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La Revue pour les Étudiants en Technologie et Sciences
22
2018 — VO L 11 Nº 1
DOI: 10.13034/jsst.v11i1.294
A REVIEW OF THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF EUROPEAN COMMON REED (PHRAGMITES
AUSTRALIS) ON FISHES AND FISH HABITAT
IN NORTH AMERICA
Emillie Rose
Grade 12, Ridgetown District High School, Morpeth, Ontario
Abstract
The invasive European Common Reed (Phragmites australis), first established in North America
in the early 1900s, is now a dominant emergent aquatic plant in many coastal and inland wetlands.
We conducted a review of the literature to evaluate the extent of ecological impacts on fishes and their
habitat, including changes in the composition and abundance of native fishes and wetland plants,
and alterations to water availability and substrate. Our review indicated that a reduction in the
abundance of native fishes was found in 54.5% of the studies we evaluated. There were also impacts
to fish habitat documented in 54.5% of the studies. Many studies were conducted in the eastern and
northern United States, which showed that the abundance of juvenile and larval fishes was significantly
lower in marshes dominated by P. australis, relative to those dominated by native plant species
(Spartina alterniflora); however, changes to wetland plant abundance and composition, water availability,
water temperature, nutrient cycling, substrate, reproduction and spawning, and general food web
effects were also observed. These results indicate that P. australis poses numerous ecological impacts
to the structure and function of wetland habitats, with implications for the ongoing productivity of
aquatic ecosystems.
Le Roseau Commun Européen envahissant (Phragmites australis), établi en Amérique du Nord au début des
années 1900, est maintenant une plante aquatique émergente dominante dans nombreuses des zones humides
côtières et intérieures. Nous avons effectué une revue de la littérature pour évaluer l’étendue des impacts
écologiques sur les poissons et leur habitat, y compris les changements dans la composition et l’abondance
des poissons indigènes et des plantes de zones humides ainsi que les modifications de la disponibilité d’eau
et du substrat hydriques. Notre examen a révélé qu’une réduction de l’abondance des poissons indigènes a été
observée dans 54,54% des études évaluées. Il y avait aussi des impacts sur l’habitat des poissons documentés
dans 54,54% des études. De nombreuses études ont été menées dans l’est et le nord des États-Unis, montrant
que l’abondance des poissons juvéniles et larvaires était significativement plus bas dans les marais dominés par
P. australis relativement à ceux dominés par les espèces végétales indigènes (Spartina alterniflora); cependant,
des changements dans l’abondance et la composition des plantes de zones humides, la disponibilité de l’eau,
la température de l’eau, le cycle des nutriments, le substrat, la reproduction et le frai, et les effets du réseau
alimentaire généraux ont également été observés. Ces résultats indiquent que P. australis présente de nombreux
impacts écologiques sur la structure et la fonction des habitats de zones humides, avec des implications pour la
productivité continue des écosystèmes aquatiques.
Key Words
Phragmites; invasive; aquatic; fish; habitat
The Jou rnal of Stu dent Sc ience an d Technolog y
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Introduction
Ecosystems are increasingly connected as a
result of economic growth and changing patterns
of human movement. One consequence of
increased connectivity is the human-mediated
movement of species to regions where they are
not native (Mooney and Cleland, 2001). Human-
mediated movements can be intentional, such
as the movement and sale of species in the pet
trade (Smith et al., 2009), and unintentional,
such as the inadvertent movement of species
in ballast water (Ricciardi and MacIsaac, 2000).
Many species movements are benign because
the introduced species will be unable to survive
in the recipient environment; however, a subset
of species may become invasive by establishing
reproducing populations and posing strong
ecological, economic, and social consequences.
North American freshwater ecosystems have
hosted many invasive species. The invasion of
Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) into the upper
Great Lakes through the Welland Canal in the
1950s decimated commercially and recreationally
important sportfishes, and now requires a
12-million-dollar control program each year,
as set into place by the Great Lakes Fisheries
Commission (Christie and Goddard, 2003).
The invasion of Zebra Mussel in the mid 1980s
led to widespread foodweb changes, including
decreases in phytoplankton (Lavrentyev et al.,
1995), which were compounded by the arrival of
Round Goby, a small benthic fish which competes
with native fishes and preys upon molluscs
and the eggs of native and introduced fishes
(Chotkowski and Marsden, 1999). These are
a sample of the ecological impacts posed by
invasive species, which range from foodweb
changes (Lavrentyev et al., 1995) to competition
for suitable nesting habitats (Chotkowski and
Marsden, 1999), as well as other structural and
compositional changes to aquatic ecosystems.
Preventing the arrival, survival, and establishment
of invasive species through research and manage-
ment is critical to preserve ecosystems (Leung
et al., 2002). However, for species that have
already arrived and survived within a region,
invasive populations need to be managed (Leung
et al., 2002). In order to manage invasive species
proactively and in ways that preserve biodiversity
and ecosystem services, it is critical to understand
their ecological impacts in the invaded range.
European Common Reed (Phragmites australis)
is an emergent wetland plant that spread
throughout much of the Great Lakes region,
reducing biodiversity since its introduction in
the early 1900s (Wilcox et al., 2003). Its ability
to reproduce sexually and asexually has made
it a successful competitor and it has displaced
many marshland and wetland plants since its
establishment (Wilcox et al., 2003). As this
species spreads throughout the Great Lakes
region, it affects both aquatic plant and animal
populations by re-shaping physical habitat
availability and changing nutrient cycling
(Wilcox et al., 2003). Although P. australis
is believed to influence many wetland plants
and fishes directly and indirectly, insufficient
information exists on the impacts to freshwater
fishes and their habitat, making it difficult to
judge the past and future response of native
fishes to the ongoing invasion. More importantly,
a poor understanding of the impacts of P. australis
also makes it difficult to develop control programs
to address the key mechanisms of change.
A review of existing literature is essential for
describing the range and magnitude of impacts;
therefore, the goal of this review is to understand
the ecological impacts of European Common Reed
on fishes and their habitat in North America.
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DOI: 10.13034/jsst.v11i1.294
Materials and Methods
The goal of this review is to summarize the
ecological impacts of P. australis on fishes
and their habitat based on a synthesis of the
primary literature. To conduct the literature
review I used “Google Scholar” to search terms
limited to “phragmites”, “phragmites australis”,
“phragmites fish”, and “phragmites fish habitat”
to compile the initial set of papers to review.
I focused on papers that discussed ecological
aspects of P. australis in North America (Studies
in the native range of Southern Ontario
were excluded, as there is a native species of
Phragmites australis found here) (Wilcox et al.,
2003). Each article was assessed to determine
the possible impacts to fish and fish habitat
using the following impact classification scheme.
Fish habitat impacts included changes to:
native wetland plant abundance (i.e., the
abundance of individual species), native wetland
plant composition (i.e., the variety of species),
water availability, water temperature, water
chemistry (concentration of dissolved oxygen, etc.),
nutrients and nutrient cycling (which nutrients
are common in the aquatic habitat, and how they
are used), and substrate (condition of the benthic
depositional layer in wetlands). Changes to fishes
included: changes in native species abundance,
changes in native species composition, disruption
to reproduction/spawning, competition, predation,
genetic effects, changes in behaviour, and food
web changes. Impact categories were chosen
because they represent direct impacts to fish
populations (e.g., reductions in richness or
abundance) as well as indirect impacts to fish
populations through habitat alterations (e.g.,
nutrient cycling), and therefore encompass
ecological drivers that can change abundance
and composition of fish populations within the
Great Lakes.
When searching for papers concerning P. australis,
I limited my research to those from the year 2000
and forward, so that the information would be
relevant. I used a total of 34 papers to support my
research, some of which concerned other species
that P. australis has or may come into contact with.
During the review I recorded evidence of each
impact category, based on studies done within
the papers. I organized findings within an Excel
spreadsheet that listed each of the possible
impacts. This spreadsheet was organized with
rows as the range of possible impacts on fish
or fish habitat. Columns were labelled with
the identity of each paper (authors and titles).
This format allowed ecological impacts to
be summarized across the set of papers (e.g.,
10 papers discussed changes to the marsh food
web since the establishment of P. australis).
I then converted these numbers into percentages
so that the extent of each ecological impact was
known. Results were used to infer how P. australis
has and may continue to affect fish populations
and aquatic habitat in North America.
The Jou rnal of Stu dent Sc ience an d Technolog y
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Results
Overall Impacts:
European Common Reed has had many impacts
on native fish and fish habitats, the most common
being changes in the abundance of native fish
species (Figure 1). Lesser, but still prevalent
impacts include, but likely are not limited to,
impacts to native wetland plant abundance and
composition, water availability, water temperature,
water chemistry, nutrient cycling, substrate, native
species composition, reproduction and spawning,
and the overall food web (Figure 1) (Figure 2).
Of the papers reviewed, 50% showed impacts
to native plant abundance, while 54.5% showed
impacts to plant composition. Impacts to water
availability were studied in 18.2% of papers,
decreases in water temperature in 4.5%, changes
in water chemistry in 13.6%, changes in nutrient
cycling in 4.5%, and an altered substrate in
4.5% of papers. The most prevalent impact
(changes in fish species abundance) was found
in 54.5% of papers, fish species composition
in 36.4%, affects to fish reproduction and
spawning in 4.5%, genetic affects on fishes
in 4.5%, and changes to the marsh food web
were documented in 45.4% of papers.
Impacts to native fish species abundance:
Studies often displayed similar impacts to fish
species abundance based on the structure and
function of the wetland ecosystems surveyed.
A study in Hog Islands, New Jersey involved
sampling the number of eggs, larval fishes,
and juvenile fishes present in sites dominated
by Common Reed and Spartina alterniflora
(Able and Hagan, 2003). It was found that there
were more viable fish eggs within the Spartina
marsh, as well as a much higher abundance of
larval and juvenile fish, especially Mummichog
(Fundulus heteroclitus) (Able and Hagan, 2003).
Similar results were found in the Delaware Bay
estuary in which a significantly lower amount
of larval and juvenile Mummichog were found
within the Common Reed dominated marsh,
than within the Spartina dominated and restored
Spartina marshes. This was also shown in studies
done in the Hackensack Meadowlands in
New Jersey, and the Connecticut River.
Impacts to native plant abundance:
The presence of P. australis was shown to have
an effect on wetland plant abundance and
composition, as observed in the Hackensack
Meadowlands of New Jersey and other nearby
locations as well (Raichel et al., 2003). Studies
conducted within Alloway Creek, in the
Delaware Bay estuary and the Connecticut River
documented a decrease in water availability
in areas of marshes that were dominated by
Common Reed (Warren et al., 2001; Able et al.,
2003). This, in turn, also affected the abundance
of larval and juvenile fishes due to loss of rearing
habitat (Warren et al., 2001; Able et al., 2003).
The temperature of the water was also found to
be lower in marshes containing Common Reed,
as the reed often is found to cover the surface of
the water, preventing light and heat from entering
(Able et al., 2003).
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Type of Ecological Impact
Disruption to
reproduction/spawning
Competition
Changes in native species
composition
Changes in native species
abundance
Predation
Genetic effects
Change in behaviour
Food web changes
024681
01
2
Number of Papers Documenting Change
Figure 1: Summary of the ecological impacts of P. australis to native fishes in North America–
Count of the number of papers reviewed that document specific changes caused by P. australis,
to native fishes in North America (total of 34 papers reviewed).
Type of Ecological Impact
Water availability
(water depth of a wetland)
Water temperature
Native wetland
plant composition
(the variety of species)
Native wetland plant
abundance (total amount/
density of plants)
Water chemistry
(eg. dissolved
oxygen concentration)
Nutrients and
nutrient cycling
Substrate
024681
01
2
Number of Papers Documenting Change
Figure 2: Summary of the ecological impacts of P. australis to fish habitat in North America–
Count of the number of papers reviewed that document specific changes caused by P. australis,
to fish habitats in North America (total of 34 papers reviewed)
The Jou rnal of Stu dent Sc ience an d Technolog y
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Other Impacts:
The water chemistry and nutrient cycling were
found to change in marshes containing P. australis
as opposed to those containing S. alternifolia,
characterized by decreases in nitrogen and
increases in sulfur (Weinstein, 2009). The sedi-
mentation of marsh substrates also increased,
while soil salinities were lower, compared to
marshes that did not contain Common Reed
(Warren et al., 2001; Weinstein et al., 2009).
The richness of native species in Common Reed
dominated marshes was reduced, as there were
observed to be less fish species, avian species,
and muskrats within 13 U.S. states studied (Kiviat,
2013). It was also found that there were less
fiddler crabs in these marshes (Fell et al., 2003).
However, in the Connecticut River, samples showed
that there was an increase in shrimp species within
the Common Reed marshes (Fell et al., 2003).
There was found to be a disruption to spawning in
these marshes, as nekton were not able to access
areas of the marsh that had become overly dense,
where they would usually be able to lay their eggs
(Weinstein and Balletto, 1999). The overall food
web in infected marshes was greatly impacted as
compositions and abundances of species declined,
as seen in the Hackensack Meadowlands where
there was a large decline in the availability of prey
for larval and juvenile fishes (Raichel et al., 2003).
There was one study that suggested that
Common Reed could have an affect on the
genetics of native species, but not enough
evidence was given to support this.
Discussion
A review of the existing literature on the impacts
of the invasion of European Common Reed
indicated that the most common impact was
a reduction of the abundance of native fishes,
especially Mummichog in eastern North America.
Other documented impacts included a decrease in
native wetland plant abundance and composition,
lowered water availability, a decrease in water
temperature, a change in water chemistry and
nutrient cycling, altered substrate, a decrease
in native species composition, effects to fish
reproduction and spawning, and changes in the
overall food web as species become more or less
abundant in the invaded habitat. These ecological
impacts suggest that P. australis has a measurable
and diverse effect on its invaded ecosystems.
The invasion of P. australis had impacts on a
range of species and functions, some being more
affected than others. The Mummichog killifish
had the most noted reaction to the establishment
of Common Reed, as the abundance of larval
and juvenile Mummichog decreased greatly.
These observations occurred through the eastern
and northern states of the U.S. Within the Great
Lakes basin there are two species of fish in the
same genus as the Mummichog that may be
expected to have similar ecological responses.
Banded Killifish (Fundulus diaphanus) can be
found in habitats similar to Mummichog, (Fritz
and Garside, 1975) and the Blackstripe Topminnow
(Fundulus notatus), which is a species listed under
the federal Species at Risk Act, is also found in
streams in which Common Reed may or may
have already invaded (Welsh et al., 2013). Both of
these species could be expected to experience
similar declines in larval and juvenile abundance as
Mummichog, in a case of P. australis introduction,
due to similar life history. The Banded Killifish
and other small fishes often stay in shallow water
year-round (Lane et al., 1996). If Common Reed
invades the rivers and lakes that these fishes are
established within, there is a chance that the
Banded Killifish and Blackstripe Topminnow
would be negatively affected (Lane et al., 1996).
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As Common Reed spreads through new
wetlands, it replaces native plants along the way,
lowering their abundance and reducing richness
(Raichel et al., 2003). The lowered diversity of
native plants can impact fishes and other native
wetland species that use these plants as
habitat or spawning grounds. It is harder for
reproduction to take place as larger areas of
water are reduced to shallow puddles (Able et al.,
2003). Common Reed falls over onto the water
surface, reducing light availability and lowering
the temperature of the water in the infected
areas (Able et al., 2003). This creates a problem
as Common Reed often grows as a monoculture,
and the stems are taller than those of native
species, which causes them to block openings
to water bodies (Able et al., 2003). The fallen
plants also reduce the flow and availability of
the water in creeks and rivers, making it difficult
for nutrients to travel to different parts of the
wetlands, and creating less habitat space for
larval and juvenile species within these water
bodies (Warren et al., 2001; Able et al., 2003).
It was also found that the levels of nitrogen
had decreased within marshes dominated by
Common Reed, while levels of sulfur had increased
(Weinstein et al., 2009). Thus the native wetland
plants are also affected by the lowered soil salinity
(Warren et al., 2001) and increased sedimentation
(Able et al., 2003).
The composition of native wetland species has
changed in wetlands where the Common Reed
has become more dominant (Raichel et al., 2003).
There has been a lower abundance of insects
that are most often prey for larval and juvenile
fish, making it more difficult for these fish to
survive in a Common Reed dominated wetland,
as surveyed in the Hackensack Meadowlands of
New Jersey (Raichel et al., 2003). There was also
a lower abundance of fiddler crabs (Uca sp.)
which can result in less prey for some species,
and an increase in the species previously preyed
upon by the crabs (Fell et al., 2003). There was a
higher abundance of shrimp species documented
in these marshes as well, which could compete
with native species for the limited prey available
(Fell et al., 2003). Less avian species were found
using these marshes which could be caused by the
lack of available surface water and could cause
the prey of these species to grow less in number
(Raichel et al., 2003).
The invasive cattail hybrid (Typha x glauca)
has been documented to replace the native
broadleaf cattail (Typha latifolia) and the non-
native, but also non-harmful narrow-leaved cattail
(Typha angustifolia), in coastal marshes around
the Great Lakes (Farrer and Goldberg, 2009).
However, Common Reed has been documented
to replace this cattail hybrid and could therefore
be expected to change many areas used as fish
habitat, as native cattail species grow in areas
with little plant litter (Bellavance and Brisson,
2010), while the stems of Common Reed often
fall over, creating large amounts of litter built up
on the water surface (Able et al., 2003).
Conclusion
This review of literature pertaining to the
impacts of the invasive European Common Reed
(Phragmites australis) documented negative
effects on native fish and fish habitat. The most
common impacts were decreased abundance
of native fishes. Common Reed also lowered
the abundance and richness of native wetland
plants, decreased water availability, lowered water
temperatures, altered water chemistry and nutrient
cycling, affected wetland substrate, decreased the
composition of native wetland fishes and other
species, altered fish reproduction and spawning,
and affected the overall food web. These results
provide critical information on how European
Common Reed impacts the environments that
it invades. Although the ecological impacts of
invasive species are usually context dependent,
the common impacts documented throughout
the invaded range indicates that similar impacts
may be expected throughout the Great Lakes
basin as the species expands its range within
coastal wetlands.
The Jou rnal of Stu dent Sc ience an d Technolog y
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Abbreviations
Abbreviation Full Form
P. australis Phragmites australis
Acknowledgements
This paper was made possible through the
guidance and expertise of Dr. Andrew Drake
(Fisheries and Oceans Canada), who offered
insight and constructive criticism to help shape
this paper. He used his own knowledge and
experience to edit this paper and offer advice
on how and why to improve things. He put
in countless hours to discuss the progress
of the paper and to offer challenges, such as
questioning why the results found are the way
that they are, and what can be done about
these results in the future.
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