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Animal-assisted therapy and equine-assisted therapy/learning in Canada: Surveying the current state of the field, its practitioners, and its practices
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Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) and equine-assisted therapy/learning (EAT/L) are innovative techniques in counselling, psychotherapy, mental health, coaching, and other personal growth interventions. Although this field has experienced tremendous growth in the United States, very little is known about its Canadian equivalent. The purpose of this study was therefore to examine the current state of AAT and EAT/L in Canada, by conducting a national, bilingual (English and French) survey of helping professionals who involve animals in their practices. A total of 131 questionnaires were retained for analysis. The results of this study suggest that the field is very diverse, with a multitude of confusing terms and expressions, varying levels of education and training, and disagreement on how different practices are defined, resulting in a fragmented, confusing and inconsistent appearance. Recommendations for the evolution of the field and suggestions for future research are provided.
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... Two studies (Schlote 2009, Notgrass 2011 surveyed practitioners about their most commonly served client populations. In Schlote's (2009) survey of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) practitioners and equine-assisted therapy (EAT) practitioners in Canada, participants were given a list of various client populations and asked to indicate with which of these populations they had worked. ...
... Two studies (Schlote 2009, Notgrass 2011 surveyed practitioners about their most commonly served client populations. In Schlote's (2009) survey of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) practitioners and equine-assisted therapy (EAT) practitioners in Canada, participants were given a list of various client populations and asked to indicate with which of these populations they had worked. The category with the largest number of responses was adults (68.9%). ...
... The category with the second largest number of responses was adolescents (60.2%). However, Notgrass (2011) surveyed 328 EAP mental health practitionersas opposed to the broader categories of EAT or AAT examined in Schlote's (2009) studyregarding the age of their clients and found that the most commonly selected age group (between zero and 65+) was teenagers (80.2%). In contrast, only 11% indicated that they worked with preschool-age children. ...
Equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP) is an innovative emerging approach to mental health treatment. This narrative synthesis explores the current state of knowledge and areas for future research in EAP. Specifically reviewed are qualitative and quantitative empirical studies, including both articles published in peer-reviewed journals and research presented in theses and dissertations. We selected 24 studies for final inclusion in this study, dating between 2005 and 2013, and including the first EAP empirical research completed in 2005. Four of these studies are peer-reviewed journal articles, while 20 are master's theses or doctoral dissertations. The reviewed qualitative research provides initial evidence for the value of EAP for enhancing adolescents' communication and relationship skills. The reviewed experimental and quasi-experimental research provides initial evidence for the value of EAP for enhancing children's and adolescents' emotional, social and behavioural functioning. Yet, conclusions about the effectiveness of EAP must still be considered preliminary due to various methodological limitations in the reviewed research. The narrative review describes these methodological limitations and concludes with recommendations for future research.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
... Utilising the client's style of relating (Parish-Plass 2008), and observing the animal's reaction to the client, mirrors certain aspects about the self back to the client as well as facilitating self-awareness (Ewing et al. 2007;Rector 2005). This provides opportunities for growth and change (Schlote 2009). Clients have been seen to externalise and communicate aspects about themselves and their experiences to animals, through storytelling, narratives and play Parish-Plass 2008;Reichert 1998). ...
... Considerable debate circulates around the definitions provided for each currently existing AAIs (Schlote 2009). The definitions used by Schlote (2009) provide a clear and concise meaning to each area defined, and therefore will be used for the purpose of this review. ...
This report, commissioned by Beyond Blue, provides a review of existing Australian and international literature on the links between mental health and wellbeing and contact with nature, especially through green spaces.
... This section included questions adapted from Risley-Curtiss, Zilney, and Hornung (2010) and Schlote (2002). Participants were asked whether they have received training on incorporating animals into practice (formal or informal) (yes/no); year of training; and the kind of training they would like to see in Australia. ...
Working with domesticated animals in allied health fields continues to evolve in Australia. We sought to gain an understanding of practitioners’ knowledge, skills, and actions when working with domestic animals in Australia. Adapting methods and measurements from a study performed in Aotearoa New Zealand, the current study surveyed 28 allied health practitioners analyzing the extent animals have been incorporated into practice in Australia, and the practice considerations made to domestic animal welfare and ethics. This research showed a continuing lack of clear workplace policies, support or professional training, and a call for ethical guidelines when working in partnership with animals.
... Other research has also highlighted this as one of the obstacles in development of the field of AAT in Canada. (Schlote, 2009). ...
Background Pets and animal companions have a beneficial influence in the social, cognitive and emotional lives of their human companions. Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) capitalizes on this special human-animal bond by using trained animals as co-therapists alongside their human therapists to enhance the social and emotional well-being of people in clinical and non-clinical settings. There are many studies exploring the effectiveness of this approach but much of the research is located in the American, European and East-Asian countries while documentation of its application in India is limited to anecdotal accounts and conference proceedings. Being a relatively new therapy in India, this paper aims to inform practitioners about the process and possible challenges to be considered while planning and implementation of AAT as a school-based mental health program for children with special needs. Methodology Data was collected using semi-structured interview with therapists working in schools catering to special needs children in Mumbai and greater Mumbai area. Conclusions The study highlights lack of awareness, cultural beliefs and fear of animals, safety concerns, training of therapists and funding as challenges faced by therapists in practice. Deliberations on the importance of education/awareness about this approach, training requirements, need for documentation and outcome-based studies are put forth.
... This proposed structure is based on the so-called diamond model (Brooks, 2006), as opposed to the triangle model, in which the medical, psychological, or educational professional works without the assistance of an animal handler in the setting. Not all countries and AAI providers employ the diamond model; however, it is preferable to have that collaboration among the professionals on the two sides of the intervention, for welfare and safety purposes (Boggs, Tedeschi, & Ascione, 2011;Schlote, 2009). ...
Animal assisted interventions ( AAI ) have seen a significant development in the last fifty years. They are based on human-animal interactions, and some scientific research is beginning to provide evidence for the benefits of these interventions. However, ethical issues, particularly from the animals’ point of view, are yet to be considered properly. This article contextualizes AAI and the ethical issues concerning the animals involved. Then it outlines the potential adaptation of the Three Rs principle (replacement, reduction, refinement) to this field, considering all aspects related to animal behavior, health, and wellbeing. The analysis of the conditions for the application is accompanied by suggestions to guide research and general practice in AAI in favor of animal welfare, including assessment of the environmental conditions and competence of the professionals involved. Finally, a fourth R, Relationship, is proposed as the distinctive R for ethical AAI practice, possibly interpreted as cooperation.
... There were similar proportions among the different species (dogs: 59.8%, cats: 22.5%, rabbits: 9.8%, and birds: 8.8%) reported by Schlote [26] [27]. There are some species (guinea pigs, chickens, ferrets, etc.) that can be used in AAI, but it has to be evaluated whether these species can also be used for AAE. ...
The effect of rabbit-assisted interventions on the anxiety levels of first-grade children at a primary school was analyzed. At the beginning of our research, no rabbit-assisted intervention was applied for 6 weeks in order to establish the level of stress caused by the start of the education period. We then alternated 6-week-long periods with and without rabbit-assisted intervention. The level of anxiety in children was assessed every three weeks both in the assisted and non-assisted periods, using the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children, STAI-C. One of the examined classes did not apply the integrating policy while the other class contained pupils with special education needs (called the integrating class). Rabbit-assisted interventions proved to be efficient, as anxiety level scores were significantly lower during the animal-assisted periods. The rabbits actively initiated encounters with humans, not only in the framework of animal-assisted interventions, but also at other occasions. In cases of discomfort, the rabbit retreated to the cage and stayed inside for a short time. The children displayed signs of pleasure when the rabbits approached them. The favorable effect of animal assistance was more apparent in the integrating class. It could be concluded that rabbit-assisted interventions were suitable for decreasing the anxiety levels of elementary school children, improving the efficacy of the educational ability of teachers.
... Finally, it is worth mentioning a master thesis by Schlote (Schlote 2009) that tackles the topic with a thorough survey on animal-assisted therapy and equine-assisted therapy/learning in Canada. The 'state of art' presented for Canada in 2009 coincides, for some aspects, with the results of our study: for example, the animal species involved in AAI or, more generally, some considerations on this field. ...
Animal assisted interventions (AAI) have become increasingly popular in Western countries during the last fifty years, attracting a lot of attention both from the general public and the scientific community. In Italy, similarly to other countries, this evolution has been accompanied by the diffusion of associations delivering AAI. What is the current state of AAI in Italy? How many realities are dealing with AAI? What professionals and animals are involved? The results of the questionnaire here reported have the objective to answer these questions, outlining a snapshot of the distribution and the main features of AAI within Italian territory. According to the 208 respondents, the sector has seen a remarkable expansion over the last twenty years. AAI providers are located mainly in the North and Centre of the country, the majority of them are arranged in associations or AAI specialized centers and work mainly with dogs and equids in animal assisted activity (AAA) programs addressed to disabled people and children. The picture of the sector still appears fragmented in particular regarding team of professionals involved and their training; nonetheless, the recent set up of national guidelines by the Italian authorities has the objective of standardizing the field and defining best practices for each type of intervention.
La majorité des recherches sur la médiation animale se sont concentrées sur la validation des bénéfices de cette pratique pour la santé humaine en excluant le potentiel impact négatif de ce travail pour les chiens impliqués. Au sein de plusieurs recherches abordant les caractéristiques de la médiation animale, les représentations des intervenants sur leur pratique et le bien-être de leur chien ainsi qu’une étude de terrain, nous avons étudié les facteurs de risque pour le bien-être des chiens en médiation animale. Le premier chapitre montre que la médiation animale est une pratique hétérogène en tant qu’approche interspécifique complémentaire à d’autres prises en charge, mais qu’il est possible d’en faire une première catégorisation entre une spécialisation de professionnels du soin et une profession à part entière. Le deuxième chapitre suggère une place centrale de l’intervenant dans la sélection et le bien-être de son chien. En outre, l’interrogation des intervenants souligne la nécessité d’une prise en compte du bien-être des chiens en médiation animale à travers : l’environnement de travail, les interactions avec les bénéficiaires et l’intervenant lui-même. Le troisième chapitre pointe la nécessité d’une attention particulière sur les interactions entre les chiens et les bénéficiaires mais aussi avec l’intervenant lors des séances de médiation animale. De futures études sont nécessaires pour étudier les facteurs de risque pour le bien-être des chien en médiation animale en adoptant de nouvelles méthodologies interdisciplinaires et collaboratives.
Children suffering from insecure attachment due to severe abuse and/or neglect
are often characterized by internal working models which, although perhaps
adaptive within the original family situation, are inappropriate and maladaptive in
other relationships and situations. Such children have a higher probability than the
general population of becoming abusing or neglecting parents. Besides the usual
goals of psychotherapy, an overall goal is to stop the cycle of abuse in which abused
children may grow up to be abusing parents. Therapy with these children is complicated
by their distrust in adults as well as difficulties in symbolization due to
trauma during the preverbal stage. Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) provides
avenues for circumventing these difficulties, as well as providing additional tools
for reaching the inner world of the client. This article gives a brief background of
the connection between insecure attachment and intergenerational transmission
of abuse and neglect as well as a brief overview of the principles of AAT in a play
therapy setting. A rationale for the use of AAT as a unique therapy technique for
children having suffered from abuse and neglect is followed by a number of clinical
examples illustrating AAT.
This chapter attempts to provide a brief historical account of the various ways in which animals and companion animals are perceived as contributing to human mental and physical health. Animist belief systems are characteristic of all hunting and foraging societies, and among these societies, offended animal spirits are often viewed as the most common source of malignant spiritual influences. Although animist belief systems are particularly characteristic of hunting and foraging peoples, they have also persisted in a variety of forms in many pastoral nomadic and agricultural societies where they often coexist, through a process of synchretic fusion, with more recently imposed religious creeds and practices. The purpose of dwelling on the particular example of contemporary Amerindian belief in soul animals is that it illustrates the remarkable tenacity of animistic/shamanistic ideas and practices in Central America, despite the coercive influence of nearly five centuries of imported Roman Catholicism. Similarly, in Europe and around the Mediterranean basin, it appears that vestiges of comparable belief systems survived in a number of local and regional healing cults, at least until the early modern period. The positive therapeutic value of animal companionship continues to receive little recognition in mainstream medical literature, and, as a field of research, it is grossly under-supported by government funding agencies.
Using the results of a survey of animal rights activists, advocates, and supporters, the paper reveals much more convergence (80%) than divergence (20%) of attitudes and actions by male and female animal protectionists. Analysis of the divergence suggests that the differences between men and women in the movement are contingent upon such things as early socialization, gendered work and leisure patterns, affinity with companion animals, ambivalence about science, and a history of opposition to nonhuman animal abuse by generations of female activists and animal advocates. Aside from the feminist and women's movements and groups like Mothers Against Drunk Driving, it is rare to find a social movement in which the standing of women eclipses those of their male colleagues. The paper suggests that animal protection remains a bastion of female activism and advocacy because women care about blood, flesh, and pain and, unlike earlier generations of animal activists, no longer are seen as a liability to the success of the movement.
Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling is the most comprehensive book available dedicated to training mental health practitioners in Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT). It explains the history and practice of AAT in counseling, discusses the latest empirical research, and provides an in-depth explanation of the psychodynamics of AAT within various theoretical frameworks. Readers will learn the proper way to select, train, and evaluate an animal for therapy. The use of a number of different therapy animals is considered, including dogs, cats, horses, birds, farm animals, rabbits and other small animals, and dolphins. Guidelines for implementing AAT in settings such as private practices, community agencies, schools, hospices, and prisons are covered, as well as ethical and legal considerations, risk management, diversity issues, and crisis and disaster response applications. Numerous case examples illustrate the use of AAT principles with clients, and forms, client handouts, and other resources provide valuable tools. This unique resource is an indispensable guide for any counselor looking to develop and implement AAT techniques in his or her practice.
This chapter suggests that the evolutionary development of the human brain was shaped by the necessity to forage and hunt. As a by-product of this necessity, humans have an innate tendency to pay attention to animals and the natural surroundings. The tendency to pay attention to animals is in turn associated with an increased capacity for response inhibition, which is particularly enabling for children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or those who have difficulty learning from lecture or textual materials. Individuals with ADHD often tend to have more spontaneity than normal individuals. Their thinking is at times unrestrained and creative, but at other moments is quite disorganized and tangential. Their speech patterns are compromised in which they exhibit inarticulateness, disfluencies, and psycholinguistic impairments. They act unpredictably and lack the intermediate reflection between impulse and action that is required for goal-directed or context-regulated behavior. The central focus of disinhibition and the inadequacies of accommodating responses to situational demands result in a panoply of symptoms associated with ADHD, including behavioral impulsivity, disruptiveness, variability in attention and performance, disorganization, interpersonal tactlessness, impatience, mood changes, and sensation seeking typically in the form of risk-taking behaviors.
For most of human history, animals have occupied a central position in theories concerning the ontology and treatment of sickness and disease. Offended animal spirits were often believed to be the source of illness, injury, or misfortune, but, at the same time, the assistance of animal guardian spirits-either one's own or those belonging to a medicine man or shaman-could also be called on to mediate in the process of healing such afflictions. Recent interest in the potential medical value of animal companionship was largely initiated by a single study that appeared to demonstrate life-prolonging effects of pet ownership among heart attack sufferers. This study has since prompted many others, most of which have demonstrated either short-term, relaxing effects of animal contact, or long-term health improvements consistent with a view of companion animals as sources of social support and client population; and knowledge level of AAT by individual programs or facilities. Other factors influencing AAT include the variety of animals involved, their temperament and level of training, and the human team member and her or his level of training and personal characteristics. The setting or agency where AAT takes place and the variety of clients also influences how AAT is conducted. The interdisciplinary nature of AAT in many respects enriches its content, but also contributes to different ways of conducting or implementing this therapeutic intervention. Professionals, trained staff, and volunteers all engage in various levels of AAT based primarily on their understanding of and personal commitment to the human-animal bond. Some efforts have been made to establish guidelines for AAT; however, this falls short of addressing the wide variation that presently exists.