CISTANCHE TUBLULOSA COULD BE CONSIDERED AS MEDICINAL PLANT IN HALOPHYTES FARMING Complimentary Contributor Copy

Abstract

Cistanche spp., as a haloparisite and perennial herb, is distributed in
different soil types of tropical and subtropical areas of Iran in central up to
south parts of the country. In arid and semi-arid areas of Iran, seven
Cistanche species have been identified as C. ambigue, C. fissa, C. flava, C.
laxiflora, C. ridgewayana, C. salsa, and C. tubulosa. Among these species,
the C. tublosa is very important and is widely distributed as haloparasite
on different species of genera including Zygophyllum, Haloxylon,
Calligonum, Prosopis, Pteropyrum, Tamarix, Seidlitzia, and Alhaji. In
Iran, there is no report for using Cistanche as a medicinal crop, but in the
northwest China and Mongolia, they grow Cistanche for commercial use
where the rainfall is lower than 250 mm. Among the tonic, Chinese
medicine, Cistanche is widely accepted as superior and has been given the
name of Gineseng of the desert. The most popular Cistanche species are C.
tubulosa, C. salsa and C. deserticola. Cistanche is rich in minerals,
echinacoside, acteoside, and phenylethanoid glycoside. This haloparasite
is an anti-aging medicinal crop, improves the immune system, kidney and
skeletal function, and has positive impacts on male hormone and improves
the reproductive function in women. Furthermore, Citanche improves brain
functioning and increases fat metabolism. Cistanche species have been
reported as endangered species because of decreasing host plant. In
southern parts of Iran for combating dust storm, people have started
growing halophyte plants and trees such as Tamarix with drainage water.
C. tubulosa which is collected from the central plateau of Iran has shown
a high amount of K, Mg, S, Ca and P and antioxidant capacity as well as
six important phenylethanoid glycoside substrates. Cistanche could be
recommended to improve the economy of the area and employment, which
can also encourage the local people to plant more trees and protect them.

Full text

In: Halophytes ISBN: 978-1-53614-707-0
Editor: Rolando Tucker © 2019 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 6
CISTANCHE TUBLULOSA COULD BE
CONSIDERED AS MEDICINAL PLANT
IN HALOPHYTES FARMING
M. Salehi1,*, PhD, S. H. Esmailzadeh2, PhD,
S. Ahmadi Ghasem Kheyli3,
A. Fazeltabar Malekshah4, PhD and M. Zaroudi5
1National Salinity Research Center, Agricultural Research,
Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Yazd, Iran
2Plant Protection Research Department, Yazd Agricultural and
Natural Resources Research and Education Center, AREEO, Yazd, Iran
3Fanavaran Giyah Gostar Kimiya Company,
Tabarestan Technology Incubator, Sari Agricultural Sciences
and Natural Resources University, Sari, Iran
4Mazandarn University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
Tehran University of Medical Sciences,
Digestive Disorder Research Institute, Tehran, Iran
5Mazandarn University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
Student Research Committee, Faculty of Public Health Branch,
Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
Corresponding Author Email: *salehimasomeh@gmail.com.
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M. Salehi, S. H. Esmailzadeh, S. Ahmadi Ghasem Kheyli et al.
194
ABSTRACT
Cistanche spp., as a haloparisite and perennial herb, is distributed in
different soil types of tropical and subtropical areas of Iran in central up to
south parts of the country. In arid and semi-arid areas of Iran, seven
Cistanche species have been identified as C. ambigue, C. fissa, C. flava, C.
laxiflora, C. ridgewayana, C. salsa, and C. tubulosa. Among these species,
the C. tublosa is very important and is widely distributed as haloparasite
on different species of genera including Zygophyllum, Haloxylon,
Calligonum, Prosopis, Pteropyrum, Tamarix, Seidlitzia, and Alhaji. In
Iran, there is no report for using Cistanche as a medicinal crop, but in the
northwest China and Mongolia, they grow Cistanche for commercial use
where the rainfall is lower than 250 mm. Among the tonic, Chinese
medicine, Cistanche is widely accepted as superior and has been given the
name of Gineseng of the desert. The most popular Cistanche species are C.
tubulosa, C. salsa and C. deserticola. Cistanche is rich in minerals,
echinacoside, acteoside, and phenylethanoid glycoside. This haloparasite
is an anti-aging medicinal crop, improves the immune system, kidney and
skeletal function, and has positive impacts on male hormone and improves
the reproductive function in women. Furthermore, Citanche improves brain
functioning and increases fat metabolism. Cistanche species have been
reported as endangered species because of decreasing host plant. In
southern parts of Iran for combating dust storm, people have started
growing halophyte plants and trees such as Tamarix with drainage water.
C. tubulosa which is collected from the central plateau of Iran has shown
a high amount of K, Mg, S, Ca and P and antioxidant capacity as well as
six important phenylethanoid glycoside substrates. Cistanche could be
recommended to improve the economy of the area and employment, which
can also encourage the local people to plant more trees and protect them.
Keywords: cistanche, medicinal plant, saline soil, Iran
1. INTRODUCTION
Halophytes are plant types that survive and reproduce under saline
conditions above 200 mM (Gul et al., 2014). The important feature which
gives them the survival capacity under saline conditions is their ability and
capacity to minimize the sodium impact and other harmful ions (Gul et al.,
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2014). The control mechanisms in plants for maintaining a constant level of
sodium ion concentration in cell-sap of plant tissues include the
compartmentation of salt inside the plant, tissue, and cells, and the re-
translocation of salt to roots and the recreation by roots, the disposal of older
plant parts, the recreation by gland-like structures on shoots, the growth of
salt resistance of tissue, cells and organelles, the increase in leaf or stem
succulence and the reduction of leaves (Breckle, 1986). In saline ecosystems
under high salinity, the stem succulents have greater tolerance than leaf-
succulents while recreators are less tolerant (Breckle, 1986). Among
different types of halophytes in Iran, 38% belong to Chenopodiaceae, 9.6%
to Poaceae, 7.9% to Tamaricaceae and 6.4% to Asteraceae families. Akani
(2006) reported two parasitic species from Cistanche and Cynomorium
coccineum families. Cistanche is a parasite of Tamarix and Seidlitzia root,
and Atriplex verrucifere and Haloxylon persicum are the hosts of
Cynomorium. Both of them are reported to be useful medicinal plants (El‐
Rahman, El‐Badry, Mahmoud, & Harraz, 1999; Li, Lin, Gu, Gao, & Tzeng,
2016; Rosa et al., 2015). About 1% of the flowering plants are parasitic in
nature (Press & Phoenix, 2005) which have received little attention in
Middle East and North Africa. In Iran and Pakistan, a research was
conducted on holoparasitic plants (Ihsan & Zafar, 2010; Saeidi & Shahi,
2008). Cistanche with 22 species belongs to Orobanchacea family
distributed in the arid and semi-arid regions of the northern hemisphere. The
Cistanche is a perennial haloparasite which attaches to the roots of
Haloxylon ammadenderon, Tamarix, Calligonum, Zygophyllum, Prosopis,
Alhaji, Seidlitzia, Artemisia, Anabasis, Petropyrum, and Suaeda based on
the different species. Cistanche has no chloroplasts or roots, and thus it is
not photosynthetic (Saeidi & Shahi, 2008). It survives by absorbing nutrients
from the roots of plants and is naturally enabled to survive in the desert
environment. Among Cistanche species, C. deserticola has been recorded in
Chinese pharmacopoeia, which which in 2005, C. tubulosa was also added
(Wang, Zhang, & Xie, 2012). Most people in the Hotan region of China
consume Cistanche daily with tea, which has increased the life expectancy
in the area and is referred as the desert ginseng (Li et al., 2016).
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196
1.1. Botany and Cistanche Species
1.1.1. Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk) Wight
This plant is a perennial parasitic herb with 60-100 cm height, non-
fluffy, with the thickness of its shoot base rising up to 4 cm or more,
overlapped scales, wide bayonet, upper scales length of up to 3 cm, spike
length up to 50 cm, leaflet about the same size of calyx or taller, no fluffy,
leaflets shorter than calyx, calyx lobes more or less equal, rectangular,
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1. C. tubulosa at flowering (a) and seed formation stage (b) and seeds (c).
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tipped, membrane at the edge, yellowish corolla, sometimes with purple
veins, 35-45 mm long, 2-3 times taller than flower calyx, funnel-shaped,
widespread in upper part, curved outward or knee-length, round upper and
lateral lobes. Parasitic roots are attached to the lateral parts and apex of the
host plant (Figure 1b). The seeds are black with ovoid, ellipsoid or different
shape, and the surface is like honeycomb (Figure 1c).
1.1.2. Cistanche salsa
It is a perennial parasitic herb up to 30 cm high, with wooly feel fluff,
sometimes without fluff, with bayonet rectangular scales. The spike length
is about 8-15 cm.
The bract is taller than the calyx of flowers especially on the edge with
dense white wooly fluff, massive wooly leaflets equal to the size of the calyx
of flowers or slightly higher than that. Calyx-like cup, without fluff or felt
fluff, divided lobes up to half, sometimes one lobe is very small, and lobes
are oval to semi-circular, irregular shoemaker, without fluffy or wooly feel.
Flower corolla with 25-35 mm in length, about 2.5 times of calyx, tubular
cup, slightly curved, white tubing, without fluffy, purple petals, semi-
circular lobes.
1.2. Cistanche Pattern in the World and Iran
Genus of Cistanche shows strong resistance to harsh environmental
condition distributed in arid and semi-arid areas throughout Algeria, Egypt,
Saudi Arabia, Georgia, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Tajikistan, north
of China, and Mongolia (Figure 2).
C. tubulosa parasitizes several kinds of Tamarix and has a wide range
of host plant, which is distributed from north up to the south of Iran (Figure
3). This species is adapted to different ecological conditions such as dry
habitats, sea coasts, and sand dunes with sufficient water supply and prefers
clay, gypsum, and salty soils. The host plants of C. tubulosa include
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198
Zygophyllum, Haloxylon, Calliganum, Prosopis, Tamarix, and Seidlitzia
(Saeidi & Shahi, 2008). Alhaji is reported as a host of C. tubulosa in Jordan
and Near East as well as C. armena in Armenia (Piwowarczyk et al., 2017).
In Yazd, Alhaji has been observed as a host plant of C. tubulosa (Figure 4).
This species has been observed from 2600 m altitude above sea level with
annual rainfall of 40-550 mm as well as maximum and minimum
temperatures are 41 and -1°C, respectively. The highest differences between
day and night temperature were observed in Bafgh (Central desert) with
31.6°C in March and April, while the lowest value was found in Bushehr
(South) with 21.8°C. The absolute and average lowest temperatures in
January were observed in Kerman, Bojnord, and Damavand with -11°C and
-1°C, respectively. The highest temperature in this month was observed in a
coastal area (Bandar Lengeh) with 10°C and 19°C for the absolute and
average temperatures, respectively. The mean temperature during winter of
this species in January was -1 up to 19°C. Also, the minimum and maximum
temperatures during seed formation were 22-45°C. Seeds of C. deserticola
need stratification at 5°C for 6 months, during which the embryos of fresh
seeds increase to a critical length (0.44 mm) without differentiation into
organs prior to seed germination (Wang et al., 2017). Wang et al. (2017)
recommended to put the seed on the soil surface during winter in the natural
habitat. The comparison of the temperature of natural habitat of C. tubulosa
indicated that germination and seed dormancy of this species could be
different from those of C. deserticola or vary among ecotypes from different
locations.
Figure 2. Distribution of genus of Cistanche in the world (Wang et al., 2012).
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Figure 3. Distribution of different species of Cistanche in Iran.
C. salsa is the parasite of Calliganum, Salsola, Nitraria, and Kalidium
spp. It is similar to C. deserticola in drug effect, but the size of the plant is
smaller (Xu et al., 2009). C. salsa was observed at higher latitudes from 33°
up to 38° with 900-1900 m elevation. The rainfall was 131 up to 543 mm
with 22 and 24°C differences between day and night temperature in March
and April. During seed formation, the maximum and minimum temperatures
were 34°C and 3°C. During winter, the average temperature of 3-5 months
was around 5°C.
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Figure 4. Alhaji as host plant of C. tubulosa in Yazd.
C. falva is the parasite of Calliganum, Sueada, and Alhaji and is
observed at 50-1500 m with 100-280 mm rainfall and minimum and
maximum temperatures of -2 and 32°C.
C. laxiflora is the parasite of Petropyrum and Seidlitzia and is observed
at 2-2400 m with 40-400 mm rainfall and temperature of 0-40°C. This
species is adapted to non-saline conditions and observed in saline conditions
(Saeidi & Shahi, 2008).
C. ambigua is the parasite of Anabasis and is observed at 900- 1900 mm
rainfall with 90- 700 m elevation above sea level and -1 and 32°C minimum
and maximum temperatures. This species is synonym of C. eremodoxa and
has been found in Khorasan provinces of Iran.
C. ridgewayana is the parasite of Tamarix and is observed at 260-1900
m with 40-400 mm rainfall. It is distributed from north up to the south of
Iran under different climate conditions.
C. fissa is the parasite of Artemisia and was recorded in only one
province with 100-230 mm rainfall and 900-1300 mm elevation and
35°-36° latitude.
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Table 1. Min, Max and rainfall of different species of Cistanche
and latitude, longitude, elevation and host plant
Species
Min Temperature
Max
Temperature
Rainfall
Latitude
Longitude
Elevation
(m)
Host Plants
C. tubulosa
-1
41
40 -550
26° 14 -
37° 43’
45°46’ -
62° 00’
1 - 2600
Zygophyllum,
Haloxylon,
Calliganum, Prosopis,
Tamarix, Alhaji,
Seidlitzia
C. flava
-2
32
100 - 280
36°26’ -
40°20’
49°47’ -
59°41’
50 - 1500
Calliganum, Sueada,
Alhaji
C. laxiflora
0
40
40 - 400
25°28’-
35°50’
49° 9’ -
60°26’
2 - 2400
Petropyrum, Seidlitzia
C. ambigua
-1
32
90 - 700
33°11’ -
36°42’
50°38’ -
54°48’
900 - 1900
Anabasis
C. salsa
-1
32
90 - 550
33° 2’ -
38°54’
45°47’-
55° 1’
900 - 2800
Calliganum
C. ridgewayana
0
40
40 - 400
28°39’-
36°47’
49° 8’ -
60° 7’
260 - 1900
Tamarix
C. fissa
1
32
100 - 230
35°46’ -
36°24’
55° 1’ -
56°35’
900 - 1300
Artemisia
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Among Cistanche species of Iran, C. tubulosa has a broad range of host
plants and a wide range of adaptation to harsh environments from hot to cold
conditions and from sea coasts of up to 2600 m elevation. In addition, in
natural habitats, cold requirement for seed stratification of C. tubulosa is
greater than C. salsa and C. deserticola especially in coastal areas and south
of Iran. The seed germination requirements of C. tubulosa from different
climate conditions of Iran should be evaluated.
1.3. Medicinal Value
The major active component of Cistanche includes the phenylethanoid
glycosides (PhGs) such as Verbascoside and echinacoside which stimulate
the production of nerve growth, responsible for the regulation of mental
capacity (Choi et al., 2011). PhGs are valuable groups in natural products
which exhibit a broad array of pharmacological activities including anti-
bacterial, anti-viral, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective,
antioxidative and hepatoprotective effects (Wang et al., 2012), with
polysaccharides being responsible for improving the body immunity (Wang
et al., 2012). Cistanche has scavenging effects which accelerate radicals’
ageing, with the antioxidant activity of acteoside being five times greater
than that of Vitamin C (Chiou, Lin, & Chen, 2004). Phenylethanoid
glycosides increase sexual activity and improve female fertility and male
hormone production through enzymatic action (Z. Li et al., 2016). The active
glycoside in the herb Cistanche mitigates arthritis (Fuxiang, 2006). Also, the
glycoside eliminates the excess lactic acid from muscles, thereby reducing
their fatigue. C. tubulosa increases the rate of lipid metabolism which has a
significant effect on reducing blood cholesterol (Shimoda et al., 2009).
Tubuloside B with neuroprotective functions is useful against neuro-
degenerative diseases (Deng et al., 2004).
1.4. Chinese Experience in Production of Cistanche
Cultivating Cistanche on a large scale is hard since both the host and
parasite plants are perennial. However, over the past few decades, several
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big plantations have been developed on great areas in desert region in
northwestern China. In china, Haloxylon ammodendron is cultivated in the
desert of Mongolia over 100,000 ha and inoculated C. deserticola on 20,000
ha. The Chinese have also cultivated Tamarix in China over 26,000 ha and
inoculated C. tubulosa on 20,000 ha. This project creates new models of
sustainable desert conservation, and this plant is considered for
greenification of desert to combat the global warming (Yang, 2009). Inner
Mongolia is the top native producing area of the species, and the annual
production is about 70 tons. Also, in the northern part of Xinjiang in China,
the annual output is 50 tons. The annual production of Cistanche has been
450-550 tons, with 120 tons annually exported to Hong Kong and Japan
(Dharmananda, 2004).
1.5. Germination and Establishment
Mature seeds of C. deserticola contain a globular embryo which is
undifferentiated (Ma et al., 2014). The seeds have a special kind of
morphological dormancy. The small embryo needs to grow to a critical
length (0.44 mm) before the seed can germinate. This kind of dormancy is
broken by cold stratification. The seeds have to be exposed to a period of
low temperature during the winter. Physiological dormancy should be
released before the germ tube emerges from the seeds and chemical
stimulant needs to germinate. This stimulant is naturally produced by the
host plant. In laboratory, the Flouridin and Gebriline with 10-5 M
concentration at 30/20°C induced germination after 12 weeks. Qiao, Wang,
and Guo (2007) showed that the critical amount of salt for C. tubulosa and
C. deserticola is 4 mM, and it is 2 mM for C. salsa. The seed size should
also be larger than 0.6 mm. Wang et al., (2017) proposed three stages for the
germination of C. deserticola
1. The growth of embryo inside the seed via cell elongation;
2. Further elongation of embryo and splitting of seed coat;
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3. The emergence of germ tube from seed and seedling formation.
Then, the seedling grows into the host plant by about 0.5 m.
1.6. Harvesting and Post Harvesting Processing
The succulent stem of Cistanche herb is collected during spring and is
dried for medicinal use. It is collected in spring when the sprouts have not
come out of the ground or just come out (Xu et al., 2009). The stems are
collected in spring and sometimes in autumn when cracks can be found on
the ground caused by the growth of C. deserticola. The inflorescences are
removed to prevent transformation of active component to inflorescences. If
the parasitic root is well protected once the fleshy stem dug out and with a
small part left on the parasitic root, new shoots of C. deserticola can be
produced via vegetative propagation. After harvesting, the stem is cut into
slices and exported as prepared formulas, with the on-farm fresh stem yield
being 0.2-2.2 t ha-1.
Seeds of C. deserticola are harvested when the capsules turn brown. The
inflorescences with nearly ripe seeds are collected and dried under the sun
in order to cause the seeds to be expelled out of the capsules. The seeds can
be kept refrigerated for several years, while the germination rates remain
high. The seed yield is 0.8-10 Kg ha-1 (Xu et al., 2009).
After harvesting, the raw stems must be dried to prevent nutrient content
loss and spoilage. Fresh stems usually contain 75-85% water, and the water
level should be lowered to below 10% (Peng, Chen, et al., 2016). In
Cistanche production area, the whole stems are dried in open fields for two
months. Then, they are transported to the factory for washing, slicing, and
drying (Peng, Chen, et al., 2016). Steaming is one of the traditional
processing approaches for some Chinese medicinal herbs, which give a
black color to the herbs. The use of steaming or blanching on fresh-cut of C.
deserticola has also been reported to enhance the echinacoside and acteoside
contents (Peng, Chen, et al., 2016). Peng, Chen, et al., (2016) evaluated
steaming method and sun drying method for Cistanche and reported that the
PhG content in the sun drying method fluctuated since its level is sensitive
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to high temperatures. The enzyme activity during sun drying method
converted sugar to PhG, with the magnitude of conversion affected by the
sun temperature. Steaming method enhanced PhG and soluble sugar in dried
stems of C. deserticola by 26 and 38%. During the steaming method, the
enzymes are inactivated causing stopped conversion of soluble sugar to PhG
and stopped fluctuation of PhG and DPPH during drying process .In
steaming method amount of soluble sugar, polysaccharides, dilute ethanol
extract and water soluble extract were higher than other method of drying
(Peng, Chen, et al., 2016). The content of PhG rose sharply when the fresh
samples were treated with high temperature and drying. One possible reason
could be the degradation of PhG by peroxidase and B-Glucoside (Peng,
Chen, et al., 2016). The best method for post-harvest processing of Cistanche
is that after harvesting the stem should be washed with water and stem is
sliced into 2-4 mm sizes. Then, the sliced stems are steamed for 5-7 minutes
at 93°C and oven dried at 60°C for 5-10 h. The final humidity of the stem
should be less than 13% (Peng, Chen, et al., 2016; Peng, Xu, et al., 2016).
1.7. Uses
The dried stem of C. deserticola has been traditionally used in China for
almost 1800 years. Several kinds of wine and tea production from Cistanche
have been found in the market. At present, consisting of C. deserticola cover
tablets, pills, powders, capsules and oral liquid as tonifying kidney, loins and
knees, fatigue, hypomnesia, strengthening brain and mental capacity,
benefiting spleen and stomach, tranquilization, and liver-kidney deficiency.
The medicinal name of the drug was reported in Wang et al. (2012).
2. MEDICINAL VALUE OF CISTANCHE IN IRAN
2.1. Materials and Methods
2.1.1. Plant Material Collection
C. tubulosa was collected from Yazd in Central plateau of Iran. The soils
of this region are moderate to heavy texture and saline, ground water sources
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are very salty. Framers grow Tamarix as wind break around Pistachio
Orchard. The host of the C. tubulosa in this site was Alhaji, Tamarix and
Seidlitzia. The studied area is 53° 10’ longitude and 32° 28’ latitudes and
elevation from sea level is 1036 meters with a rainfall of 61 mm and 2789
mm evapotranspiration. The mean temperature of warmest month of the year
is 32°C and the coldest month of the year is 6°C. Geologically, the region is
from Precambrian Period to the Quaternary. The Desert Chah Afzal in the
past was a lake that has dried up due to severe evaporation and become
desert. In this region Tamarix and Haloxylon cultivated in 3000 hectares by
government support for greenification. Twelve Cistanche tubulosa without
inflorescence removed from the soil. Fleshy stem were washed with tap
water and cleaned. Then cut into small pieces and dried in an oven with 50°C
temperature during 7 days.
2.1.2. Proximate Composition Analysis
The percentage of dry matter and moisture content of the sample was
determined by weighing a certain weight of the sample and placing it in the
oven until a constant weight was reached. To determine the ash content, 2 g
of weighed sample was heated at 550°C for 5 hours in an electric oven to
reach a gray and white carbon-free ash. The oil content in 2 g of sample was
determined using a Soxhlet extractor and petroleum ether solvent at the
boiling temperature and 4 hours fat extraction time. The total protein content
of 2 g sample was measured using digesting, distilling, collecting and
Kjeldahl titration and using a coefficient of 6.25 to convert the percent of
nitrogen to protein. The sample content crude fiber determination was
conducted using alkaline acid digestion method. All tests were done in two
replications. The total carbohydrate percentage was obtained according to
the following equation after the above measurements.
Total carbohydrate percentage = 100- (Ash percentage + protein
percentage + moisture content +Fat percentage).
2.1.3. Mineral Analysis
Sample elements were analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma
(ICP) spectroscopy integrated with mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). At first,
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0.25 g of each plant sample was placed in a microwave oven, and 3 ml of
nitric acid of analytical grades and 1 ml of hydrogen peroxide were added to
the sample. After the initial reactions, microwave cell cap was placed and
the sample was dissolved according to the thermal program. Upon the
completion of the dissolution and cooling of the cell, the obtained solution
reached 25 ml using ion-free water. Using the HP Agilent 4500 Series
ICP/MS apparatus and standard solutions, sample was counted for their
building block elements. The standard solvent concentrations range from 0.1
ppb to 100 ppm. All tests were done in two replications. The analysis
conditions were set as follows:
Power: 1000 watts, Plasma flow: 15 (l/min), Aux: 0.8 (l/min), Nebulizer:
0.75 (l/min), Nebulizer type: Cross flow, Spray chamber: Scott, Integration
time: .1 second.
2.1.4. Determination of Phenylethanoid Glycosides
2.1.4.1. Sample Extraction
The powdered plant (33 g) was mixed with 70% ethanol (50 cc). The
mixture was subjected to extraction at 30°C for 5 hours under stirrer
conditions. The extract was filtered with Whatman No. 42 filter paper to
separate the biomass. The extraction juice passed through 0.45 µm filter
membrane.
2.1.4.2. LC -Mass Analysis
Bioactive compound in plant extraction were determined by LC- Mass
technique. The analysis conditions were set as follows:
 LC condition:
o HPLC Agilent model 1200
o Column: Eclipse XDB – C18 (15 cm, 3.5µm)
o Column temperature: 25°C
o Mobile phase: A = Water + 0.1% acetic acid
o B = Acetonitrile + 0.1% acetic acid
o Flow rate: 0.3 ml/min
o Injection volumes: 10µL
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Time (mine)
B%
Flow
0
10
0.3
80
55
0.3
100
55
0.3
 MS condition:
o Mode: negative ESI using the Agilent G6410
o Triple Quadrupole Mass spectrometer
o Nebulizer: 15 psi
o Drying gas flow: 6 ml/min
o V capillary: 4000V
o Drying gas temperature: 300°C
o Dwell time: 500msec
o Fragmentor: 135.
2.1.4.3. Antioxidant Activity
The herbal extracts were dried in oven, and then solutions of sample (50,
100, 200, 400, 800 ppm) were prepared. DPPH radical scavenging assay was
determined using DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl 1-picryl hydrazyl) radical.
2.1.4.4. Results
Amount of fat content of C. tubulosa is low but protein content was
9.8% and ash content is 6.3%. Fahmy (2013) reported 11.92% of ash in tuber
stem of C. phelypaea. C. tubulosa had 72.64% carbohydrate content
(Table 2).
Evaluation of 48 elements in C. tubulosa showed that Na, K, Mg, S, Ca,
P and Fe is the dominant elements in stem. Zheng and Du (2011) evaluated
minerals content of C. deserticola at different growth stage and the
proportion of K: Na: P: Ca: Mg was 12: 3.4: 1.6: 1.4: 1 at succulent stem
stage and Fe content was the highest and can reach to 97.31 µg g-1. Amount
of Fe in C. philypaea reported 8.04 ppm (Elwakil et al., 2016) but in C.
tubulosa was 142 ppm in this stage (Table 3). K/Na ratio was 0.49 but in C.
phelypaea was 8. K content ratio to Mg, S, Ca, P, and Fe in C. tubulosa were
7.7, 10.0, 15.65, 36.15 and 186.35 (Table 3).
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Table 2. The biochemical analysis of C. tubulosa
Sample
%
Method
Fat
0.76
AOAC, 1990
Protein
9.8
AOAC, 1990
Moisture
4.8
AOAC, 1990
Fiber
5.7
AOAC, 1990
Ash
6.3
AOAC, 1990
Carbohydrates
72.64
Table 3. Elements analyses results in Cistanche tubulos
Element
ppm
Element
ppm
Element
ppm
Element
ppm
Element
ppm
Ag
0.016
Cs
<
Mg
3434
Sb
<
U
0.013
Al
69
Cu
<
Mn
16
Sc
<
V
0.203
As
0.328
Dy
<
Mo
<
Se
<
W
<
Ba
<
Eu
<
Na
53135
Si
<
Y
0.031
Be
<
Fe
142
Nb
<
Sm
<
Yb
<
Bi
<
Gd
0.012
Nd
0.033
Sn
<
Zn
0.49
Ca
1690
Hg
<
Ni
3.274
Sr
30
Cd
<
In
<
P
732
Tb
<
Ce
0.063
K
26462
Pb
0.853
Th
<
Co
0.363
La
0.01
Pr
<
Ti
1
Cr
0.404
Li
22.847
S
2629
Tl
<
In dry succulent stem of C. tubulosa by HPLC/MS analysis six
phenylethanoid glycosides (Acteoside, Cistanoside A, isoacetoside,
Echinacoside, 2-Acetylacteoside, Tubuloside B) identified. In Cistanche
salsa the main components was echinacoside (1097.9 mg 100 g-1)
(Kartbaeva, Sakipova, Ibragimova, Kapsalyamova, & Ternynko, 2015). In
C. deserticola, C. salsa and, C. sinesis phenylethanoid glycosides (PhGs)
reported in which echinocoside and acteoside are the major components.
PhGs could improve sexual function and memory of mice (Gao, Wang, &
Wu, 2005) and it could treat and protect Parkinson diseases (Chen et al.,
2007). PhGs could delay aging (Liu, Yang, Dong, Zhang, & Ma, 2018).
Echinacoside prevent programmed cell death in the developing nervous
system and had protective and therapeutic effects on radiation-induced skin
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damage (Li, Zheng, Liu, & Jia, 1992; Sui et al., 2011). Echinacoside could
protect neuronal cells from radical scavenging and had the anti-tumor effect
(Liu, Li, & Du, 2008).
Table 4. Compounds identified in C. tubulosa by high-performance
liquid chromatography–Mass spectrometry (LC–MS)
Names
Chemical
formula
Molar mass
g·mol−1
Retention time
tR (min)
MS1
MS2
Acteoside
C29H36O15
624.59
63
623
161.1
461.3
Cistanoside A
C36H48O20
800.75
59
799.3
623.3
637.3
Isoacetoside
C29H36O15
624.592
69
623
161.1
461.3
Echinacoside
C35H46O20
786.733
53
785.3
161
623.2
2-
Acetylacteoside
C31H38O16
666.629
72
665.2
623.1
461.1
503.2
Tubuloside B
C31H38O16
666
79
665.3
623
461
503
Table 4 shows the dose dependent activity of DPPH in C. tubulosa.
DPPH used for testing radical scavenging capacity of the extracts (Pavithra
& Vadivukkarasi, 2015). The extracts showed high levels of DPPH radical
scavenging activity over the range of 50 –800 ppm concentration.
Figure 5. The LC-MS full-scan chromatogram.
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Figure 6. Production of Acteoside & Isoacetoside.
Figure 7. Production of 2-Acetylacteoside & Tubuloside B.
Figure 8. Production of Echinacoside.
Figure 9. Production of Cistanoside A.
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Figure 10. Ion Fragmentation chromatogram of Acteoside & Isoacetoside.
Figure 11. Ion Fragmentation chromatogram of 2-Acetylacteoside & Tubuloside B.
Figure 12. Ion Fragmentation chromatogram of Echinacoside.
Figure 13. Ion Fragmentation chromatogram of Cistanoside A.
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Table 5. DPPH Free Radical Scavenging Assay
Conc. ppm
% DPPH
Sample 1
% DPPH
Sample 2
% DPPH
Sample 3
800
88.16
88.43
87.89
400
87.21
87.48
86.53
200
85.71
86.93
85.57
100
83.80
83.40
84.08
50
83.12
82.44
82.85
3. DISCUSSION
In this section, each type of food composition amount in Cistanche is
compared to other Food items and some common vegetables. Also, in order
to more accurately assess the nutritional value of this sample, the importance
and the amount of each type of food composition are briefly introduced.
3.1. Proximate Composition Content
3.1.1. Crude Protein
Based on the Institute of Medicine recommendation (Medicine, 2005)
adults should get a minimum of 0.8 grams of protein for every kilogram
of their body weight per day. In general, the amount of protein
recommendations is related to the basic needs of the individuals. In the given
Table below, the baseline requirement is presented only on the basis of
different age and sex groups, which varies according to the recommend-
ations of nutritionists for different conditions such as physical activity,
regional temperature, and diseases.
As shown in Table 2, the protein content of this halophyte is in the range
of 9.8 % of the dry weight of the plant, which is relatively good compared
to the protein sources presented in the Food Additive Table (USDA, 2016).
This amount was found to be high in animal meat resources with higher
quality and biological value (with higher absorption and higher essential
amino acids for human) which were measured in egg with (35.6%), egg yolk
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with (15.7%), beef with (15.7%), chicken with (17.44%), salmon with (22%)
and milk with (7.99%) amount. Lentil and soybean were known to have
protein sources, which have 24.6% and 51.46% protein amount,
respectively. Based on the fresh weight of the plant, vegetable protein
content such as spinach was reported to have 4.01% of protein, and
cucumber, potato, leek and broccoli were reported to have (0.59%), (2.38%),
(1.5%) and (4.28%) amount of protein, respectively. As it is seen, protein
content in this halophyte is lower than the highly valued biological resources
of animal. Also, the percentage of this protein is slightly lower than the
known vegetable sources such as peas, but it is higher than some plant
sources.
Table 6. Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Recommended Dietary
Allowances and Adequate Intakes for Protein by Food and Nutrition
Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies
Life
Stage
Group
Protein
(g/d)
Life
Stage
Group
Protein
(g/d)
Life
Stage
Group
Protein
(g/d)
Life
Stage
Group
Protein
(g/d)
Infants
(months)
Males
(years)
Females
(years)
Pregnancy
(years)
0–6
9.1
9–13
34
9–13
34
14–18
71
6–12
11.0
14–18
52
14–18
46
19–30
71
Children
19–30
56
19–30
46
31–50
71
1–3
13
31–50
56
31–50
46
Lactation
4–8
19
51–70
56
51–70
46
14–18
71
> 70
56
> 70
46
19–30
71
31–50
71
3.2. Oil Content
In a healthy diet, up to 30% of daily energy can be supplied from the
group of fats, most of which are polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs). The
American Heart Association emphasizes that less than 7% of daily calories
will be supplied from saturated fat (SFA) (Lichtenstein et al., 2006). The
amount of fat recommendation in the Mediterranean diet, which has a
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protective effect against diabetes and cardiovascular disease, also reaches
40% of daily energy (Martinez-Gonzalez & Martin-Calvo, 2016). In this
pattern, the main source of fat is from monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA)
or olive oil. In general, the fat content of plants varies greatly, varying from
11 to 15 percent in olive, 25 to 50 percent in rapeseed, 35 to 40 percent in
soybeans, and in tea drinks showing zero percent. Some edible vegetables
such as onions (with oil content of 0.08%), cucumber (with 0.16% oil
content), lettuce (with 0.22% oil content), and broccoli (with 37% oil
content) have low fat content. The amount of fat in animal sources such as
salmon and turkey have been reported as (5.57%) and (5.57%), respectively.
These values indicate that the percentage of fat in Cistanche (0.76%) is low
when compared with other foods (like many vegetables).
3.3. Crude Fiber
As it is known, the recommended fiber content for adults is 25 to 30
grams per day based on different age and sex groups, which as follows:
Usually, the amount of fiber consumed per person on daily basis is less
than the recommended dose, and the main reason for this is the inadequate
use of vegetables and fruits. The daily consumption of 5 units of the
vegetable and fruits will prevent many chronic diseases such as diabetes,
cardiovascular disease, many types of cancers and many digestive diseases.
Among the dietary patterns that are aimed at preventing chronic diseases,
such as the Healthy Dietary Pattern, Mediterranean, and DASH, the major
part of the recommendations rest on the use of vegetables and fruits, which
are the main source of fiber. Children and adults need at least 20 to 30 grams
of fiber per day for a good health, but most people get only about 15 grams
a day. Fiber reduces the risk of developing various diseases such as heart
disease, diabetes, diverticular disease, and constipation.
According to the data in Table 2, the fiber content of this plant is 5.7%
of the dry weight of the plant. Fiber contents in vegetables such as
mushrooms, New Zealand spinach, spinach and broccoli are (2.7%), (1.5%),
(2.2%) and (3.6%) respectively. This amount is reported in plants with very
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high fiber content, such as corn bran (79%), asbestos (29.3%) and lentils
(10.7%). The comparison of these values with the data in
Table 2 emphasizes the medium fiber content of this halophyte.
Table 7. Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for fiber:
daily recommended intakes of dietary fiber for children and adults
Age, gender, life stage group
RDA Fiber (grams/day)
Infants
0–6 (months)
Not determined
7–12 (months)
Not determined
Children
1–3 years
19
4–8 years
25
Adults
Men
9–13 years
31
14–18 years
38
19–30 years
38
31–50 years
38
51–70years
30
>70 years
30
Women
9–13 years
26
14–18 years
26
19–30 years
25
31–50 years
25
51–70years
21
>70 years
21
Pregnant Women
14–18 years
28
19–30 years
28
31–50 years
28
Lactating Women
14–18 years
29
19–30 years
29
31–50 years
29
Note: Daily Reference Intakes (DRI) has been developed, since 1996 by the Food and Nutrition Board,
Commission on Life Sciences and National Research Council to replace the Recommended Dietary
Allowance (RDA).
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3.4. Total Carbohydrate
The United States (U.S.) Dietary Guidelines 2015-2020 recommend
obtaining 45 to 65 percent of energy needs from carbohydrates, and a
maximum of 10 percent should come from simple carbohydrates.
Comparing the carbohydrate content of this sample (72.64%) with dietary
carbohydrate sources such as white bread (54.5%), French bread (51.88%),
rice (28%), and spaghetti (75%), it is clear that the carbohydrate percentage
of this plant, is high and special and can play a distinctive role in healthy
vegetables. In general, carbohydrates are found to be less common in some
common vegetables. As a percentage, it is 6% in broccoli and 5.8% in
cabbage. The carbohydrate content of this plant is very high (more than
70%), therefore, the study of glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL)
are necessary to determine.
3.5. Mineral Analysis
Based on the amount of minerals required for the body, the minerals are
divided into two macro and micro groups. The macronutrients required by
the body include sodium, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium and calcium,
a large amount of which are needed by humans. Micronutrients, which
include zinc and selenium, manganese, iron, are less required by the body.
The importance of minerals in the daily diet is so much that the
inappropriateness of their consumption is one of the most important factors
in the prevention of diseases. For example, high levels of sodium and the
mismatch between sodium and potassium have led to blood pressure and
stroke. Among the various diets that are recommended for the health and
prevention of chronic diseases, DASH diet has been shown to have an
inhibitory effect on blood pressure by decreasing sodium intake and
increasing potassium through the intake of a lot of fruits and vegetables. This
special diet emphasizes the consumption of fruits and vegetables, low-fat
dairy products and legumes. In a clinical trials study in 1994, the DASH diet,
showed the effect of a diet on blood pressure inhibition, the result of which
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led the US Food Guide of 2010 to be based on this diet. Today, the DASH
is even used as a weight loss diet. In this type of diet, depending on the
individual, along with whole grains of fruits and vegetables with 4 to 5
recommended servings of each, low-fat dairy, oil and fat group, meat and
legume groups with an emphasis on fish and legumes with 2 servings per
day, and the nuts and seeds are recommended at about 4-5 servings per week
(Sacks et al., 2001). What follows points to the importance of some macro
and micro minerals, along with a comparison of the amount of each mineral
in this sample under study with the same amount of minerals in other foods
so that a more comprehensive review of the nutritional value of this plant
can be made.
3.6. Sodium
Despite the need for sodium in many biochemical reactions in the body,
its overdose (2 g/day, according to the World Health Organization report) is
considered as a major risk factor for hypertension, stroke, heart disease,
stomach cancer and osteoporosis and is known to be an important indicator
of metabolic syndrome. In 2010, the American Food Guide announced the
salt intake amount as much as a teaspoon. Regarding the various health
guides, strong health benefits such as stopping blood pressure, preventing
cancer, and reducing calcium excretion and bone health is pinpointed by
considering a decrease in sodium intake by reducing the available resources,
whether reducing the salt on the eating table or latent salt in food items such
as tomato paste, pickled vegetables and canned foods. Consistent with the
report (Powles et al., 2013), the average sodium intake was 3.95 g/per day,
which is almost twice the amount recommended by the World Health
Organization. This amount is 10% higher in men than in women, with the
highest daily sodium reported in East Asia, Central and Western Europe
(more than 4.2 grams per day). The average sodium intake in Central and
Eastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa is between 3.9 and 4.2
grams per day, and in North America, Australia and New Zealand, it is
between 3.4 and 3.8 grams a day, and in Latin America and the sub-Saharan
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Africa, it is less than 3.3 grams a day. Like other halophytes, sodium content
in this sample is higher than other food items. Sodium in Cistanche, was
5.3% of dry weight of the plant, respectively. For example, sodium content
in the food table for 100 grams of food is as follows 38758 mg or about 40%
for salt, 200 mg in salmon, 1809 mg for Roqufort cheese, 38 mg for onions,
5 mg for white mushrooms, and 8 mg for pumpkin. The amount of sodium
in this sample is not recommended in any healthy diet, but in many cases, it
is always recommended that you do not consume large amounts of sodium,
because high sodium intake will have adverse effects on human health. For
example, it increases the excretion of calcium from the urine, which affects
human health in different stages of life, from adolescence and the need to
reach proper height to being elderly and the need to control blood pressure
(Wiseman, 2008).
3.7. Potassium
Studies reveal that a high potassium intake through specific diet
decreases the risk of stroke, lowers blood pressure, protects against loss of
muscle mass, preserves bone mineral density, and reduces the formation of
kidney stones. The primary functions of potassium in the body include
regulating fluid balance and controlling the electrical activity of the heart
and other muscles. The Adequate Intake recommendation for potassium is
4,700 milligrams (mg) per day for adults. Most adults do not meet this
recommendation. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends an
intake of 3,510 mg per day and agrees that most of the global population do
not meet this recommendation. An increase in potassium intake along with
a decrease in sodium is crucial to reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease.
DASH is a flexible and balanced eating plan that helps create a heart-healthy
eating style for life. When following the DASH eating plan, it is important
to choose foods that are low in saturated and trans fats and rich in potassium,
calcium, magnesium, fiber, and protein content as well as sodium (He &
MacGregor, 2009; Sacks et al., 2001; Strazzullo, D’Elia, Kandala, &
Cappuccio, 2009).
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The following recommendation can be used to compare sodium and
potassium requirements of the body:
Based on RDA (Recommended dietary allowance), the recommended
amount of sodium intake is less than 2300 mg per day (equivalent to one
teaspoon of salt) and simultaneous consumption of potassium rich sources
such as fruits and vegetables, will be 1500 mg of sodium per day and 4,700
mg of potassium per day for special groups at risk.
By comparing the potassium content of the sample with other food items
in the table of compounds, we see that the potassium content of this plant is
significantly high. The amount of potassium in Cistanche, was 2646 mg per
100 g of dry weight of the plant. This macro ingredient is found in beverages
such as tea (6040 mg), beans (1359 mg), and other herbs such as lettuce root
(556 mg), cabbage (170 mg) mushrooms (448 mg), melons (112 mg),
bananas (358 mg) and oranges (212 mg) for 100 grams of food. Because of
its high content of potassium, in certain diets, such as DASH, which is
effective in controlling blood pressure, it is considered as one of the most
important nutrients.
3.8. Magnesium
Magnesium, as a mineral in the body, is present in many foods, and is
available as a dietary supplement. Magnesium is a cofactor in more than 300
enzyme systems that regulate diverse biochemical reactions in the body
including protein synthesis, muscle and nerve function, blood glucose
control, and blood pressure regulation (Medicine, 1997; B. J. Rude RK,
Blackman MR, Cragg GM, Levine M, Moss J, White JD, eds., 2010; C. B.
Rude RK, Cousins RJ, Tucker KL, Ziegler TR, 2012). Magnesium also plays
a role in the active transport of calcium and potassium ions across cell
membranes, a process that is important to nerve impulse conduction, muscle
contraction, and normal heart rhythm (C. B. Rude RK, Cousins RJ, Tucker
KL, Ziegler TR, 2012). Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH)
diet also increases intakes of other nutrients, such as potassium and calcium
that are associated with reductions in blood pressure, so any independent
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contribution of magnesium cannot be determined. Higher magnesium
intakes might reduce the risk of stroke (Larsson, Orsini, & Wolk, 2012). In
a meta-analysis of 7 prospective trials with a total of 241,378 participants,
an additional 100 mg/day magnesium in the diet was associated with an 8%
decreased risk of total stroke, especially ischemic rather than hemorrhagic
stroke. A large, well-designed clinical trial is needed to better understand the
contributions of magnesium from food and dietary supplements to heart
health and the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease (Song & Liu,
2012). The American Diabetes Association states that there is insufficient
evidence to support the routine use of magnesium to improve glycemic
control in people with diabetes (Evert et al., 2013). Although limited in
number, studies suggest that increasing magnesium intakes from food or
supplements might increase bone mineral density in postmenopausal and
elderly women (Medicine, 1997). For example, one short-term study found
that 290 mg/day elemental magnesium (as magnesium citrate) for 30 days
in 20 postmenopausal women with osteoporosis suppressed bone turnover
compared with placebo suggesting that bone loss decreased (Aydin et al.,
2010). The authors of a review on migraine prophylaxis suggested that
taking 300 mg magnesium twice a day, either alone or in combination with
medication can prevent migraines. The Adequate Intake recommendation
for magnesium is 420 and 320 milligrams (mg) per day for men and women,
respectively. Different types of magnesium supplement (tablets, syrups and
pills) are available alone or in combination with other compounds on the
market.
The magnesium content of this halophyte plant (343 mg/100 g of dry
matter) is higher than the average of the foodstuffs reported in the Food
Additive Table (USDA). The highest content of magnesium was reported in
rice bran with 781 mg/100 g, 606 mg/100 g in dried squash, and 429 mg/100
g in raw soybean oil. The magnesium amounts in nuts, such as walnut,
tomatoes dried under sunlight and sweet red pepper are 201 mg, 194 mg,
and 188 mg for 100 grams of the food, respectively. Magnesium contents in
vegetables such as raw spinach, zucchini, and mushrooms are 79, 33, 20 mg
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per 100 grams of food, respectively, which are much lower than the amount
of magnesium in the sample halophyte.
3.9. Calcium
Calcium has been proposed to help reduce cardiovascular disease
(CVD) risk by decreasing intestinal absorption of lipids, increasing lipid
excretion, lowering cholesterol levels in the blood, and promoting calcium
influx into cells (Al Rifai et al., 2018). Several clinical trials have
demonstrated a relationship between increased calcium intakes and both
lower blood pressure and risk of hypertension, although the reductions are
inconsistent (Allender et al., 1996; Bucher et al., 1996). Studies suggest that
calcium supplementation during pregnancy reduces the risk of preeclampsia,
but the benefits may apply only to populations with inadequate calcium
intakes (Kallela et al., 2016; Organization, 2013). Some, but not all, studies
suggest a positive association between supplemental calcium intake and the
risk of kidney stones, and these findings were used as the basis for setting
the calcium UL in adults (Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes
for Vitamin D and Calcium, 2010; Wessling-Resnick M., 2014). Overall, the
results from clinical trials do not support a link between higher calcium
intakes and lower body weight or weight loss.
The content of calcium in halophyte sample is in the range of 169
mg/100 g of dry matter, which is higher than the food composition table.
The highest amount was reported in dried mint with 1488 mg and Parmesan
cheese, sausage cheese, and Gouda and pineapple cheese had 1184 mg, 890
mg, 700 mg, and 493 mg of calcium per 100 grams of food, respectively. As
the major source of calcium, the calcium contents in yogurts and skimmed
milk were reported 199 and 204 mg/100 g, respectively. Raw spinach, raw
cabbage and broccoli had respective amount of 99 mg, 47 mg and 47 mg of
calcium for 100 g of the food. It is noteworthy that calcium in non-dairy food
items has very low absorption due to the presence of oxalates. Therefore, it
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is recommended that the oxalate content of this halophyte be measured in
future studies.
3.10. Iron
Iron is a mineral that is naturally present in many foods, added to some
food products, and available as a dietary supplement. Iron is also necessary
for growth, development, normal cellular functioning, and synthesis of some
hormones and connective tissue (Aggett PJ. Iron. In: Erdman JW, 2012;
Wessling-Resnick M., 2014). Heme iron (found in meat) has higher
bioavailability than non-heme iron (found in legumes, nuts, eggs and
vegetables), and other dietary components have less effect on the
bioavailability of heme than non-heme iron. The non-heme iron is
influenced by tannin in tea and Ammonium salt combination for lower
absorption and is affected by vitamin C and Cysteine for absorption increase
in the body (Hurrell & Egli, 2010; Murray-Kolbe LE, 2010). The World
Health Organization (WHO) estimates that approximately half of the 1.62
billion cases of anemia worldwide are suffering from iron deficiency
(Organization, 2008). The following groups are among those most likely to
have inadequate intakes of iron including pregnant women, infants and
young children, women with heavy menstrual bleeding, frequent blood
donors, people with cancer, people who have gastrointestinal disorders or
have had gastrointestinal surgery and people with heart failure (Wessling-
Resnick M., 2014).
The iron content of the tested plant was in the range of 14.2 mg/100 g,
based on the dry weight of the plant. In comparison to other foods, this
amount in the Cistanche was high. The amount of Iron was 60 mg /100g in
legumes, 44.9 mg /100g in celery seeds, 30.53 mg/100 g in the duck meat,
10.44 mg/100g in white beans, 8.94 mg/100g in turkey meat, 4.55 mg/100 g
in egg yolks, 3.24 mg /100g in potatoes, and 2.71 mg/100 g in spinach. Due
to the fact that iron found in vegetables is of non-heme type, they have a
lower absorption rate than those from animal sources, so that when taking
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them, vitamin C should be used to increase the absorption factors and the
simultaneous use of tea and ammonium salts should be avoided.
3.11. Zinc
Zinc is an essential mineral that is naturally present in some foods, added
to others, and available as a dietary supplement and is required for proper
sense of taste and smell. A daily intake of zinc is required to maintain a
steady state because the body has no specialized zinc storage system
(Medicine, 2001; Rink & Gabriel, 2000; Sandstead, 1994). The Adequate
Intake recommendation for zinc is 11 and 8 milligrams (mg) per day for men
and women, respectively. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), iron deficiency is commonly found in zinc supplements where zinc
intake is not adequate, and zinc deficiency can be seen at the community
level, and complementary supplements are also advisable (Medicine, 2001;
Sandstrom, 1997; Wise, 1995). The amount of zinc in the results of analysis
of halophyte sample was obtained in the range of 0.049 mg/kg. The amount
of this nutrient was (78.6 mg/100g) in the oysters, (12.2 mg/100g) in wheat
embryo, (11.99 mg/100g) in beef, (6.96 mg/100g) in lamb, (7.27 mg/100g)
in rice straw and 6.45 mg/100g in nuts. The element is very low in
vegetables, as in broccoli (0.41 mg/100g), squash (0.83 mg/100g), spinach
(0.53 mg/100g), and potatoes (0.3 mg/100g). Based on the given report, it
can be concluded that the zinc level in this sample is at low level.
3.12. Manganese
As you can see, the amount of manganese in this halophyte sample was
in the range of 1.6 mg/100 g. The highest levels of this element have been
reported in meat and some beverages. For example, beef with (299 mg
/100g) and tea with (133 mg /100g) were reported. Such micro-element is
available in wheat germ with (13.3 mg/100g). In beans, such as lentils and
white beans, it is about (1.7-1.8 mg/100) and in hazelnuts, it is (7.6 mg/100
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g). The Manganese content in vegetables is low as it is (0.21 mg/100g) in
broccoli, (0.6 mg/100g) in potato, (0.65 mg/100g) in scallion and (0.23
mg/100g) in eggplant. The comparison of the amount shows that the amount
of manganese in the tested halophyte sample is medium.
3.13. Heavy Metals
Since heavy metals are rapidly absorbed by living tissues and, because
of their high biological existence, they are hardly removed from the tissues,
and also do not decompose, thus causing nutritional disorders, sensitization,
mutation, and various types of cancers (Koedrith, Kim, Weon, & Seo, 2013).
For this reason, there is no recommended level for these elements in the table
of compound foods, and the only some threshold for heavy metal elements
are proposed by health organizations and standards of different countries.
The remarkable point for halophyte plants is that it is possible that more
heavy metal elements are accumulated in the organs of these plants in
contaminated areas. Therefore, the analysis of the products obtained from
these plants seems necessary for the presence of heavy metal elements.
CONCLUSION
C. tubulosa is underutilized medicinal plant in Iran. It is distributed from
north up to south of Iran in harsh environments. Mineral component, anti-
oxidant and phenylethanoid glycosides was in acceptable content and this
parasites plant could be considered for greenification of the desert and
increasing local farmer income.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Kimiazi Analytical Research Center for LC
-Mass analysis.
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