based on their managed status. Our results provide important evidence to the scientists and beekeepers interested in free-living wild/feral colonies that survive and thrive despite the degradation and loss of natural forest habitat, numerous pests and pathogens 34,43 . Overall, our findings show that urban areas can serve as an important habitat suitable for free-living unmanaged honey bees and that feral urban honey bees exhibit observable genetic differentiation compared to MCs from the same territory. ...
Urbanization can change biodiversity in both directions, positive and negative, and despite the rising global trend of urban beekeeping, little is known about the impact of urbanization on the genetic diversity of honey bees. We investigate how urbanization affects the genetic variability of feral and managed honey bee colonies that are spread throughout the entire city, even in highly urban areas, through genetic analysis of 82 worker bees. We found convincing evidence of high genetic differentiation between these two groups. Additionally, by comparing city samples with 241 samples from 46 apiaries in rural parts of the country, variations in mitochondrial tRNAleu-cox2 intergenic region and microsatellite loci indicated that feral colonies have distinct patterns of genetic diversity. These results, with evidence that feral honey bees find niches within highly modified and human-dominated urban landscapes, lead us to conclude that urbanization is a driver of the genetic diversity of feral honey bees in the city.
... The European honeybee, Apis mellifera was introduced into Bangladesh on an experimental basis in 1992 (Sivaram, 2012). However, the two species, Apis mellifera and Apis cerana are mostly used by the beekeepers worldwide for production of honey including Bangladesh (Hung et al., 2018;Requier et al., 2019). ...
... As a managed agricultural species worldwide, recent studies have highlighted only the role of the western honeybee A. mellifera, as a potential threat to wild pollinators that are in danger of extinction (Requier et al., 2019). Numerous studies have also demonstrated that, this introduced honeybee can decrease the survival, growth, reproduction, and dietary behaviors of native pollinators because of their aggressive dominance (Stanley et al., 2015;Liu, 2016). ...
The foraging of honeybees is one of the most well-organized and admirable behaviors that exists among social insects and being greatly influenced by nectarine sources and habitat adaptability. In Bangladesh, apiculture is mostly confined to rearing of European honeybee Apis mellifera L. despite of having the native A. cerana F. due to lack of information about comparative foraging efficiency and productibility of two species in Asian cropland ecosystem. The present study aimed to molecular characterization of two honeybee species in the apiary and their foraging performance in litchi orchard. The genetic identity was revealed thorough phylogenetic analysis with >90% bootstrap value using mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase sub-unit-1 (CO1) gene and nucleotide sequence data deposited to NCBI GenBank with accession number ON680900-ON680902 for A. mellifera and ON703291-ON703293 of A. cerana. Upon placing the identified bee hives in the litchi orchard, the foraging efficiency was studied based on egression and ingression rate, a number of bees that visited flowers per minute, and nectar and pollen collection efficiency in varied time series of the day. Principal component analysis (PCA) for measuring the contribution of different foraging parameters and the species-wise PCA biplot revealed the better foraging efficiency by A. mellifera L. compared to A. cerana F. in litchi blooms. However, the foraging efficiency of other nectarine sources should be analyzed for suggesting best performing bee species in apiculture.
... competition with other species for food and nest sites; [10,11]), so they should be considered in population censuses [12]. Furthermore, wild-living honeybee populations can be a reservoir of native and/or locally adapted genes and therefore deserve conservation [13][14][15][16][17][18]. Finally, studying the life of honeybees in the wild can help understand basic aspects of the species' ecology, which in turn can be relevant for apiculture (reviewed by [19]). ...
... This is necessary to estimate how frequently they interact with other organisms and thus how much they matter for ecosystems [37]. On the other hand, we need to know whether wild-living honeybee colonies form self-sustaining populations or whether they are instead regularly founded by swarms that emigrate from apiaries [13]. Self-sustaining feral populations would be interesting subjects for the study of how honeybees manage to persist despite pressure by parasites [38,39]. ...
European honeybee populations are considered to consist only of managed colonies, but recent censuses have revealed that wild/feral colonies still occur in various countries. To gauge the ecological and evolutionary relevance of wild-living honeybees, information is needed on their population demography. We monitored feral honeybee colonies in German forests for up to 4 years through regular inspections of woodpecker cavity trees and microsatellite genotyping. Each summer, about 10% of the trees were occupied, corresponding to average densities of 0.23 feral colonies km−2 (an estimated 5% of the regional honeybee populations). Populations decreased moderately until autumn but dropped massively during winter, so that their densities were only about 0.02 colonies km−2 in early spring. During the reproductive (swarming) season, in May and June, populations recovered, with new swarms preferring nest sites that had been occupied in the previous year. The annual survival rate and the estimated lifespan of feral colonies (n = 112) were 10.6% and 0.6 years, respectively. We conclude that managed forests in Germany do not harbour self-sustaining feral honeybee populations, but they are recolonized every year by swarms escaping from apiaries.
... Due to the spread of Varroa mites in the last decades of the twentieth century, it was believed that wild honey bee colonies became extinct in Europe, but now new evidence is emerging that some areas have thriving feral or even possibly wild honey bee colonies [29][30][31][32]. Therefore, it is not surprising that most research on the genetics of honey bees is conducted in managed colonies. ...
... The general conclusion is that many lines used for contemporary beekeeping in Europe consist of a mixture of different source populations [35]. The bees from areas with frequent queen importation show a high level of admixture and are hardly assignable to distinct subspecies anymore, but for those in areas where breeding lines were selected and maintained at their geographical origin, genetic identity was preserved and they resemble their native source populations [28,31,[36][37][38][39]. ...
Socioeconomic interests and beekeeper preferences have often taken precedence over the conservation of locally native honey bee subspecies, leading to the predominance of admixture populations in human-dominated areas. To assess the genetic diversity of contemporary managed Serbian honey bee colonies, we used 14 microsatellite loci and analyzed 237 worker bees from 46 apiaries in eight localities of northern and southern Serbia. Furthermore, we compared data for nine microsatellite loci with 338 individuals from Italy, Hungary, Poland, and Spain. The standard parameters of genetic diversity in Serbian honey bee populations were in line with other analyses, although somewhat smaller. STRUCTURE analysis showed the existence of two equally distributed genetic clusters and Analysis of molecular variances could not confirm the presence of a geographically discrete population but showed local differences. Discriminant analysis of principal components showed overlapping of worker bees from different parts of Serbia. Clear genetic differentiation can be observed when comparing all populations between geographical regions and their corresponding subspecies. The absence of the A. m. macedonica subspecies from its historical distribution range in southern Serbia as well as the lack of distinctive geographical groups suggest that selective breeding, queen import, and migratory beekeeping practices strongly influence the genetic structure and diversity of honey bees, leading to the genetic uniformization and creation of the admixture population.
... While the importance of A. mellifera for crop production is widely acknowledged, there is currently a great debate among researchers on the real benefits to natural ecosystems derived from the presence of managed bees. Managed bee colonies may endanger wild pollinators, including wild populations of A. mellifera itself, due to floral resource limitation and potential pest and pathogen transmission [10,11]. This is especially true in the case of massive introduction of non-native honey bees in natural, protected areas [10,12]; therefore, according to some researchers, the best option should be to avoid high-density beekeeping and to increase spacing among neighbouring apiaries to guarantee abundant floral resources for all pollinators [10,13]. ...
... On the other hand, studies point out the global importance of honey bees as pollinators in natural habitats and the need to ensure their conservation to maintain the genetic diversity of local subspecies and their ecological function [11,14,15]. In natural habitats, honey bees appear to be the most frequent pollinators, averaging 13% of floral visits, with 5% of plant species being exclusively visited by A. mellifera [15]. ...
The concept of ecosystem services is widely understood as the services and benefits thatecosystems provide to humans, and they have been categorised into provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services. This article aims to provide an updated overview of the benefits that the honey bee Apis mellifera provides to humans as well as ecosystems. We revised the role of honey bees as pollinators in natural ecosystems to preserve and restore the local biodiversity of wild plants; in agro-ecosystems, this species is widely used to enhance crop yield and quality, meeting the increasing food demand. Beekeeping activity provides humans not only with high-quality food but also with substances used as raw materials and in pharmaceuticals, and in polluted areas, bees convey valuable information on the environmental presence of pollutants and their impact on human and ecosystem health. Finally, the role of the honey bee in symbolic tradition, mysticism, and the cultural values of the bee habitats are also presented. Overall, we suggest that the symbolic value of the honey bee is the most important role played by this insect species, as it may help revitalise and strengthen the intimate and reciprocal relationship between humans and the natural world, avoiding the inaccuracy of considering the ecosystems as mere providers of services to humans.
... Ironically, the pollinators who are potentially most affected by increasing managed honeybee densities are native honeybees that are still maintained in small scale traditional apiaries or that live as wild colonies (Requier et al., 2019). This is on the one hand, because modern intensive apiculture promotes only a small number of honeybee strains, which are often allochthonous. ...
... Populations of colonies which are not treated against parasites and which are allowed to vary in fitness (as opposed to survival and reproduction being dependent on the beekeepers' actions) are expected to evolve resistance against emerging pests and pathogens (Neumann and Blacquière, 2017;Blacquière et al., 2019). Furthermore, when selection pressure is high, maladaptive introgressions by foreign bees should be less likely to spread in the population (Requier et al., 2019). While the approach taken so far is to leave the bees in a quasi-wild manner (Darwinian beekeeping) (Seeley, 2019), few attempts have been made to assess the extant status of potential wild honeybee populations, probably because it is widely believed that wild or feral colonies do not exist, or because they are not easy to locate (but see Kohl and Rutschmann, 2018;Oleksa et al., 2013;Seeley, 2019;Browne et al., 2020). ...
The diversity of endemic honeybee subspecies and ecotypes is at risk in Europe because modern apiculture promotes only a small number of honeybee strains. A crucial step for the conservation of honeybee diversity is the assessment of the status of remaining wild populations and their limiting factors. Here we present a two-year census of native, wild-living honeybees inhabiting power poles in an intensive agricultural landscape in Galicia, NW Spain. The autumn colony densities were at least 0.22 and 0.17 colonies/km² and winter survival rates were 59% and 26% for the years 2019 (N = 29) and 2020 (N = 23), respectively. Both the initial occurrence and the subsequent winter survival of the colonies were positively correlated with increasing proportions of wood- and shrubland in the surroundings in both study years. These observations highlight the importance of semi-natural habitats for the conservation of wild-living honeybees.
... Honey bees, although long time human companions, cannot be considered as fully domesticated species since their mating system is not under complete beekeepers' control [8], and queens mate in several flights with multiple drones in drone congregation areas [9,10]. Despite this still preserved mating autonomy, managed and feral honey bees colonies are under a strong anthropogenic influence [11]. Commercial breeding, along with the intensification of migratory beekeeping and queen importation, and as well as selection for desired traits, considerably influence the natural diversity and distribution range of honey bees [4,11]. ...
... Despite this still preserved mating autonomy, managed and feral honey bees colonies are under a strong anthropogenic influence [11]. Commercial breeding, along with the intensification of migratory beekeeping and queen importation, and as well as selection for desired traits, considerably influence the natural diversity and distribution range of honey bees [4,11]. This human interference usually results in hybridization and population admixture [12][13][14][15], but can also lead to depletion of genetic variability and local adaptations [4]. ...
Local populations of Apis mellifera are rapidly changing by modern beekeeping through the introduction of nonnative queens, selection and migratory beekeeping. To assess the genetic diversity of contemporary managed honey bees in Serbia, we sequenced mitochondrial tRNAleu-cox2 intergenic region of 241 worker bees from 46 apiaries at eight localities. Nine haplotypes were observed in our samples, with C2d being the most common and widespread. To evaluate genetic diversity patterns, we compared our data with 1696 sequences from the NCBI GenBank from neighbouring countries and Serbia. All 32 detected haplotypes belonged to the Southeast Europe lineage C, with two newly described haplotypes from our sample. The most frequent haplotype was C2d, followed by C2c and C1a. To distinguish A. m. carnica from A. m. macedonica, both previously reported in Serbia, PCR-RFLP analysis on the COI gene segment of mtDNA was used, and the result showed only the presence of A.m. carnica subspecies. An MDS plot constructed on pairwise FST values showed significant geographical stratification. Our samples are grouped together, but distant from the Serbian dataset from the GenBank. This, with the absence of A. m. macedonica subspecies from its historic range of distribution in southern Serbia, indicates that honey bee populations are changing rapidly due to the anthropogenic influence.
... Honeybees are essential for pollination and play an important role in plant diversity in nature (Requier, et al.,2019). Many plants have evolved through the synergistic evolution of bees, nectar plants, and natural selection. ...
In traditional beekeeping, the two most important methods for extracting honey are centrifugation and honeycomb-pressing. In this study, the physicochemical composition of honey samples extracted using two distinct procedures was compared, as well as the impact of antioxidant capacity and nutritional potency on the lifespan and learning memory of worker bees. Honey samples were collected from ten colonies of Apis cerana: five samples via centrifugation and five via honeycomb-pressing. Our results showed that honey extraction methods influence the nutritional composition and potency of honey. Most parameters were superior in pressed honey, and the amylase activity in centrifuged honey was higher. The effects of antioxidant capacity and nutritional potency on worker bees' lifespans and learning memory were also superior in pressed honey. Pressed honey had higher nutritional composition and potency. However, whether pressed honey, which is rich in pollen, spoils more easily requires further investigation.
... endangered populations, such as the native subspecies of A. mellifera in their original range(De la Rua et al., 2009;Meixner et al., 2010;Parejo et al., 2016;Requier et al., 2019) may be seriously limited and require the utmost caution.Bottlenecks and genetic drift can also cause the loss of favourable alleles not linked to resistance or tolerance to the parasite but that can be potentially beneficial to population resilience against future challenges such as environmental changes(Figure 1) or new or current but evolving parasites and pathogens(Hoban et al., 2021 and the next section).The probability of achieving long-term sustainability of surviving populations directly depends on the size and genetic diversity of the populations remaining after the expected bottleneck. This size is likely positively correlated with the initial size of the populations entered in the selection programme. ...
Honey bees, Apis mellifera, of European origin are major pollinators of crops and wild flora. Their endemic and exported populations are threatened by a variety of abiotic and biotic factors. Among the latter, the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor is the most important single cause behind colony mortality. The selection of mite resistance in honey bee populations has been deemed a more sustainable solution to its control than varroacidal treatments. Because natural selection has led to the survival of some European and African honey bee populations to V. destructor infestations, harnessing its principles has recently been highlighted as a more efficient way to provide honey bee lineages that survive infestations when compared with conventional selection on resistance traits against the parasite. However, the challenges and drawbacks of harnessing natural selection to solve the varroa problem have only been minimally addressed. We argue that failing to consider these issues could lead to counterpro-ductive results, such as increased mite virulence, loss of genetic diversity reducing host resilience, population collapses or poor acceptance by beekeepers. Therefore, it appears timely to evaluate the prospects for the success of such programmes and the qualities of the populations obtained. After reviewing the approaches proposed in the literature and their outcomes, we consider their advantages and drawbacks and propose perspectives to overcome their limitations. In these considerations, we not only reflect on the theoretical aspects of host-parasite relationships but also on the currently largely neglected practical constraints, that is, the requirements for productive beekeeping, conservation or rewilding objectives. To optimize natural selection-based programmes towards these objectives, we suggest designs based on a combination of nature-driven phenotypic differentiation and human-directed selection of traits. Such a dual strategy aims at allowing field-realistic evolutionary approaches towards the survival of V. destructor infestations and the improvement of honey bee health.
... Finally, it is essential to call attention to the worldwide practice of bee colony management, mainly for crop pollination and the potential risks of this practice. Unappropriated transport of species may facilitate the transmission of pests and diseases [47][48][49][50] . Hence, it is crucial to determine the members of communities of bee-associated organisms prevailing in different areas and the type of interaction among them so that adequate measures can be taken to prevent future problems. ...
Stingless bees are the largest group of eusocial bees in the world. They play an essential role as crop pollinators and have been considered for inclusion in pesticide risk assessments (RAs). Beyond the mutualism involving stingless bee larvae and fungi, the fungivorous mite Proctotydaeus (Neotydeolus) alvearii proved to be interesting for studies of associations with stingless bees. Their presence is related to colony strength and health, showing a permanent-host-association level. Here, we tested whether the coexistence with P. ( N. ) alvearii affects stingless bee larvae survivorship and development, including when fed pesticide-dosed food. We chose dimethoate, the reference standard for toxicity tests, and thiamethoxam, widely used in neotropical crops and listed to be reassessed in RAs. Bees associated with the mites showed higher larval survivorship rates, even in the dosed ones, and revealed changes in the developmental time and body size. Our study represents the first approach to stingless bee responses to the coexistence of fungivorous mites inside brood cells, leading us to believe that these mites play a beneficial role in stingless bees, including when they are exposed to pesticides.
... Pollinator numbers increased with proximity to native bushes but decreased near mono species, intensively managed forests due to constant human presence and lack of forage and nesting opportunities (Wu et al. 2019) Shows the vulnerability of native Honeybees in particular. Suggests studying natural habitat requirements of native species, monitoring colonies in protected forests and avoiding forced introduction of commercial species (Requier et al. 2019) Through seasons availability and diversity of plant species vary considerably allowing different communities of pollinators to thrive depending on the conditions. The pollinator's physical traits affect the selection of foraging sources (Shibata and Kudo, 2020) The findings reinforce the importance of natural habitat cover. ...
The objective of this work is to find the most prevalent elements that have positive effects on pollinator density and diversity in crop fields, as reported in the literature, through a systematic review. The search equations yielded 659 papers, from which 138 were filtered and finally 55 were selected by publication date, journal, Scimago Journal Rank, Scimago Quartiles, subject area, keywords, and relevance. These papers were subjected to an in-depth qualitative analysis and tabulated using VantagePoint 10.0, finding 30 terms that were considered relevant due to their recurrence in all papers. From these 30 terms, the 10 most mentioned practices were extracted and grouped into four broad categories: proximity to natural habitats (98), grassland management (82), floral resources (80) and organic farming (65). All the above agricultural management practices were found to have the potential to increase pollinator numbers and diversity in different contexts. From the results, further research is recommended to try to attract the attention of specific groups of pollinators, as it was also identified that each species has very specific requirements, and a configuration intended just for one species could cause other groups to leave the area.
... high investment and others which was unfamiliar with beekeepers in Nepal. Requier et al., 2019 implies that introduction of many exotic bees can be problematic to native as well as wild pollinators. Whether or not A. mellifera is profitable, its introduction into A. cerana's natural area has been often problematic. ...
There has been rapid declining of native honey bees in Nepal, after the introduction of high honey yielding European bees. I have tried to raise some of the issues with his preprint.
Thank You
... The general effect is that several locally adapted honey bee populations or ecotypes are at risk due to admixture and crossbreeding with non-autochthonous subspecies and genetic pools. The consequence can be the potential loss of local adaptation traits that are considered critical for the long-term sustainability of beekeeping activities and pollination services in the agroecological environments and production systems [15][16][17] . Awareness on these issues has been recently raised in several European countries where conservation programs of autochthonous honey bee genetic resources have been started or envisaged 7,8,[18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] . ...
Awareness has been raised over the last years on the genetic integrity of autochthonous honey bee subspecies. Genomic tools available in Apis mellifera can make it possible to measure this information by targeting individual honey bee DNA. Honey contains DNA traces from all organisms that contributed or were involved in its production steps, including the honey bees of the colony. In this study, we designed and tested a genotyping by sequencing (GBS) assay to analyse single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of A. mellifera nuclear genome using environmental DNA extracted from honey. A total of 121 SNPs (97 SNPs informative for honey bee subspecies identification and 24 SNPs associated with relevant traits of the colonies) were used in the assay to genotype honey DNA, which derives from thousands of honey bees. Results were integrated with information derived from previous studies and whole genome resequencing datasets. This GBS method is highly reliable in estimating honey bee SNP allele frequencies of the whole colony from which the honey derived. This assay can be used to identify the honey bee subspecies of the colony that produced the honey and, in turn, to authenticate the entomological origin of the honey.
... Honey bees are the predominant crop pollinators worldwide and provide honey and other bee products (Neov et al., 2019;Neov et al., 2021;Papa et al., 2022). The healthy of honey bees is crucial for global agriculture and ecosystem conservation (Iwasaki et al., 2015;Paudel et al., 2015;Requier et al., 2019). Honey bee pollination increases yield, improves quality and enhances seed viability, thus reducing production costs and saving labor and time (Zhang et al., 2022). ...
Flumethrin is a highly effective acaricide, but its lipophilic characteristic has some negative effects, such as accumulation in bee hives and bee products. However, studies on the survival stress of honey bees subsequent to chronic flumethrin exposure are limited. To answer this question, a study was carried out on the stress to honey bee (Apis mellifera) workers from larvae to adults by chronic exposure to sublethal concentrations of flumethrin. Three flumethrin treatment groups (1, 0.1, 0.01 mg/L) and one control group (with no added flumethrin) were established and divided the worker larvae into four groups. Then, starting with 2-day-old larvae, larvae and subsequent emerged worker bees of the four groups were orally fed with the corresponding concentrations of flumethrin until all the adult worker bees died, respectively. When the concentration was at 0.01 mg/L of flumethrin, the lifespan of adult worker bees decreased, and a down-regulation of detoxification-related genes (CYP450,GSTS) was induced in 1-day-old pupae. When it is at 0.1 mg/L flumethrin, the lifespan of adult worker bees was again shortened, and down-regulation of memory-related genes (GluRA1, Nmdar1, Tyr1) in 1-day-old pupae and gene Tyr1 in 1-day-old worker bees, detoxification-related genes (CYP450,GSTS) in 1-day-old pupae, and immunity genes (Defensin1, Hymenoptaecin) in 7-day-old worker bees were observed. When the concentration is at 1 mg/L flumethrin, lighter birth weight of newly emerged honeybee was found and deficiencies in olfactory learning and memory were observed in 7-day-old worker bees. Memory-related genes (GluRA1, Nmdar1, Tyr1) were down-regulated in 1-day-old pupae and genes (Nmdar1,Tyr1)in 1-day-old worker bees, as were detoxification-related genes (CYP450,GSTS) in 1-day-old pupae and gene CPY450 in 7-day-old worker bees, and immune genes (Defensin1, Hymenoptaecin) in 7-day-old worker bees. There was no significant difference in pupal weight, capping rate, emergence rate, expression of immune-related genes of 1-day-old pupae, expression of immune-related genes and detoxification-related genes of 1-day-old worker bees, expression of memory-related genes and detoxification-related gene GSTS of 7-day-old worker bees. These data provide an ominous warning about the unintended consequences on apiaries, and underscore the need for careful control of flumethrin residues in bee hives.
... The result of the present study also shows that the contribution of wasps, especially Polistes sp., was low because of their lower numbers.Wild and managed pollinators can be essential to supplement honey bees when other flowers are in bloom at the same time in order to reach substantial pollination services. Previous studies highlighted the importance of conserving wild pollinators at the landscape scale(Requier et al., 2019). Therefore, maintaining heterogeneous natural habitats can be an excellent strategy to conserve the abundance of wild pollinators around the orchards(Klein et al., 2012;Potts et al., 2016;Woodcock et al., 2019), which can contribute to avocado pro-duction. ...
1. Pollination services from insects are important for higher yield and better fruit quality in avocado (Persea americana Mill.). Measuring pollinator effectiveness is significant for capturing the relative contributions of different insect taxa to pollination services and for identification of the most important pollinators of this globally important crop. 2. In the present study, we tested pollinator efficiency of avocado in Kenya based on pollen deposition after single visits of flowers by different pollinator species and visitation frequency. We monitored the pollination frequency during the flowering period replicated across six farms. Three trees were selected per farm, each with five flower panicles. 3. Out of the 14 observed insect flower visitor species, pollen deposition efficiency was highest in the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera L.), followed by the hover fly species (Phytomia incisa W.). These two species had both the highest pollen deposition and pollen grain loads on their bodies. 4. Furthermore, A. mellifera was the most frequent avocado flower visitor followed by Diptera except hoverflies. 5. Our results imply that A. mellifera can be managed to achieve adequate pollination services for avocado, particularly in areas lacking efficient wild pollinators.
... Much of the public and media also tend to associate the term "bee" solely with this species (Smith and Saunders, 2016;Christ and Dreesmann, 2022). There are several reasons for this, including the omnipresence of A. mellifera in most terrestrial ecosystems (Requier et al., 2019), and the extensive use of this species for beekeeping and crop pollination. Consequently, protective legislations, investments by shareholders, and conservation efforts often focus on the domesticated honey bee (Hipólito et al., 2021). ...
... Furthermore, it is possible that intrinsic effects, such as genotype, can also affect the microbial composition of the honey bee gut, as was found in the case of Drosophyla melanogaster [70]. The honey bee is an important pollinator species worldwide [71,72]. Its high economic value resides in its role in crop pollination and the wide variety of products they make [1][2][3]. ...
As pollinators and producers of numerous human-consumed products, honey bees have great ecological, economic and health importance. The composition of their bacteriota, for which the available knowledge is limited, is essential for their body's functioning. Based on our survey, we performed a metagenomic analysis of samples collected by repeated sampling. We used geolocations that represent the climatic types of the study area over two nutritionally extreme periods (March and May) of the collection season. Regarding bacter-iome composition, a significant difference was found between the samples from March and May. The samples' bacteriome from March showed a significant composition difference between cooler and warmer regions. However, there were no significant bacteriome composition differences among the climatic classes of samples taken in May. Based on our results, one may conclude that the composition of healthy core bacteriomes in honey bees varies depending on the climatic and seasonal conditions. This is likely due to climatic factors and vegetation states determining the availability and nutrient content of flowering plants. The results of our study prove that in order to gain a thorough understanding of a microbiome's natural diversity, we need to obtain the necessary information from extreme ranges within the host's healthy state.
... In addition, further protection for wild bees in both crop pollination systems and natural ecosystems is needed ( Iwasaki and Hogendoorn, 2021b ; Table 1 ). In agricultural landscapes, increased floral support can help to maintain diverse and resilient crop pollination, including support for wild honey bees in areas where they are native ( Dicks et al., 2015 ;Evans et al., 2018 ;Pardee and Philpott, 2014 ;Requier et al., 2019 ). To protect native ecosystems, apiary sites should not be allowed in conservation areas. ...
Worldwide, the use of managed bees for crop pollination and honey production has increased dramatically. Concerns about the pressures of these increases on native ecosystems has resulted in a recent expansion in the literature on this subject. To collate and update current knowledge, we performed a systematic review of the literature on the effects of managed and introduced bees on native ecosystems, focusing on the effects on wild bees. To enable comparison over time, we used the same search terms and focused on the same impacts as earlier reviews. This review covers: (a) interference and resource competition between introduced or managed bees and native bees; (b) effects of introduced or managed bees on pollination of native plants and weeds; and (c) transmission and infectivity of pathogens; and classifies effects into positive, negative, or neutral. Compared to a 2017 review, we found that the number of papers on this issue has increased by 47%. The highest increase was seen in papers on pathogen spill-over, but in the last five years considerable additional information about competition between managed and wild bees has also become available. Records of negative effects have increased from 53% of papers reporting negative effects in 2017 to 66% at present. The majority of these studies investigated effects on visitation and foraging behaviour. While only a few studies experimentally assessed impacts on wild bee reproductive output, 78% of these demonstrated negative effects. Plant composition and pollination was negatively affected in 7% of studies, and 79% of studies on pathogens reported potential negative effects of managed or introduced bees on wild bees. Taken together, the evidence increasingly suggests that managed and introduced bees negatively affect wild bees, and this knowledge should inform actions to prevent further harm to native ecosystems.
... În arealul lor de origine și evoluție s-au identificat peste 20 de rase naturale (geografice) [2,3,4,5,6], care sunt grupate în 4-6 linii evolutive [6,7,8]. În general, este acceptat faptul că anumite rase sunt în pericol de supraviețuire ca urmare a fenomenului de hibridare [9,10,11]. Acest fenomen este, în principal, rezultatul importului de rase din afara arealului de origine (este vorba în special de rasele A. m. carnica, A. m. ligustica și hibrizi ai acestora) și al înmulțirii intensive a acestora prin creșterea și difuzarea de mătci [4,9]. Hibridarea introgresivă cauzată de introducerea de albine din alte rase este o problemă serioasă deoarece împerecherea naturală nu poate fi controlată de apicultori [12,13,14]. ...
Albina meliferă (Apis mellifera) este o specie importantă din punct de vedere ecologic și economic, în special pentru serviciile de polenizare oferite sistemelor naturale și agricole. Biodiversitatea albinei este pusă în pericol de importul în masă al mătcilor. În multe regiuni este neclar modul cum au fost afectate populațiile locale prin hibridarea dintre rase și nu sunt multe informații despre schimbările apărute în timp. În România, în mod natural se găsește A. m. carpatica, iar unele studii arată că există și două subpopulații separate de Munții Carpați. În acest studiu am investigat modificările apărute la nivelul nervurii aripilor la albina românească în ultimele patru decenii. Am constatat că în populația contemporană există încă diferențe clare între subpopulațiile intra și extracarpatice ceea ce indică faptul că variabilitatea naturală a albinelor din România se află încă într-o stare bună de conservare. De asemenea, am identificat diferențe semnificative între albinele colectate înainte de anul 2000 și după acest an. Modificările observate sunt cel mai probabil cauzate de încrucișarea dintre albinele autohtone și cele din afara țării introduse sporadic de către apicultori. Pentru a susține conservarea și monitorizarea albinei locale am dezvoltat o metodă care să-i faciliteze identificarea.
... The current widespread conversion of habitats to agricultural activities is mainly caused by land use change and fragmentation (Tilman et al. 2001;DeFries et al. 2004;Murray et al. 2009) and may affect food production demand, as many crops need pollination to ensure quantity and quality (Potts et al. 2010;2016;Requier et al. 2019). Land use/ cover change (LUCC) is one of the main dynamics of environmental issues that cause habitat loss and fragmentation, which is the main reason for the decline of natural resources (Pimm et al. 2001;Guan et al. 2011) and is revealed by the rate of land use change (Sala et al. 2000;Halmy et al. 2015). ...
In recent years, ecosystems have been threatened by human-related factors to meet the growing demand for food. Natural areas are rapidly degraded by urbanization and being converted to human-dominated land use. Since honey bees have a key role in ecosystems due to their pollination role in both agricultural crops and natural plants, the dynamics of ecosystems and beekeeping activities are strongly affected by this conversion. Recent research has revealed that the decline of plant and pollinator species has been mentioned as a global threat that is closely related to ecosystem conversion and land use change. Thus, honey bee decline is being frequently mentioned within the context of bee conservation and sustaining ecosystem services to ensure productivity. In this study, a geographical approach has been introduced to decide on honey bee conservation areas, as honey bees are being threatened by land use change, pesticides, and natural disasters. All the reasons causing honey bee decline and even colony loss have been spatially integrated, and susceptible areas which are highly prone to natural hazards and pesticide usage have been determined. The results revealed that 164,650 km2 are being threatened by the conversion of natural areas into fruit orchards due to the citrus production demand and that approximately 5000 km2 of natural areas have been transformed into agricultural lands. Mersin, Adana, and Hatay provinces were specified as highly prone to bee decline, and the bee conservation requirement was mostly revealed in these provinces. Our results show that a 22,567.45 km2 area must be specified as bee conservation areas to minimize the bee decline in Turkey.
... Based on traditional morphometric tools, Ruttner [1] verified 24 subspecies, which he grouped into four lineages: the African lineage (A), the western Mediterranean lineage (M), the northern Mediterranean lineage (C) and the eastern lineage (O). Today, we recognize approximately 31 subspecies, 11 of which are located only in Africa [2]. According to Ruttner [1], there are two clearly distinguishable subspecies in Morocco: Apis mellifera intermissa (Maa, 1953) and Apis mellifera sahariensis (Baldensperger, 1932), while the status of a third subspecies-Apis mellifera major (Ruttner, 1976)-is unclear [1,3]. ...
In Morocco, there are two well-recognised honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) subspecies: A. m. intermissa in the north and A. m. sahariensis in the south-east. The latter subspecies is found in the arid and semiarid climates of the Sahara Desert. In this study, we used honey bees from four areas of south-eastern Morocco which are, to some degree, isolated by arid zones. We analysed the shape and size of the forewings, using the method of geometric morphometrics. The bees from the four areas of south-eastern Morocco differed significantly in terms of wing shape. Moreover, bees from traditional hives were smaller than those from modern hives. The bees from south-eastern Morocco were clearly different from the reference samples obtained from the Morphometric Bee Data Bank in Oberursel, Germany, representing most of the global variation in honey bees. Surprisingly, the bees were also different from A. m. sahariensis, which should occur in the study area, according to earlier studies. This difference could have been caused by introgression with non-native subspecies imported by beekeepers. The distinct honey bees from south-eastern Morocco deserve to be protected. We provide a method for identifying them, which can help protect them.
... Beekeeping is both economically and culturally valued, representing a traditional form of agriculture (Bingham 2006;Watson et al., 2011;Mace et al., 2012), and contributing substantially to both agricultural output via crop pollination (Delaplane, 2021;Klein et al., 2007;Knapp et al., 2017;Potts et al., 2016) as well as ecosystem resilience both within and outside its native range (Hung et al., 2018;Requier et al., 2019). Threats to beekeeping are therefore of agricultural, public, and (in certain circumstances) conservation concern. ...
Demand for better control of certain parasites in managed western honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) remains apparent amongst beekeepers in both Europe and North America, and is of widespread public, scientific, and agricultural concern. Academically, interest from numerous fields including veterinary sciences has led to many exemplary reviews of the parasites of honey bees and the treatment options available. However, summaries of current research frontiers in treating both novel and long-known parasites of managed honey bees are lacking. This review complements the currently comprehensive body of literature summarizing the effectiveness of parasite control in managed honey bees by outlining where significant gaps in development, implementation, and uptake lie, including integration into IPM frameworks and separation of cultural, biological, and chemical controls. In particular, I distinguish where challenges in identifying appropriate controls exist in the lab compared to where we encounter hurdles in technology transfer due to regulatory, economic, or cultural contexts. I overview how exciting frontiers in honey bee parasite control research are clearly demonstrated by the abundance of recent publications on novel control approaches, but also caution that temperance must be levied on the applied end of the research engine in believing that what can be achieved in a laboratory research environment can be quickly and effectively marketed for deployment in the field.
... In Africa, the density of wild honeybee colonies is much higher than in Europe, especially in forests and protected areas rich in nesting sites. In these habitats, honey hunters use traditional hives mounted on trees and harvest bee products by destroying nests, but little is known about the effects of these practices on honeybee populations (Requier et al. 2019). ...
We are currently seeing an expansion of pollinator-dependent crops in many parts of the world, but also growing evidence for pollinator population declines and loss of pollinator habitat. Climate change and population growth will place additional demands on crop production, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Despite the wealth of evidence that improved management of insect pollinators can lead to substantial gains in crop yield, agricultural improvement strategies in SSA still emphasize the manipulation of abiotic factors and do not fully exploit the value of pollinators. In this article we review the importance of pollination services in sustainable agriculture, how global perspectives can inform our understanding of the situation in SSA, discuss successful pollination management, highlight where research and development are required, and suggest possible solutions to enhance the contribution of pollination services to sustainable agriculture in the region.
... In Autumn, when the hornet's nest size and protein intake by the sexual brood reach their maxima (Monceau et al. 2013b), hundreds of hornets hover at the front of beehives disrupting foraging, a critical activity at this time of the year as colonies are preparing for winter. This disturbance can lead to depletion of food stores and to depopulation of beehives, enhancing the likelihood of winter colony mortality (Requier et al. 2019). ...
In 2004, Vespa velutina was first seen in France. Since then, this fierce honey bee predator spread across many countries, giving rise to one of the most phenomenal insect invasions in Europe. An early study in France showed a genetically depauperate population, originating from a single multi-mated queen introduced from China. Here, we further unveil V. velutina invasion genetics in Europe by surveying the Iberian and Italian peninsulas using cytonuclear markers. Our results show that the French population acted as the colonists' source in Spain, Portugal and Italy, leading to rejecting the hypothesis of multiple introductions from the native range. While Spain and Italy were colonized predominantly by leading-edge expansions from the French core population, in Portugal the invasion started from long-distance jump. Both processes were accompanied by a significant reduction in genetic diversity, with stronger losses for Portugal (Ar = 17.4%; uHe = 42.3%) than for Spain (Ar = 9.0%; uHe = 20.6%) or Italy (Ar = 16.3%; uHe = 26.8%). Signatures of differentiation and population structure, associated to the founding event in Portugal, enabled detection of secondary contact between the front derived from the primary propagule introduced in France and the front derived from the secondary propagule introduced in Portugal. Detection of first-generation migrants in the three countries suggests continuous gene flow that is bringing in new alleles, and this effect is stronger in Portugal, as reflected by a 20.3% increase in allelic richness. Overall, this study provides further insights into the invasion genetics of V. velutina in Europe, which can aid developing strategies to manage this major threat to beekeeping.
... In Autumn, when the hornet's nest size and protein intake by the sexual brood reach their maxima (Monceau et al. 2013b), hundreds of hornets hover at the front of beehives disrupting foraging, a critical activity at this time of the year as colonies are preparing for winter. This disturbance can lead to depletion of food stores and to depopulation of beehives, enhancing the likelihood of winter colony mortality (Requier et al. 2019). ...
In 2004, Vespa velutina was first seen in France. Since then, this fierce honey bee predator spread across many countries, giving rise to one of the most phenomenal insect invasions in Europe. An early study in France showed a genetically depauperate population, originating from a single multi-mated queen introduced from China. Here, we further unveil V. velutina invasion genetics in Europe by surveying the Iberian and Italian peninsulas using cytonuclear markers. Our results show that the French population acted as the colonists’ source in Spain, Portugal and Italy, leading to rejecting the hypothesis of multiple introductions from the native range. While Spain and Italy were colonized predominantly by leading-edge expansions from the French core population, in Portugal the invasion started from long-distance jump. Both processes were accompanied by a significant reduction in genetic diversity, with stronger losses for Portugal (Ar = 17.4%; uHe = 42.3%) than for Spain (Ar = 9.0%; uHe = 20.6%) or Italy (Ar = 16.3%; uHe = 26.8%). Signatures of differentiation and population structure, associated to the founding event in Portugal, enabled detection of secondary contact between the front derived from the primary propagule introduced in France and the front derived from the secondary propagule introduced in Portugal. Detection of first-generation migrants in the three countries suggests continuous gene flow that is bringing in new alleles, and this effect is stronger in Portugal, as reflected by a 20.3% increase in allelic richness. Overall, this study provides further insights into the invasion genetics of V. velutina in Europe, which can aid developing strategies to manage this major threat to beekeeping.
... In France, all colonies from the Avignon apiary were of C-lineage ancestry (91% C2 and 9% C1), contrasting with the apiary of Ouessant where all colonies carried M-lineage mitochondria (58% M17e and 42% M4). These results are consistent with reports of high C-lineage introgression into the native Apis mellifera mellifera in many regions of mainland France and with Ouessant acting as a refuge for this subspecies (Miguel et al., 2007;Pinto et al., 2014;Requier et al., 2019). As for Avignon, in the apiary of Beit Dagan, Israel, all colonies were of C-lineage ancestry, with haplotype C2 also predominating (95%) over C1 (5%). ...
In this study, we gathered sequence data from the tRNAleu-cox2 intergenic mitochondrial (mtDNA) region concurrently with single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data from 91 loci of nuclear DNA (ncDNA). The data was obtained from 156 colonies sampled in six apiaries from four countries. The full dataset was analysed and discussed for genetic patterns with a focus on cytonuclear diversity and admixture levels.
... There is a general lack of knowledge regarding feral colonies, since the majority of research is focused only on managed honey bees [38][39][40]. Given that unmanaged honey bees are not receiving any chemical treatments against Varroa or other pests/pathogens, it is important to explain how they manage to survive. ...
It is assumed that wild honey bees have become largely extinct across Europe since the 1980s, following the introduction of exotic ectoparasitic mite (Varroa) and the associated spillover of various pathogens. However, several recent studies reported on unmanaged colonies that survived the Varroa mite infestation. Herewith, we present another case of unmanaged, free-living population of honey bees in SE Europe, a rare case of feral bees inhabiting a large and highly populated urban area: Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. We compiled a massive data-set derived from opportunistic citizen science (>1300 records) during the 2011–2017 period and investigated whether these honey bee colonies and the high incidence of swarms could be a result of a stable, self-sustaining feral population (i.e., not of regular inflow of swarms escaping from local managed apiaries), and discussed various explanations for its existence. We also present the possibilities and challenges associated with the detection and effective monitoring of feral/wild honey bees in urban settings, and the role of citizen science in such endeavors. Our results will underpin ongoing initiatives to better understand and support naturally selected resistance mechanisms against the Varroa mite, which should contribute to alleviating current threats and risks to global apiculture and food production security.
... Un pollinisateur particulier, l'abeille domestique Apis mellifera peuple également les paysages agricoles. Cet insecte a été domestiqué il y a des milliers d'années pour la production de miel et vit ainsi dans des ruches disposées dans les paysages agricoles (Cunningham et al., 2016), certaines populations sauvages et férales 9 sont également encore présentes (Kohl & Rutschmann, 2018;Requier et al., 2019). Chaque ruche abrite des milliers d'individus de cet insecte social (Geslin et al., 2017) ce qui en fait l'insecte pollinisateur le plus abondant des paysages agricoles Rollin et al., 2013). ...
Le maintien des insectes pollinisateurs en milieu agricole est essentiel car ils pollinisent les plantes sauvages et cultivées, il peut reposer sur l’augmentation de la disponibilité des ressources florales. Les cultures à floraison massive (CFM) fournissent des ressources abondantes et de façon discontinue dans le temps, au contraire des prairies et des plantes adventices présentes dans les cultures. Cet aspect temporel a été peu étudié alors que les paysages agricoles sont caractérisés par une dynamique temporelle importante du fait des successions culturales. L’objectif de la thèse est de comprendre l’effet de la distribution spatiale et temporelle des ressources florales dans les paysages agricoles sur les interactions plantes-pollinisateurs et la pollinisation.Nous montrons que les CFM au pic de floraison attirent les pollinisateurs sauvages des prairies et l’abeille domestique et supportent ainsi la fonction de pollinisation à cette période. Au sein des CFM, l’abeille domestique consomme les ressources fournies par les cultures préférentiellement en bordure de parcelle, et semble exclure les pollinisateurs sauvages des fleurs cultivées ceux-ci sont alors sont maintenus par les plantes adventices. A la fin de la floraison des CFM, les pollinisateurs dispersent vers les prairies et les céréales qui supportent ainsi la pollinisation. A cette période, les plantes adventices à travers leur abondance dans les céréales, et leur diversité dans les prairies supportent les pollinisateurs sauvages.La persistance des pollinisateurs et de la pollinisation dans les paysages agricoles, repose sur (i) le maintien des prairies et des plantes adventices qui assurent la continuité spatio-temporelle de la disponibilité en ressources florales, (ii) les CFM qui supplémentent les paysages en ressources florales, et (iii) la réduction de la taille des parcelles qui facilite l’accès aux ressources florales. Ces mesures sont compatibles avec la production agricole.
... The data collected was then tabulated and then analyzed to answer the research objectives. The data analysis methods used in this study are (1) Revenue Analysis, (2) Revenue Cost Ratio (R/C ratio), (3) Break Event point (BEP) (Utzeri et al., 2018;Requier et al., 2019). ...
This study aims to analyze the level of income, the minimum scale of the amount of honey beekeeping, and the minimum selling price for the honey produced so that farmers get profits. Determination of the location of the study using the purposive method with the consideration that Pempatan Village, Rendang District, Karangasem Regency is one of the honey centers. The population in this study amounted to 63 people who cultivate honey bees. Sampling in this study using purposive sampling method with the number of respondents as many as 30 people. The types of data needed in this study are primary data and secondary data. Primary data was obtained by conducting observations and interviews with respondents. The data analysis methods used in this study are (1) Revenue Analysis, (2) Revenue Cost Ratio, (3) Break Event point. Based on the research results, the community's income from honey bee cultivation is IDR. 3.369.300,-/month while the R/C ratio of honey bee cultivation in Pempatan Village is 2.1, which means it is feasible to cultivate. If it is seen from the BEP Production from beekeeping is 7.08 liters, BEP Prices from honey bee cultivation are IDR. 154,516,-/liter and BEP Revenue from beekeeping is IDR. 2,337,145.
... The honey bee is the most important eusocial insect, that plays a critical role in maintaining the natural ecosystem and is directly beneficial to mankind [1]. They produce honey, royal jelly, propolis, and beebread, and provide pollination services for both wild and agricultural crops [1][2][3][4]. Although, multiple factors negatively affect bee populations including habitat loss, predators, parasites, diseases, pesticides exposure, and climatic changes [5,6]. Foraging dynamics of the bees are implicated in the maintenance of populations and their colony heath [7,8]. ...
A healthy honey bee stock is critical to the beekeeping industry and the sustainability of the ecosystem. The quality of the supplemental diet influences the development and strength of the colony, especially during the pollen dearth period in the surrounding environment. However , the extent to which pollen substitute protein feeding affects honey bee colony parameters is not fully known. We conducted this study to test the influence of various supplemental diets on foraging effort, pollen load, capped brood area, population density, and honey yield. The treatment groups were supplied with patties of pollen substitute diets, whereas sugar syrup was given to the control group. Our results indicated that honey bees consumed a significantly higher amount of Diet 1 (45 g soybean flour + 15 g Brewer's yeast + 75 g powdered sugar + 7.5 g skimmed milk + 7.5 g date palm pollen + 200 mL sugar syrup supplement with Vitamin C) followed by others supplemented diets. Further, pollen load, worker-sealed brood area, population strength, and honey yield differed significantly when Diet 1 was consumed instead of other supplemental diets. The proportion of biological parameters was less in the control group as compared to other treatments. This study highlights the potential of supplemental diets to improve the bee's health and colony development when the pollens availability and diversity are insufficient.
... Data collected from the FAO on the number of honey bee hives per year and country are mostly dominated by A. mellifera and therefore disentangling the contribution of A. cerana is difficult. However, the introduction of A. mellifera to all Asian countries in recent decades (Requier et al., 2019) might have negatively affected the number of managed A. cerana (Theisen-Jones and Bienefeld, 2016). Colonies of A. mellifera are larger and produce more honey than A. cerana (Theisen-Jones and Bienefeld, 2016), leading beekeepers to convert from the management of the latter to the former. ...
Cultivation of pollinator-dependent crops has expanded globally, increasing our reliance on insect pollination. This essential ecosystem service is provided by a wide range of managed and wild pollinators whose abundance and diversity are thought to be in decline, threatening sustainable food production. The Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) is amongst the best-monitored insects but the state of other managed pollinators is less well known. Here, we review the status and trends of all managed pollinators based on publicly accessible databases and the published literature. We found that, on a global scale, the number of managed A. mellifera colonies has increased by 85% since 1961, driven mainly by Asia. This contrasts with high reported colony overwinter mortality, especially in North America (average 26% since 2007) and Europe (average 16% since 2007). Increasing agricultural dependency on pollinators as well as threats associated with managing non-native pollinators have likely spurred interest in the management of alternative species for pollination, including bumble bees, stingless bees, solitary bees, and flies that have higher efficiency in pollinating specific crops. We identify 66 insect species that have been, or are considered to have the potential to be, managed for crop pollination, including seven bumble bee species and subspecies currently commercially produced mainly for the pollination of greenhouse-grown tomatoes and two species that are trap-nested in New Zealand. Other managed pollinators currently in use include eight solitary bee species (mainly for pollination services in orchards or alfalfa fields) and three fly species (mainly used in enclosures and for seed production). Additional species in each taxonomic category are under consideration for pollinator management. Examples include 15 stingless bee species that are able to buzz-pollinate, will fly in enclosures, and some of which have a history of management for honey production; their use for pollination is not yet established. To ensure sustainable, integrated pollination management in agricultural landscapes, the risks, as well as the benefits of novel managed pollinator species must be considered. We,
... Conventionally, honey has been applied to treat burns, non-healing and infected ulcers or wounds, pilonidal sinus, venous and diabetic foot boils. The beneficial therapeutic outcomes of honey for wound healing are mainly attributed to its antibacterial, immunomodulatory, and promoting wound healing properties [2][3][4]. Wound curing is a continuous, complex, and dynamic process aiming at damaged tissue repairing. Important subjects for the treatment of a wound are both time and quality to improve the healing procedure and to decrease the costs related to the cure [5]. ...
From old times until nowadays, honey was applied to treat wounds due to its antibacterial and wound healing features. Honey as a carbohydrate-rich natural component could be applied directly in a clinical setting or incorporated into tissue-engineered platforms. The exploration of the antibiotic agent dramatically diminished its clinical application. However, there has been an increased requirement for alternative treatment approaches owing to the expansion in antibiotic resistance. Also, the physical features of honey make it hard to directly utilize it in an affected area. These limitations could be resolved by incorporating honey in a hydrogel formulation. Thanks to the anti-inflammatory capability of honey, its incorporation into hydrogels reduced the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines, attributing beneficial healing. Besides, in-vitro and in-vivo studies revealed that their administration significantly improved angiogenesis, reepithelialization, and granulation tissue formation. In this review, the overall antibacterial properties of honey, its current development in the design of honey-based hydrogels for wound healing (i.e., burns and diabetic ulcer healing), and the potential of honey-based tissue-engineered products will be comprehensively discussed.
... It is worth noting that the high use of hybrids is not consistent with the beekeepers' perception about the origins of their colonies (from an informal questionnaire (Requier et al., 2019). Moreover, honey bees can swarm, sometimes over quite long distances and there are no ways to control the natural installation of swarms coming from managed colonies into protected areas (Schmidt, 1995). ...
The importance of natural protected areas for the preservation of locally adapted subspecies (or local genotype) of honey bees has been recently emphasized in the literature. In western Europe, initiatives have emerged to protect the native subspecies i.e., the Western European dark bee, Apis mellifera mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Here, we investigated the honey bee subspecies diversity in a Mediterranean protected area, Calanques National Park, near Marseille, France. We found that the population of honey bees is mainly composed of hybrids between Apis mellifera mellifera and Apis mellifera intermissa. These hybrids might have a better resistance to the Varroa mite and a better adaptation to arid Mediterranean climate. Before promoting the native honey bee subspecies, Apis mellifera mellifera, it appears essential to identify honey bee subspecies used by beekeepers in protected areas.
... In Africa, the density of wild honeybee colonies is much higher than in Europe, especially in forests and protected areas rich in nesting sites. In these habitats, honey hunters use traditional hives mounted on trees and harvest bee products by destroying nests, but little is known about the effects of these practices on honeybee populations (Requier et al. 2019). ...
We are currently seeing an expansion of pollinator-dependent crops in many parts of the world, but also growing evidence for pollinator population declines and loss of pollinator habitat. Climate change and population growth will place additional demands on crop production, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Despite the wealth of evidence that improved management of insect pollinators can lead to substantial gains in crop yield, agricultural improvement strategies in SSA still emphasize the manipulation of abiotic factors and do not fully exploit the value of pollinators. In this article we review the importance of pollination services in sustainable agriculture, how global perspectives can inform our understanding of the situation in SSA, discuss successful pollination management, highlight where research and development are required, and suggest possible solutions to enhance the contribution of pollination services to sustainable agriculture in the region.
... Forest beekeeping is defined by place i.e. the bee colonies are living within the forest and foraging on the nectar and pollen of forest trees. Forest beekeeping is not honey hunting, which involves the taking of honeycomb from wild honey bee nests, located in natural cavities within the forest, usually hollow trees but also cavities in rocks, the ground, and cliffs (Requier et al., 2019). ...
This study aims to analyze the effectiveness of the Indonesian forest honeybee conservation e-module on students' environmental literacy skills in natural resource management courses. This study uses a one-group pretest and posttest design. The sample in this study was 22 students of natural resource management class who were selected using the purposive sampling technique. The learning was carried out 5 times, starting with the pretest and ending with the posttest. The data collection instrument used a multiple-choice test of as many as 29 questions which were conducted online using google form. Data analysis using N-Gain Score. The results showed that the gain-score was 0.8. So, can be concluded that the effectiveness of the Indonesian forest honeybee conservation e-module is quite high in improving students' environmental literacy skills, especially in the aspects of ecological knowledge, conservation knowledge, the attitude in presenting data and information, scientific behavior (having curiosity and caring for the environment), and wise behavior and responsible.
... Consequently, the conservation of honeybee diversity and the support of local breeding activities is indicated to be prioritized in order to prevent colony losses, optimize sustainable productivity and enable a continuous adaptation of honeybees to environmental changes [33,44]. It is worth noticing that the conservation of honeybees raises a lot of controversy with arguments for and against such actions (e.g., [45][46][47][48][49][50]). Therefore, it is important to emphasize following Alaux, Le Conte and Decourtye [41] that "there is a need for implementing adequate policies to protect native and locally adapted honeybees since they provide an important reservoir of adaptation for beekeeping activity and crop pollination services. ...
Socio-cultural research might address anthropocentric reasons for honeybee (Apis mellifera) conservation. In some regions, particular honeybee subspecies are considered to be native; A. mellifera mellifera (“dark bee”) in the north-east and A. mellifera carnica in the Island Beskids in Poland. Additionally, A. mellifera caucasia (often incorrectly called A. mellifera caucasica) and Buckfast are reported across Poland. In order to verify the actual choice of beekeepers, a survey on honeybee subspecies kept in apiaries was conducted annually from 1980 to 2018. This is a way to verify if conservation management towards the dark bee influenced its maintenance at a sufficient level for their restoration. The analysis revealed that Polish beekeepers know what is “buzzing” in their hives, and the awareness of which subspecies/types of honeybee they maintain has grown through the years. Initially, they kept up to four different subspecies per apiary, but now most have only one (maximum of two). Currently, Polish apiaries approach a homogeneous share with the exclusive presence of A. mellifera carnica subspecies. The popularity of indigenous A. mellifera mellifera has declined over time and is low now. It seems that new solutions should be considered to increase the effectiveness of dark European bee conservation management efforts.
Introduction: Paenibacillus larvae is a spore-forming bacillus, the most important bacterial pathogen of honeybee larvae and the causative agent of American foulbrood (AFB). Control measures are limited and represent a challenge for both
beekeepers and researchers. For this reason, many studies focus on the search for alternative treatments based on natural products. Aim: The objective of this study was to determine the antimicrobial activity of the hexanic extract (HE) of Achyrocline satureioides on P. larvae and the inhibitory activity on some mechanisms related to pathogenicity. Material and methods: The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of the HE was determined by the broth microdilution technique and the Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) by the microdrop technique. Swimming and swarming motility was evaluated in plates with 0.3 and 0.5% agar, respectively. Biofilm formation was evaluated and quantified by the Congo red and crystal violet method. The protease activity was evaluated by the qualitative technique on skim milk agar plates. Results: It was determined that the MIC of the HE on four strains of P. larvae ranged between 0.3 and 9.37 μg/ml and the MBC between 1.17 and 150 μg/ml. On the other hand, sub-inhibitory concentrations of the HE were able to decrease swimming motility, biofilm formation and the proteases production of P. larvae.
Apis mellifera mellifera, the only native honeybee subspecies in Ireland and referred to locally as the “Black bee”, was once feared extinct in the wild. The subspecies has undergone widespread extinction across its native range as a consequence of habitat loss, hybridisation and replacement by other subspecies, and parasitism by Varroa destructor.
The overall aim of this project was to contribute to the protection and conservation of free-living Apis mellifera mellifera in Ireland, the subspecies being a reservoir of unique combinations of genes and local adaptations.
Through the Wild Honeybee Study, in Ireland, hundreds of wild honeybee colonies have been found throughout the country. In recent studies, genetic and morphological analysis showed that the sampled free-living population was largely comprised of pure Apis mellifera mellifera. Most of the investigated colonies have been reported by members of the general public, with the majority of reports involving colonies in urban areas, living in cavities in walls and roof spaces. The initial focus of this project was to expand our knowledge about where honeybees were living outside of those areas, in more remote places like forests. Further research showed that a significant number of Irish woodlands were suitable habitats for wild honeybee colony nests. Despite the relatively low forest cover in Ireland, some ancient and long-established woodlands are still present and considered to be of high conservation value. A methodology for searching for wild honeybee colonies in woodlands was developed and applied in the field. A number of wild honeybee colonies in Ireland were then investigated in terms of habitat, genetic diversity and morphology, via applying the new method while also continuing to monitor and validate reports coming in through the wild honeybee recording tool.
The bee hunting approach has been seen to be promising in Ireland and this study showed that free-living honeybee colonies nesting naturally in tree cavities were common in Ireland, more than it was generally assumed.
Honeybee colonies samples were collected, stored and subsequently analysed. Purity/hybridisation and introgression within free-living colonies of Apis mellifera
were examined using both wing morphometry and molecular data, as well as personal observations of photographed bees (abdominal colour patterns). The methods, which showed disagreement, were compared and discussed. On balance, the majority of bees were revealed as M-lineage and assigned as the subspecies native to Ireland.
Wild honeybees are extremely valuable and hybridisation can result in loss, by subspecies and ecotypes, of genes and gene complexes adapted to their local environment, adaptations which if lost cannot be replaced. Colonies persisting for extended periods of time without human intervention have been seen to adapt well to pathogens, parasites and other environmental stressors. Evidence say that the protection of Apis mellifera diversity is crucial as biodiversity protects the evolutionary potential of species to adapt by natural selection in the future and that an evolutionary and genetic-based approach would benefit both the managed and wild populations of the honeybees in Ireland (and worldwide). This study provided further evidence of the presence of wild honeybees in Ireland, both in anthropomorphized areas and in woodlands, and serve to inform future efforts.
The importance of apiculture stems from its contributions to food security, poverty alleviation, and climate change mitigation. This study aims to identify threats to sustainability faced by the beekeeping sector through the analysis of its social, environmental, and economic dimensions and to reveal the innovation and technological development efforts being conducted to counteract the threats. The methodology integrates digital tools for network analysis (co-occurrence) based on published studies (2014–2022) to identify the most relevant topics in scientific production. Patent document analysis was also performed to strengthen the study and offer a broader perspective on technological advances in apiculture. Topics related to hive loss, bee mortality, diseases, and pests are conspicuous among the main results associated with sustainability. Concerning developed technologies, terms such as monitoring, nutrition, improvement of sanitary conditions, and digital intermediaries are noticeable. In addition, we analyzed the main technology sectors, jurisdictions, applicants, and other elements of interest. Undoubtedly, the beekeeping sector presents several significant problems and challenges; however, this study shows multiple areas of opportunity to promote its development.
Although eggplant is self-fertile and self-compatible crop, it needs assistance of insects for buzz pollination. In the present study, floral biology of “Shyamili” variety was examined and the flowers were classified into three types, wherein, 62.63 ± 5.53% of the flowers were true flowers with long style, followed by rudimentary flowers with short style (24.74 ± 2.32%) and flowers with medium style (12.26 ± 0.97%). The optimum time period for stigma receptivity and pollen germination was recorded between 8.30 and 10.30 h, during which the activity of insect pollinators was at peak. A total of 29 insect species visiting eggplant flowers and the pollination behaviour of three insect pollinators (Bombus haemorrhodalis, Apis cerana indica and Apis mellifera) actively foraging on eggplant flowers was analysed. B. haemorrhodalis spent significantly higher amount of time per flower (34.33 ± 4.54 s), whereas, A. mellifera was swift flyer and visited significantly higher number of flowers per unit time (6.67 ± 1.03). In case of yield-related parameters, the flowers pollinated by interaction of two pollinators (A. c. indica + B. haemorrhodalis) recorded the best quality fruit (fruit length, girth and weight), yield per unit area and per cent yield increase over closed control. Moreover, artificial introduction of insect pollinators shortened the crop cultivation period by reducing the time required for fruit set and final harvest. Further studies are required to utilise both domestic ATED and wild bees simultaneously for commercial eggplant production and ecological engineering of the fields to create a suitable microclimate for survival and reproduction of wild bees.
Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is a major horticultural crop that relies on insect mediated pollination. In avocado production, a knowledge gap exists as to the importance of insect pollination, especially in East African smallholder farms. Although it is evident that pollination improves the yield of avocado fruits, it is still unclear if pollination has benefits on fruit quality and the nutritional profile, particularly oils. Prior studies have shown that honey bees increase avocado’s fruit set and yield. However, an avocado flower is being visited by various insect species. Therefore, determining pollination efficiency will allow a comparison of the relative importance of the different insect species to optimize crop pollination for increased fruit set and crop yield and pollinator conservation. This study was conducted in a leading smallholder avocado production region in Kenya, first I assessed the dependence of avocado fruit set on insect pollination and whether current smallholder production systems suffer from a deficit in pollination services. Furthermore, I assessed if supplementation with colonies of the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) to farms mitigated potential pollination deficits. The results revealed a very high reliance of avocado on insect pollinators, with a significantly lower fruit set observed for self- and wind-pollinated (17.4%) or self-pollinated flowers (6.4%) in comparison with insect-pollinated flowers (89.5%). I found a significant pollination deficit across farms, with hand-pollinated flowers on average producing 20.7% more fruits than non-treated open flowers prior to fruit abortion. This pollination deficit could be compensated by the supplementation of farms with A. mellifera colonies. These findings suggest that pollination is limiting fruit set in avocado and that A. mellifera supplementation on farms is a potential option to increase fruit yield. Secondly, I investigated the contribution of insect pollination to fruit and seed weight, oil, protein, carbohydrate, and phytochemicals contents (flavonoids and phenolics), and whether supplementation with pollinators (honey bee) could improve these fruit parameters was assessed. This was through pollinator-manipulative pollination treatments: hand, open, pollinator exclusion experiments. The results showed that avocado fruit weight was significantly higher in open and hand-pollinated than pollinator exclusion treatments, indicating that flower visitors/pollinators contribute to avocado yields and enhance marketability. Furthermore, insect pollination resulted in heavier seeds and higher oil contents, indicating that insect pollination is beneficial for the fruit’s high seed yield and quantity of oil. Honey bee supplementation also enhanced the avocado fruit weight by 18% more than in control farms and slightly increased the avocado oil content (3.6%). Contrarily, insect pollination did not influence other assayed fruit quality parameters (protein, carbohydrates, and phytochemicals). These results indicate that insect pollinators are essential for optimizing avocado yields, nutritional quality (oils), and thus marketability, underscoring the value of beehive supplementation to achieve high-quality avocado fruits and improved food security. Thirdly, pollinator efficiency based on pollen deposition after single visits by different pollinator species in avocado flowers was tested, and their frequency was recorded. The estimated pollination efficiency was highest in honey bees (Apis mellifera), followed by the hoverfly species (Phytomia incisa). These two species had the highest pollen deposition and more pollen grains on their bodies. In addition, honey bees were the most frequent avocado flower visitors, followed by flies. The findings from this study highlight the higher pollination efficiency of honey bees and Phytomia incisa. Hence, management practices supporting these species will promote increased avocado fruit yield. Additionally, these results imply that managed honey bees can be maintained to improve avocado pollination, particularly in areas lacking sufficient wild pollinators.
Confrontés aux demandes grandissantes d’installations de ruches, les gestionnaires d’aires protégées s’interrogent sur les conséquences d’une densité élevée d’abeilles domestiques sur les communautés d’abeilles sauvages. Pour répondre à cette question, au sein du Parc national des Calanques, nous avons inventorié la diversité des espèces de pollinisateurs, leurs traits écologiques, et leurs interactions avec la flore sauvage. À travers un bilan des campagnes de terrain réalisées sur une période de 10 ans, près de 250 espèces de pollinisateurs (Apoidea, Syrphidae et Bombyliidae) ont été répertoriées. Les communautés d'abeilles sauvages étaient sensibles à l’occupation du sol à l’échelle du paysage à 1km. La richesse spécifique et l’abondance des grandes abeilles sauvages diminuaient avec l’augmentation de la densité de colonies d’abeilles domestiques suggérant une compétition pour les ressources florales. Ce résultat a été confirmé à travers l’observation des comportements de butinage des abeilles domestiques et sauvages et s’est manifesté par une exclusion compétitive des grandes abeilles sauvages et un changement de régime alimentaire des petites abeilles sauvages et des bourdons. Enfin, la quantité de ressources florales disponibles (nectar et pollen) estimée à l’échelle du Parc national des Calanques n’est pas suffisante pour couvrir les besoins alimentaires des abeilles domestiques déjà installées. Aux vues de l’importance des habitats protégés méditerranéens pour les communautés de pollinisateurs sauvages, cette thèse propose des préconisations de gestion visant à concilier la pratique de l’apiculture avec le maintien de la faune de pollinisateurs sauvages.
Growing interest has been emerging on the need to monitor the genetic integrity of the European Apis mellifera subspecies that could be threatened by the human-mediated dispersion of non-native populations and lines. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages can provide useful information for this purpose. In this study, we took advantage of the environmental DNA (eDNA) contained in the honey, which can be analyzed to detect the main groups of mitotypes of the honey bees that produced it. In this study, we applied this eDNA to produce a distribution map all over the Italian peninsula and the two major islands (Sicily and Sardinia) of the following three honey bee mtDNA lineages: A, C and M. A total of 607 georeferenced honey samples, produced in all Italian regions, was analyzed to detect these lineages. The A lineage was widespread in Sicily, as expected, considering that A. m. siciliana carries the African lineage. Surprisingly, this lineage was also reported in about 14% of all other samples produced in almost all continental regions, and in Sardinia. The applied method obtained an updated distribution map of honey bee mtDNA lineages that could be useful to design policies for the conservation of Italian honey bee genetic resources.
2021): Essential oils as sustainable control agents against Varroadestructor (Acari, Varroidae), an ectoparasitic mite of the western honeybees Apismellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae): Review of recent literature (ABSTRACT The western honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) is one of the most important insect species that, unfortunately, is being confronted with multiple biological stressors that threaten their existence. Varroa destructor (Anderson and Trueman) is the most devastating ectoparasitic mite known today. In this review, we offer an up-to-date review of the literature on the use of essential oils (EOs) against V. destructor, particularly the last decade (2010-onwards). We find that 40 aromatic plants were extracted for EOs and screened for their varroacidal activity under laboratory and/or field conditions. Through this review, we urge the scientific community to pay more attention to the following points: 1) the laboratory bioassays should be completed with field trials as they are the ones capable of revealing the true potency of the studied EO, 2) sub-lethal effects of the screened EO on honeybees as non-target organisms as well as their residual activity should also be investigated, and finally 3) more inquiries are required in regard to the mode of action of these substances to reveal their molecular targets in V. destructor.
Honey bees are pollinators that play a key-role in plant biodiversity conservation and crop production. This unique insect species has been managed in hives by beekeepers for millennia, even though such a peculiar animal production system never resulted in the domestication of the western honey bee. The western honey bee was originally distributed throughout most of Europe, Africa, the Middle East, part of the Arabian Peninsula and some parts of Central Asia. From Europe, the honey bee was introduced to America, Asia and Oceania. This adaptation to a range of environmental conditions, together with geological and climatic changes in past eras, has resulted in grouping of Apis mellifera into 31 subspecies. In the last 150 years, technological advances in bee-keeping and globalisation have heavily endangered conservation of the native subspecies of A. mellifera in Europe, with an impact on honey bee production and health status. Evaluation of the impact of this phenomenon on the ecological equilibrium is still ongoing , but there is already scientific evidence of negative effects that this problem is having on beekeeping. This document sets forth the scientific arguments in support of the conservation of native subspecies, and lists the existing Italian legislation in terms of subspecies protection initiatives. It also lists the main factors that are contributing to loss of genetic diversity and of local adaptations. This document does not intend to oppose the actions of the beekeeping industry, but rather to contribute to a more global vision of the very serious problem of honey bee decline.
In recent years, conservation biologists have raised awareness about the risk of ecological interference between massively introduced managed honeybees and the native wild bee fauna in protected natural areas. In this study, we surveyed wild bees and quantified their nectar and pollen foraging success in a rosemary Mediterranean scrubland in southern France, under different conditions of apiary size and proximity. We found that high-density beekeeping triggers foraging competition which depresses not only the occurrence (-55%) and nectar foraging success (-50%) of local wild bees but also nectar (-44%) and pollen (-36%) harvesting by the honeybees themselves. Overall, those competition effects spanned distances of 600-1.100 m around apiaries, i.e. covering 1.1-3.8km2 areas. Regardless the considered competition criterion, setting distance thresholds among apiaries appeared more tractable than setting colony density thresholds for beekeeping regulation. Moreover, the intraspecific competition among the honeybees has practical implications for beekeepers. It shows that the local carrying capacity has been exceeded and raises concerns for honey yields and colony sustainability. It also offers an effective ecological criterion for pragmatic decision-making whenever conservation practitioners envision progressively reducing beekeeping in protected areas. Although specific to the studied area, the recommendations provided here may help raise consciousness about the threat high-density beekeeping may pose to local nature conservation initiatives, especially in areas with sensitive or endangered plant or bee species such as small oceanic islands with high levels of endemism.
Supporting managed honey bees by pasturing in natural landscapes has come under review due to concerns that honey bees could negatively impact the survival of wild bees through competition for floral resources. Critique and assessment of the existing body of published literature against our criteria focussing on studies that can support best management resulted in 19 experimental papers. Indirect measures of competition examining foraging patterns and behavior yielded equivocal results. Direct measures of reproduction and growth were investigated in only seven studies, with six indicating negative impacts to wild bees from the presence of managed honey bees. Three of these studies examined fitness impacts to BombusLatreille and all three indicated reduced growth or reduced reproductive output. Because there is a severe lack of literature, yet potential that honey bee presence could negatively impact wild bees, exemplified with bumble bee studies, we advocate for further research into the fitness impacts of competition between managed and wild pollinators. Conservative approaches should be taken with respect to pasturing honey bees on natural lands with sensitive bumble bee populations. Correspondingly, forage opportunities for honey bees in managed, agricultural landscapes, should be increased in an effort to reduce potential pressure and infringement on wild bee populations in natural areas.
The honey bee is in Europe an endemic and wild species, with regional subspecies and many local adaptations. Although subspecies and populations have been hybridized, and despite some selective breeding, the honey bee still behaves naturally and increases its fitness through continuous local adaptation. In order to evolve more resilience against the varroa mite, a major threat, two ways are open: (1) targeted selection and breeding on a large or regional scale, and (2) natural selection for fitness in the presence of the varroa mite. While the success score for selective breeding is still scant, natural selection has delivered a few described cases of resistance, all in relatively short time periods.
Resilience of an organism towards parasites and diseases can be obtained by resistance (the disease / parasite is hampered in its development and fitness) and by tolerance (the damage caused by the disease or parasite is avoided or restraint). Resistance and tolerance can act concurrently. A balanced relationship between host and parasite can develop through resistance and tolerance, and an important condition to reach such a balance is that the disease or parasite is vertically transmitted: from mother to offspring. When a parasite is transmitted horizontally, such a balanced relationship struggles to develop. With natural reproduction of honey bee colonies, parasites are transmitted vertically onto the new generation. Method (2) of natural selection does not interfere with this transmission route. By replication or rejuvenation of colonies with the introduction of foreign queens (method (1)), the transmission is largely horizontal. This applies as well for the transmission of beneficial organisms (symbionts) in the colony.
In addition to reproduction of colonies and selective breeding, many other methods applied by beekeepers conflict with the bee colonies’ behaviours and resilience traits against parasites and diseases. Aligning methods to the natural traits of the bees, as well as the decision to start selection, targeted or natural, should be done with prudence to avoid evitable collateral damage.
It is a common belief that feral honey bee colonies ( Apis mellifera L.) were eradicated in Europe through the loss of habitats, domestication by man and spread of pathogens and parasites. Interestingly, no scientific data are available, neither about the past nor the present status of naturally nesting honeybee colonies. We expected near-natural beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.) forests to provide enough suitable nest sites to be a home for feral honey bee colonies in Europe. Here, we made a first assessment of their occurrence and density in two German woodland areas based on two methods, the tracing of nest sites based on forager flight routes (beelining technique), and the direct inspection of potential cavity trees. Further, we established experimental swarms at forest edges and decoded dances for nest sites performed by scout bees in order to study how far swarms from beekeeper-managed hives would potentially move into a forest. We found that feral honey bee colonies regularly inhabit tree cavities in near-natural beech forests at densities of at least 0.11–0.14 colonies/km ² . Colonies were not confined to the forest edges; they were also living deep inside the forests. We estimated a median distance of 2,600 m from the bee trees to the next apiaries, while scout bees in experimental swarms communicated nest sites in close distances (median: 470 m). We extrapolate that there are several thousand feral honey bee colonies in German woodlands. These have to be taken in account when assessing the role of forest areas in providing pollination services to the surrounding land, and their occurrence has implications for the species’ perception among researchers, beekeepers and conservationists. This study provides a starting point for investigating the life-histories and the ecological interactions of honey bees in temperate European forest environments.
In parts of the developing world, deforestation rates are high and poverty is chronic and pervasive. Addressing these issues through the commercialization of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been widely researched, tested, and discussed. While the evidence is inconclusive, there is growing understanding of what works and why, and this paper examines the acknowledged success and failure factors. African forest honey has been relatively overlooked as an NTFP, an oversight this paper addresses. Drawing on evidence from a long-established forest conservation, livelihoods, and trade development initiative in SW Ethiopia, forest honey is benchmarked against accepted success and failure factors and is found to be a near-perfect NTFP. The criteria are primarily focused on livelihood impacts and consequently this paper makes recommendations for additional criteria directly related to forest maintenance.
Range-restricted species are of high conservation concern, and the way in which they interact with more widespread species has implications for their persistence. Here, we determine how the specialization of mutualistic interactions varies with respect to the geographic range size of plants and pollinators and assess how they respond to the introduction of the alien honeybee. We also compare network characteristics (connectance, specialization and nestedness) between an invaded low mountain and non-invaded high mountain network.
Managed bees are critical for crop pollination worldwide. As the demand for pollinator-dependent crops increases, so does the use of managed bees. Concern has arisen that managed bees may have unintended negative impacts on native wild bees, which are important pollinators in both agricultural and natural ecosystems. The goal of this study was to synthesize the literature documenting the effects of managed honey bees and bumble bees on wild bees in three areas: (1) competition for floral and nesting resources, (2) indirect effects via changes in plant communities, including the spread of exotic plants and decline of native plants, and (3) transmission of pathogens. The majority of reviewed studies reported negative effects of managed bees, but trends differed across topical areas. Of studies examining competition, results were highly variable with 53% reporting negative effects on wild bees, while 28% reported no effects and 19% reported mixed effects (varying with the bee species or variables examined). Equal numbers of studies examining plant communities reported positive (36%) and negative (36%) effects, with the remainder reporting no or mixed effects. Finally, the majority of studies on pathogen transmission (70%) reported potential negative effects of managed bees on wild bees. However, most studies across all topical areas documented the potential for impact (e.g. reporting the occurrence of competition or pathogens), but did not measure direct effects on wild bee fitness, abundance, or diversity. Furthermore, we found that results varied depending on whether managed bees were in their native or non-native range; managed bees within their native range had lesser competitive effects, but potentially greater effects on wild bees via pathogen transmission. We conclude that while this field has expanded considerably in recent decades, additional research measuring direct, long-term, and population-level effects of managed bees is needed to understand their potential impact on wild bees.
A decline of wild pollinators, along with a decline of bee diversity, has been a cause of concern among academics and governmental organizations. According to the IPBES, a lack of wild pollinator data contributes to difficulties in comprehensively analyzing the regional status of wild pollinators in Africa, Latin America, Asia and Oceania. It may have also contributed to the prevailing lack of awareness of the diversity of honey bees, of which the managed European honey bee is often considered as “the (only) honey bee,” despite the fact that there are eight other honey bee species extant in Asia. A survey of 100 journal articles published in 2016 shows that 57% of the studies still identified the European honey bee as “the honey bee.” In total, 80% of studies were conducted solely on the European honey bee. This focus on the European honey bee has also caused the honey standard of Codex Alimentarius and the European Union to be based solely on European honey bee, causing improper evaluation of honeys from other species. We recommend adapting current standards to reflect the diversity of honey bees and in the process correct failures in the honey market and pave the way towards improved protection of honey bee species and their habitats. Full text view available here: http://rdcu.be/uenq
The generation of genome-wide sequence data has brought with it both exciting opportunities for conservation and challenges for determining appropriate management practices in the face of complex evolutionary histories. Genomic data can provide deep insight into taxa with complex evolutionary origins, and is a powerful tool for biologists to obtain a more complete view of ancestry. Many policy decisions are encumbered by patterns of gene flow between species that reveal complex evolutionary histories. Here, we review conservation decisions in admixed species and highlight genomics research that demonstrates the commonality of hybridization in wildlife. We encourage a shift towards a web-of-life framework with emphasis on the need to incorporate flexibility in conservation practices by establishing a policy for lineages of admixed ancestry. In particular, we promote a conceptual framework under which hybridization, even extensive hybridization, no longer disqualifies a species from protection; instead, we encourage customized case-by-case management to protect evolutionary potential and maintain processes that sustain ecosystems.
Since the rise of agriculture, human populations have domesticated plant and animal species to fulfil their needs. With modern agriculture, a limited number of these species has been massively produced over large areas at high local densities. Like invasive species, these Massively Introduced Managed Species (MIMS) integrate local communities and can trigger cascading effects on the structure and functioning of ecosystems. Here, we focus on plant and insect MIMS in the context of plant–pollinator systems. Several crop species such as mass flowering crops (e.g. Brassica napus) and domesticated pollinating insects (e.g. Apis mellifera, Bombus terrestris) have been increasingly introduced worldwide and their impact on natural communities is addressed by an increasing number of scientific studies.
1. Many studies have reported honeybee colony losses in human-dominated landscapes. While bee floral food resources have been drastically reduced over past decades in human-dominated landscapes, no field study has yet been undertaken to determine whether there is a carry-over effect between seasonal disruption in floral resource availability and high colony losses.
2. We investigated if a decline in the harvest of pollen by honeybees in spring affected managed honeybee colony dynamics (brood size, adult population and honey reserves) and health (Varroa mite loads and colony survival) throughout the beekeeping season.
3. A decline in pollen harvest was associated with a direct reduction in brood production, leading to a negative effect on the adult population size later in the season, and lower honey reserves before the onset of winter. Furthermore, the decline in pollen harvest negatively impacted the health of the colony, resulting in higher Varroa mite loads and higher seasonal and winter colony losses.
4. Early warning signs of these carry-over effects were identified, showing that preferential investment in honey reserves instead of brood production early in the season increased the decline in pollen harvest and its associated carry-over effects.
5. Synthesis and applications. The results suggest that the decline in pollen harvest may have been overlooked as a cause of pollen shortage and associated bee colony losses. Strategies to avoid such losses in intensive farmland systems include i) limiting or avoiding honey harvests in spring, ii) monitoring colonies for early warning signals of colony failure, and iii) increasing the amount of floral resources available through wise land-use management.
Studying the genetic signatures of climate-driven selection can produce insights into local adaptation and the potential impacts
of climate change on populations. The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is an interesting species to study local adaptation because it originated in tropical/subtropical climatic regions and subsequently
spread into temperate regions. However, little is known about the genetic basis of its adaptation to temperate climates. Here,
we resequenced the whole genomes of 10 individual bees from a newly discovered population in temperate China and downloaded
resequenced data from 35 individuals from other populations. We found that the new population is an undescribed subspecies
in the M-lineage of Apis mellifera (Apis mellifera sinisxinyuan). Analyses of population history show that long-term global temperature has strongly influenced the demographic history of
Apis mellifera sinisxinyuan and its divergence from other subspecies. Further analyses comparing temperate and tropical populations identified several
candidate genes related to fat body and the Hippo signaling pathway that are potentially involved in adaptation to temperate
climates. Our results provide insights into the demographic history of the newly discovered Apis mellifera sinisxinyuan, as well as the genetic basis of adaptation of A. mellifera to temperate climates at the genomic level. These findings will facilitate the selective breeding of A. mellifera to improve the survival of overwintering colonies.
A spontaneous hybridization among honeybees in most European countries has led to the loss in the gene pool of the dark European honeybee. We believe Russia still has a considerable array of purebred populations of European dark bees, A.m. mellifera. The most common bee, the Burzyan Honey Bee, lives under protection in the mountain forest zone of South Ural in the State Nature Biosphere Reserve “Shulgan-Tash”, the regional nature reserve “Altyn Solok”, and the National Park “Bashkortostan”. These wild tree hollow honeybees are of great interest among beekeepers and scientists around the world, as they could be used to help reconstruct the natural history of bees.
Ilyasov R. A., Kosarev M. N., Neal A. & Yumaguzhin F. G. Burzyan Wild-Hive Honeybee A.m.mellifera in South Ural. Bee World. 2015. V. 92 (1). P. 7-11. (IF 0.62). DOI: 10.1080/0005772X.2015.1047634.
Understanding genetic changes caused by novel pathogens and parasites can reveal mechanisms of adaptation and genetic robustness. Using whole-genome sequencing of museum and modern specimens, we describe the genomic changes in a wild population of honey bees in North America following the introduction of the ectoparasitic mite, Varroa destructor. Even though colony density in the study population is the same today as in the past, a major loss of haplotypic diversity occurred, indicative of a drastic mitochondrial bottleneck, caused by massive colony mortality. In contrast, nuclear genetic diversity did not change, though hundreds of genes show signs of selection. The genetic diversity within each bee colony, particularly as a consequence of polyandry by queens, may enable preservation of genetic diversity even during population bottlenecks. These findings suggest that genetically diverse honey bee populations can recover from introduced diseases by evolving rapid tolerance, while maintaining much of the standing genetic variation.
A spontaneous hybridization among honeybees
in most European countries has led to the loss in
the gene pool of the dark European honeybee.
We believe Russia still has a considerable array
of pure bred populations of European dark
bees A. m. mellifera. The commonest bee, the
Burzyan Honeybee, lives under protection in
the mountain forest zone of South Ural in
the State Nature Biosphere Reserve 'Shulgan-
Tash', regional nature reserve Altyn Solok'
and National Park «Bashkortostan». These
Wild Tree Hollow Honeybees are of great
interest among beekeepers and scientists
around the world, as they could be used to
make a reconstruction of the natural history
of bees.
The European dark bee Apis mellifera
mellifera - a unique subspecies of honeybee
Apis mellifera, is evolutionarily adapted to
live in the continental climate of northern
Eurasia with long cold winters. In modem
days this subspecies survived only in a few
isolated reservation areas. The biggest areas
are in Russia: about 300,000 colonies
avoided spontaneous hybridisation in the
South Ural area of Republic of Bashkirostan;
about 200,000 colonies in the Middle Ural
area [Shurakov et al., 1999; Ilyasov et al.,
2006] and about 250,000 colonies in Volga
region of Republic of Tatarstan [Krivtsov,
Grankin, 2004].
Ilyasov R.A., Kosarev M.N., Neal A., Yumaguzhin F.G. Burzyan wild-hive honeybee A. m. mellifera in South Ural. The Beekeepers Quarterly. 2015. V. 119. P. 25-33.
There is a widespread belief that wild colonies of European honeybees have been eradicated in Europe and North America, killed by viruses spread by the introduced ectoparasitic mite, Varroa destructor. In reality, however, several populations of wild colonies of honeybees in Europe and North America are persisting despite exposure to Varroa. To help understand how this is happening, we tested whether the bees in one of these populations of wild colonies—those living in and around the Arnot Forest (NY, USA)—are genetically distinct from the bees in the nearest managed colonies. We found that the Arnot Forest honeybees are genetically distinct from the honeybees in the two apiaries within 6 km of the forest. Evidently, the population of Arnot Forest honeybees is not supported by a heavy influx of swarms from the nearest managed colonies, which implies that it is self-sustaining. These results suggest that if a closed population of honeybee colonies is allowed to live naturally, it will develop a balanced relationship with its agents of disease. Indeed, it is likely to become well adapted to its local environment as a whole. We suggest four ways to modify beekeeping practices to help honeybees live in greater health.
Abstract – Secretions from the mandibular glands of honeybees have been studied extensively, with those of
queens dominated by ώ-9 fatty acids and ώ-10 fatty acids dominating those of non-laying workers. Apis mellifera
adansonii (Latreille) is one of the widely distributed subspecies of African honeybees. However, its mandibular
gland pheromones have not been analysed previously. Using gas chromatography, we analysed the composition of
mandibular gland pheromones in workers and queens of A. mellifera adansonii from Nigeria. Qualitatively, workers
and queens have similar pheromone profiles to those previously reported in other African subspecies of honeybees.
We found 9-ODA and high amounts of its precursor 9-hydroxy-2 (E )-decenoic acid (9-HDA) in workers, thus
showing that they produce queen-like signals under queen-right conditions. We also found geographic variation in
the pheromone profiles and morphometric characters of these workers, suggesting different pheromone and
morphoclusters from the different ecological and climatological regions inhabited by A. m. adansonii in Nigeria
1. Apis mellifera siciliana is a honey bee subspecies prone to be con-served. Conservation measures include maintaining colonies on different islands to serve as parental lines for outcrossing. 2. Molecular diversity and genetic structure of honey bees from Sicily (main island) and Vulcano and Filicudi (conservation islands) were analysed with mitochondrial and microsatellite markers to assess the efficacy of the ongoing conservation effort. Samples from continental Italy and Sardinia island were included for comparison. 3. All the samples of the conservation islands were included in the African (A) evolutionary lineage, while western and northern (M) and eastern (C) Euro-pean evolutionary lineages were also detected in colonies from the main island (17.1% and 22% respectively), thus highlighting introgression at the mitochon-drial level. 4. Nuclear data from conservation and main island populations were com-pared to evaluate the proportion of admixed honey bees. A higher level of hybridization was found in the central and eastern areas of Sicily main island. 5. Our data describe the efficacy of the conservation islands, and suggest where and how to manage mating stations to further improve the present conservation strategy by recovering additional residual genetic variability of A. m. siciliana. 6. We also propose the establishment of a European network of conservation islands to preserve honey bee subspecies and to implement research studies of adaptation to peculiar climatic conditions.