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Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection
ISSN: 0323-5408 (Print) 1477-2906 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gapp20
Altitude and coffee production systems influence
extent of infestation and bean damage by the
coffee berry borer
Eyasu Asfaw, Esayas Mendesil & Ali Mohammed
To cite this article: Eyasu Asfaw, Esayas Mendesil & Ali Mohammed (2019): Altitude and coffee
production systems influence extent of infestation and bean damage by the coffee berry borer,
Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, DOI: 10.1080/03235408.2019.1594541
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2019.1594541
Published online: 03 May 2019.
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Altitude and coffee production systems influence
extent of infestation and bean damage by the coffee
berry borer
Eyasu Asfaw
a
, Esayas Mendesil
a
and Ali Mohammed
b
a
Department of Horticulture and Plant Sciences, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia;
b
Department of Post-harvest Management, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), is one of the major
insect pests of coffee worldwide. The present study was
designed to assess the level of infestation of coffee berries
at different developmental stages across different altitudes
and coffee management systems. The experiment was car-
ried out at three locations in southwestern Ethiopia under
two coffee management systems and four coffee berry
development stages with three replications. Results of the
study showed significantly highest proportion of damaged
berries (37.5%), number of holes per berry (10.88) and
number of adult CBB per berry (7.55) on dried leftover ber-
ries at low-altitude study sites. On the other hand, the low-
est mean percent damaged berries, number of holes per
berry and number of adults were recorded at mid- and
high-altitude study sites. The study also showed that, CBB
caused significantly highest damage in plantation coffee
management system than garden coffee. Results of this
study highlight proper harvesting at red ripe stage in order
to minimise incidence of CBB. It is also important to design
integrated management strategies to mitigate CBB damage
especially in lowland plantation coffee production systems.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 30 October 2017
Accepted 10 March 2019
KEYWORDS
Coffee; coffee berry bore;
damage; infestation;
yield loss
Introduction
Coffee is one of the most traded commodities worldwide and it is grown
in about 80 coffee-producing countries and contributes as a source of
foreign exchange earnings for many developing countries (Waller et al.
2007; Vega et al. 2015). Ethiopia is the center of origin and diversity for
Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.), and coffee plays a key role in the
Ethiopian economy and the livelihoods of about 4.5 million of coffee
CONTACT Esayas Mendesil emendesil@yahoo.com Department of Horticulture and Plant Sciences,
Jimma University, Jimma, P. O. Box 307, Ethiopia
ß2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
ARCHIVES OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY AND PLANT PROTECTION
https://doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2019.1594541
farmers (EEA 2015). According to FAO report, Ethiopia produced
471,247 tonnes of coffee and ranked first in Africa and sixth in world
coffee production in 2017 (FAOSTAT 2018).
The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), is one of the main insect pest
of coffee causing severe losses in yield and quality of coffee in almost
all coffee-growing countries (Damon 2000; Jaramillo et al. 2006; Vega
et al. 2015; Aristiz
abal et al. 2017; Infante 2018). Damage to the coffee
berry occurs when adult female bores into the berry, feed and repro-
duce inside the berry where both the adults and larvae cause a direct
damage on the berry and affect the quality and also cause abscission
of berries (Vega et al. 2009,2015; Aristiz
abal et al. 2017;
Infante 2018).
The CBB is endemic to Central Africa and now it is found in almost
all coffee-producing countries (Vega et al. 2015). In Ethiopia, the first
incidence of CBB was reported by Davidson (1968). Later on, its occur-
rence has been reported from various parts of the country (Crowe et al.
1977; Crowe and Gebremedhin 1984; Abebe 1987; Mendesil et al. 2004;
Abedeta et al. 2011). Surveys conducted in some coffee-growing areas of
the country indicated up to 60% infestation on dry leftover coffee berries
(Mendesil et al. 2004: Mendesil et al. 2008). In southwestern Ethiopia,
Abedeta et al. (2011) recorded 4.98 and 8.48 mean percent incidence of
CBB on fallen and for leftover dried coffee berries, respectively in forest
coffee system.
CBB is considered as a serious pest in many countries of low-altitude
coffee and damage by this insect is rarely severe at altitudes >
1370 m.a.s.l. and it has not been found >1680 m.a.s.l. (Waller et al.
2007). However, it has been reported that change in climate variables
mainly an increase in average temperature in coffee-growing regions
has an impact on expansion of CBB to higher altitude where it infest
C. arabica (Jaramillo et al. 2009,2011). Furthermore, various studies
have shown the impact of climate change on coffee production in
Africa (Davis et al. 2012; Adhikari et al. 2015). For example, recent
studies of Moat et al. (2017) demonstrated that the area of bioclimati-
cally suitable space of Arabica coffee in Ethiopia could decline between
39 and 59% by the end of the century, depending on the emissions
scenario. In addition to altitude, we hypothesised that coffee manage-
ment systems may influence the incidence of CBB. Therefore, the pre-
sent study reports the level of CBB infestation and damage of coffee
berries at different fruit developmental stages across different altitudes
and coffee management systems in coffee-growing areas of south west-
ern Ethiopia.
2 E. ASFAW ET AL.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study sites
The study was conducted in three sites in southwestern Ethiopia, namely:
Baya (0708.600 N, 3522.200E and at an elevation of 1110 m.a.s.l), Shone
(0724.20N, 3521.900 E and at an elevation of 1400 m.a.s.l) and
Anderacha (0724.80N, 3521.900 E and at an elevation of 1720 m.a.s.l).
Baya is found in Yeki ditrict, in Southern Nations Nationalities and
Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS), which is located 595 Km southwest of
Addis Ababa. The average annual rainfall is 1060.3 mm with mean min-
imum and maximum temperatures of 15.9 C and 31.82 C (average
23.9 C), respectively (Secondary data from Yeki District Agricultural
Office 2012). Shone and Anderacha sites are found in Mengeshu district,
in Gambela Regional State, and are located 647 Km far from Addis
Ababa in south western part of the country. The mean minimum and
maximum temperatures are 17 C and 32 C, respectively, and with an
average annual rainfall of 1500 mm (secondary data from Mejenger Zone
Agricultural office 2012). These districts are among the main coffee-
growing areas in the country and are hotspots for CBB.
2.2. Experimental procedure
Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) cultivar 744, which is widely planted and
adapted in the study area, was used for this experiment. It was used for
assessment of CBB incidence both in garden and plantation coffee in the
field at different berry development stages (red ripe, dry over-ripe, dry
leftover and fallen berry) in the field.
The field assessment of CBB was conducted at three different sites,
namely: Baya, Shone and Anderacha (see Section 2.1 for description),
which were purposely selected by considering the representativeness of
major coffee production area of both districts. The three study sites rep-
resented lower, middle and upper altitudes, respectively. From each loca-
tion, coffee farms under two different management systems (garden and
plantation coffee farm) were selected in three replications to come up
with six coffee farms from each location. Therefore, in total 18 coffee
farms were selected from the study area for the damage assessment. At
each selected coffee farm, 30 coffee trees were selected by using system-
atic sampling method in a zigzag pattern. Then each selected tree was
tagged to collect data in four rounds at different coffee berry develop-
ment stages (red ripe, dry over-ripe, fallen berry and dry leftover berry).
Based on methods of Mendesil et al. (2004) and Mugo et al. (2011), 10
coffee berries were randomly collected from each tree (i.e. totally 300
ARCHIVES OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY AND PLANT PROTECTION 3
berries per site) from each replication for the assessment of damage per-
centage. Then 100 damaged berries were randomly selected and exam-
ined for the number of holes per berry, adult CBB per berry and colour
of damaged and discoloured berries.
A34 factorial design was used to determine the level of damage by
CBB at different coffee-growing altitudes. Three altitude levels
(1100 m.a.s.l., 1400 m.a.s.l. and 1720 m.a.s.l) and four coffee berry devel-
opment stages (red ripe, dried over-ripe, fallen and dried leftover) were
used. In addition, a 2 4 factorial design was used to determine the
influence of coffee management system on the level of damage by CBB.
Two coffee management systems (plantation and garden coffee manage-
ment system) and four coffee berry development stages (red ripe, dried
over-ripe, fallen and dried leftover) were used.
2.2.1. Percentage of damaged berries
To study the level of damage caused by CBB, 10 berries were randomly
collected from each tree (i.e. 300 berries collected from randomly selected
30 coffee trees) at the respective different fruit development stages as
described by Mendesil et al. (2004) and Mugo et al. (2011). All collected
berries were carefully examined for the presence of CBB attack by assess-
ing for the presence of entry holes of the borer. Percentage damaged ber-
ries was calculated for the respective fruit development stage as follows:
Percentage damaged berries ¼DB
TB 100
where, DB ¼Damaged berries; TB ¼Total collected berries
2.2.2. Number of holes per bean
For all combinations of location, management system and stage of berry
development, 30 berries were dissected and the number of holes per
berry was counted in order to determine the mean number of hole per
coffee berry. Among fruits of each selected stage of berry development
collected from the selected locations and both management systems, 30
damaged berries were carefully dissected with a scalpel blade and the
number of adult CBB was recorded.
2.2.3. Proportion of discoloured damaged beans
These data were taken from randomly picked 50 damaged sample berries
through subjective assessment of the damaged and discoloured beans.
Data were calculated by dividing the specific number of damaged and
discoloured beans to the total number of examined damaged sample
4 E. ASFAW ET AL.
beans and multiplied by hundred, to arrive at the percentage of damaged
and discoloured beans.
% DDB ¼NDB
TNDB 100
where, % DDB ¼percentage of damaged and discoloured berries;
NDB ¼number of discoloured berries; TNDB ¼Total number of dam-
aged berries.
2.3. Data analysis
Data on percentage damaged berries by CBB, average number of hole
per berry, number of adult CBB and percentage of damaged and discol-
oured beans were analysed using SAS computer software version 9.2
(Statistical Analysis System Institute (SAS) 2008). Arcsine transformation
was employed for percentage data on percentage damaged berries by
CBB, average number of damaged berries. Similarly, square root trans-
formation (X þ0.5)
1/2
was carried out for data on number holes, and
number and stage of CBB before analysis of variance were made (Gomez
and Gomez 1984). Significance level was set at 0.05 and means were sep-
arated by least significant difference (LSD). Pearson correlation analysis
was used to examine the relationship among different damage variables
and number of adult CBB per berry.
3. Results
3.1. Influence of altitude and berry development stages on CBB
3.1.1. Damaged coffee berry
CBB damage was observed at the three altitudes and different berry devel-
opment stages but with considerable variations (p<0.0001) (Figure 1).
The highest mean percentage damage (37.5%) by CBB was recorded at
low altitude (1110 m.a.s.l.) site on dried leftover berries, followed by
19.30% at mid altitude (1400m.a.s.l.) on dried leftover berries and 13.33%
at lower altitude on dried over-ripe berries. On the other hand, the lowest
mean damage percentage (0.50%) was observed on red ripe berry develop-
ment stage. But, no damage was observed on red ripe berry development
stage at high altitude (1720 m.a.s.l.) (Figure 1).
3.1.2. Number of hole per berry
Mean number of hole per damaged berry was significantly affected by
coffee berry development stages and the different altitudes. The highest
mean number of hole per damaged berry (10.88) was recorded at
ARCHIVES OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY AND PLANT PROTECTION 5
1110 m.a.s.l. on dried leftover berries, whilst the lowest mean number of
hole (0.83) was recorded at 1400 m.a.s.l. on red ripe berries (Figure 2).
3.1.3. Number of adult CBB
The number of CBB per damaged berry significantly varied across the
study altitudes and berry development stages (p<0.0001). The highest
numbers of CBB per berry was recorded on dried leftover berries (7.55)
at 1110 m.a.s.l. study sites. On the other hand, the lowest number of
CBB was observed on fallen berries (0.63) and red ripe berries (0.89) at
1700 m.a.s.l. and 1400 m.a.s.l. study sites, respectively (Figure 3).
3.1.4. Colour of damaged berry
The mean percentage colour of damaged and discoloured berries (black,
blue-green and light grey bean) was significantly (p<0.0001) affected by
altitude and berry developmental stages. The highest mean percentage of
discoloured berries (64.91%) was recorded on fallen berries at
1720 m.a.s.l., while the lowest mean number of discoloured berries
(38.38%) recorded on red ripe berries at 1400 m.a.s.l. study sites. On the
other hand, the highest mean number of light grey berries (47.24% and
45.47%) was observed on dried over-ripe berry at 1110 m.a.s.l. and on
Figure 1. Effect of altitude and berry development stages on mean percent (± SEM)
damaged coffee berries. Means within a column followed by different letters are significantly
different at p<0.05 (LSD test).
6 E. ASFAW ET AL.
red ripe berries at 1720 m.a.s.l., respectively. But the lowest mean number
of light grey berry (35.26%) was recorded on fallen berries at 1400 m.a.s.l.
(Figure 4).
Figure 2. Effect of altitude and berry development stages on mean number (± SEM) of hole
per damaged coffee berry. Means within a column followed by different letters are signifi-
cantly different at p<0.05 (LSD test).
Figure 3. Effect of altitude and berry development stages on mean number (± SEM) of
adult CBB per damaged coffee berries. Means within a column followed by different letters
are significantly different at p<0.05 (LSD test).
ARCHIVES OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY AND PLANT PROTECTION 7
3.2. Influence of production systems on CBB
Coffee production systems and berry development stages had a highly
significant (p<0.0001) effect on the percentage of damaged berries by
CBB (Table 1). CBB caused the highest percentage damage (24.51%) on
dried leftover berries in plantation management system, while minimum
damage percentage (0.43%) was observed on red ripe coffee berries in
garden coffee management system
3.3. Correlation analysis
Mean percentage of damaged berries was positively correlated to the
numbers of holes per berry (r ¼0.97) and numbers of adult CBB per
Figure 4. Effect of altitude and berry development stages on mean percent (± SEM) discol-
oured and light grey berries. DB ¼discoloured beans, LG ¼light grey beans. Means within a
column followed by different letters are significantly different at p<0.05 (LSD test).
Table 1. Effect of different management system and berry development stage interactions
on mean damage percentage of coffee berry borer.
Berry development stage
Coffee production systems
Plantation Garden
Red ripe 0.70 ± 0.32
g
0.43 ± 0.10
g
Dried over-ripe 9.70 ± 1.25
c
5.89 ± 0.93
e
Fallen berry 7.22 ± 1.10
d
4.15 ± 0.72
f
Dried leftover 24.51 ± 3.70
a
17.95 ± 2.5
b
LSD
(0.05)
1.556
CV
(%)
6.1
Means within a column followed by different letters are significantly different at p<0.05 (LSD test).
8 E. ASFAW ET AL.
berry (r ¼0.95)(Table 2). In addition, number of holes per berry
showed a significant positive correlation with the number of adult CBB
per berry (r ¼0.93; p<0.0001) (Table 2).
4. Discussion
Results of the current study demonstrate that CBB was highly prevalent
in lower-altitude coffee-growing areas as evidenced by significantly
higher percentage damaged berries. Earlier studies showed the occur-
rence of CBB in wide range of altitude in southwestern Ethiopia
(1200–1900 m.a.s.l.) with low level of infestation being observed in the
high-altitudes areas (Mendesil et al. 2004,2005). The reports also indi-
cated that altitude is among other factors, which appeared to limit the
distribution of the CBB and showed a significant negative correlation
between altitude and level of infestation. In Kenya, the occurrences CBB
on Arabica coffee were observed at altitudes up to 1880 m.a.s.l. with
1650 m.a.s.l. being more conducive for the pest (Mugo 2008; Mugo and
Kimemia 2009). Although CBB is considered as a serious pest in low-
altitude coffee-growing areas and damage by this insect is rarely
severe at altitudes >1370 m.a.s.l. (Waller et al. 2007), change in climate
–mainly an increase in average temperature in coffee-growing regions –
has an impact on expansion of CBB to higher altitude where it infest C.
arabica (Jaramillo et al. 2009; Jaramillo et al. 2011).
Although CBB is attacking all the developmental stages of coffee ber-
ries, the highest mean percent damage was recorded on dried leftover
berries and dried over-ripe berries. Baker (1999) reported that CBB
infestation starts in the green stage berries and the dry content of the
berry determine the progress of the penetration. In the present study,
CBB inflicted very low damage on red ripe berries, while CBB attacked
all developmental stages of coffee berries causing a considerable amount
of losses in most countries where CBB is prevalent (Le Pelley 1968;
Baker 1999; Damon 2000; Jansen 2005; CABI 2006).
Favourable climate condition for CBB in lower- and mid-altitude cof-
fee-growing areas coupled with agronomic practices mainly in plantation
Table 2. Pearson correlation among response variables.
DM NH NA DBC LGBC
DM 1 0.97 0.95 0.03
ns
0.27
NH 1 0.93 0.06
ns
0.34
NA 1 0.06
ns
0.39
DBC 1 0.13
ns
LGBC 1
DM ¼damage; NH ¼number of holes; NA ¼number of adult; DBC ¼discoloured bean; GBC ¼light
grey bean.
¼highly significant; ¼significant; ns ¼no significant.
ARCHIVES OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY AND PLANT PROTECTION 9
coffee where berries remain on the trees until they are over ripe and
unpicked dry leftover berries might have contributed for high incidence
of CBB. This is attributed to the shortage of harvesting labour force dur-
ing the peak season. In earlier study, Mendesil et al. (2003) reported
mean percentage damage ranged from 25 to 95% on dried leftover ber-
ries in Jimma area. On the other hand, Abedeta et al. (2011) observed
relatively lower incidence of CBB (8.38%) on dried leftover berries in
forest coffee production system. Percentage damage on fallen coffee ber-
ries was lower than dried over-ripe berries may be due to the fact that
moist condition of the ground in the study area facilitates decay of fallen
berries, which may be unfavourable for feeding and reproduction of
CBB. Nevertheless, fallen berries support the borer during the absence of
crop on the tree and also served as a source of infestation of CBB for
the next cropping season.
The presence of high infestation of berries with CBB in lower-altitude
areas was the main cause of high number of holes per berry. As stated
by Wrigley (1988), during periods of intense infestation more than one
female may bore into a single berry. Similarly, Mendesil et al. (2003)
reported more than two holes per damaged berries on dry coffee berries.
High number of holes per damaged berry not only contributes to the
reduction of weight and quality deterioration of berries, but also leads to
the total damage of berries and reduction of price. If the number of
holes per berry is more than two, it is considered as severe insect dam-
age and categorised as primary defect of coffee during raw quality evalu-
ation (Kosalos et al. 2004; ECX 2011). Feeding into beans (damage)
reduces yields (sometimes loss in overall yield), lowers quality of the
seed and can result in the abscission of the berry. According to Crowe
(2004), berries heavily damaged by CBB; when roasted, the beans are dis-
tinctly darker in colour than normal beans and show significant inci-
dence of off-flavours with predominantly bitter and tarry flavour. Also
cause the total loss of aroma, flavour and acidity, which generally create
high to very high negative effect on cup quality. Moreover, incur cost of
picking of insect attacked berries (more of borer damaged beans) and
other defect from the clean bean lots.
The highest number of damaged discoloured beans was observed on
fallen berries at high-altitude study site. The discolouration of damaged
fallen berries on ground might be related with absorption of moisture
from the ground, and thus resulted in decaying of fallen berries. In add-
ition, secondary infection of microorganism may enhance staining and
discolouration of damaged fallen berries on the ground. Similarly, light
grey colour was observed on damaged berry at all berry development
stage with high proportion on dried over-ripe berries at low- and high-
10 E. ASFAW ET AL.
altitude study areas on dried over-ripe berries. The high percentage of
damaged and discoloured berries at higher-altitude study sites and on
fallen berries may be due to absorption of moisture and secondary infec-
tion by microorganisms that contribute the decay and black staining of
CBB damaged berries. Cavaco-Bicho et al. (2008) reported that grain col-
our is an important criterion for its valorisation, acceptance or rejection.
Wrigley (1988) and CABI (2006) reported that coffee berries damaged by
the borer, even slightly bored beans, acquire a distinctive blue-green
staining, which significantly reduces their market value. Damaged berries
also affect cup quality attributed to their impact on the appearance of
roasted coffee beans and possible result in dirty, sour or moldy flavours,
especially if present in high quantity (Kosalos et al. 2004).
High number of CBB per damaged berry in over ripe and dried left-
over berries resulted in an increased of number of entrance holes into
berry, oviposition of more eggs and eventually an increased level of
infestation and damage of berries. In another study, Mendesil et al.
(2005) reported up to 55 adult CBB per damaged berries. Similarly Reid
(1983) recorded 2–55 adult borers per berry on fallen berries. Adult and
larval stage of the borer are known for their characteristic feeding and
making of galleries inside the bean that directly contribute to yield loss
due to the total damage caused to the beans (Vega et al. 2015,
Infante 2018).
The present study also showed high percentage of damaged berries in
plantation coffee than garden coffee production systems. It has been
noted that in the large-scale coffee plantation the presence of unpicked
berries on the tree and fallen berries on the ground, mainly due to large
farm size and shortage of labour, inadvertently served as a continuous
breeding site of the CBB and also source of infestation by CBB during
the subsequent production season. This corroborates earlier reports of
Mendesil et al. (2004) who observed high level of CBB infestation in
most of the large-scale coffee plantations than small-scale farmers’hold-
ings. High incidence of leftover berries in coffee plantations not only
contributed to CBB infestation on specific coffee farms, but also might
have enhance infestation in nearby gardens and the semi-forest coffee,
owing to the ability of adult female beetles to fly from one farm to the
other. In general regular and effective picking of coffee berries and
removing leftover berries from the tree and fallen berries from the
ground are important measures to break the life cycle of CBB and to
reduce the infestation.
In conclusion, CBB is more prevalent in coffee-growing areas located
at lower altitude mainly in plantation coffee production systems than
garden coffee. The high damage inflicted on dried over-ripe berries
ARCHIVES OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY AND PLANT PROTECTION 11
deserves timely and due attention, because such huge amount of damage
can cause direct loss in terms of yield and quality of harvestable coffee
berries. Therefore, proper harvesting at red ripe stage is important in
order to minimise the occurrences of CBB and increase the quality of
coffee berries. Furthermore, it is imperative to implement integrated pest
management strategy for control of CBB especially in lowland plantation
coffee production systems.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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