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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SHADOW PRACTICE IN LEARNING THE TABLE TENNIS STANDARD FOREHAND DRIVE
Abstract
The study was conducted in response to the problem on how to develop a practice structure that will promote learning in Table Tennis Physical Education classes even with limited time and inadequate facilities which is a common fixture in Philippine setting. In the present study, the participants (n= 32) were randomly assigned to either one of two subject groups. The experimental group (n= 16) performed the shadow practice while waiting for their turn to practice with multi-balls. The control group (n= 16) practiced with a single ball for each pair of students while waiting for their turn to practice with multi-balls. The commonly used consistency and accuracy skills test was used to determine their pre-test, post-test and retention test scores. The level of significance was at P = .05. Using descriptive measures, the data revealed that both groups showed a significant change in the scores in the post-test phase of testing. The experimental group's mean = 83.5 while this group's pre and post test t =-14.3226. The control group's mean = 81.7 while this group's pre and post test t =-16.02311. However, only the experimental group was able to retain their scores in the retention test phase of testing. The experimental group's mean = 83.4 while this group's post and retention test t = 0.04897. The control group's mean = 78.3 while this group's post and retention test t = 4.6929529.
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Feedback is important in teaching. This paper examines feedback research in physical education, discusses factors explaining certain inconsistencies, and questions the essential role of teacher feedback in motor skill learning. Research suggests that more is known about teachers' feedback patterns than about the effects of teacher feedback on achievement. (SM)
This study investigated the generalizability of results of contextual interference effects by extending previous laboratory research to a field setting. Thirty female subjects (N = 30) learned three badminton serves in either a blocked (low interference), serial (mixed interference), or random (high interference) practice schedule. The subjects practiced the serves three days a week for three weeks. On the day following the completion of practice the subjects were given a retention and transfer test. Results replicated previous findings of contextual interference research by showing a significant group by block interaction between acquisition trials, retention, and transfer. The random group performed better on both retention and transfer than the blocked group. The significant trial block by contextual interference interaction also supports the generalizability of contextual interference effects, as posited by Shea and Morgan (1979), to the teaching of motor skills.
Laboratory research in motor learning has consistently demonstrated higher retention and/or transfer when practice occurs under conditions of high contextual variety (e.g., Lee & Magill, 1983; Newell & Shapiro, 1976; Shea & Morgan, 1979;). In the present study, an attempt was made to determine whether a contextual variety effect could be demonstrated in a standard physical education instructional setting. During practice trials on the long and short badminton serves, male and female subjects performed under either blocked (i.e., all trials of one serve followed by all trials of the other) or varied (i.e., alternating trials of long and short serves) conditions. Retention and transfer tests (i.e., using the service area opposite that employed during the practice phase) were administered at the end of the badminton unit. Although little difference was observed in the performance of the two groups during practice, alternating-trial subjects demonstrated significantly higher retention of the short serve and significantly higher transfer of both serves than blocked-trial subjects. The performance of male and female subjects was not differentially influenced by practice structure conditions. It was concluded that a practice schedule that requires performers to change their plan of action from trial to trial may facilitate the retention and transfer of motor skills in applied instructional settings.
This study examined the effects of practice schedule manipulations implemented in an instructional setting on the performance and learning of low- and high-skilled students. College undergraduates (N = 83) enrolled in 5 tennis classes completed a pretest on the forehand and backhand ground strokes, practiced these skills under a blocked or alternating schedule, and then completed a posttest. Results indicated that practice schedule effects on learning were influenced by student ability. Low-skilled students assigned to the blocked schedule had higher posttest scores than those assigned to the alternating schedule, whereas no significant differences were found for high-skilled students. These findings are discussed in relation to previous applied and laboratory-based findings and as a means for manipulating practice difficulty in teaching physical education.
This study examined the relationship between the total number of practice trials and practice trials using correct technique and achievement in a soccer kick-up skill. Eight preservice physical education teachers taught two lessons to 10 fourth-grade students; upon completion of the instructional periods the students were posttested on the soccer skill. Each class was videotaped, and the entire lesson for each day was coded for each student using an event-recording system. Findings indicated moderately high significant relationships between practice using correct technique and student achievement.
The role of augmented information feedback for motor learning has been evaluated recently by an examination of its role on performance on transfer or retention tests. Several lines of evidence from various research paradigms show that, as compared to feedback provided frequently (after every trial), less frequent feedback provides benefits in learning as measured on tests of long-term retention. Such effects are of course contrary to most accounts of the learning process in human skills. In this paper, these lines of evidence are first briefly reviewed, and then several interpretations are provided in terms of the underlying processes that are degraded by frequent feedback. These decrements for frequent feedback seem to be caused by feedback’s tendency to generate maladaptive short-term corrections, by a blockage of several sets of information processing activities, or by both of these factors in some combination.
The effects of physical guidance on learning to perform slalom-type movements on a ski-simulator were examined in 22 participants (18 in Experiment 1, 4 in Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, 1 group of participants practiced the task with ski-poles whereas another group practiced without poles. Retention tests without poles were performed at the end of each of the 2 practice days and 1 day later. Although the use of poles produced more effective performance in terms of movement amplitude during practice, both conditions led to similar amplitudes in immediate and delayed retention. With regard to the efficiency of the movement pattern, the pole group demonstrated a more efficient coordination pattern than the no-pole group did, not only during practice but also in immediate (Day 2) and delayed retention. In Experiment 2, how the poles functioned to enhance the learning of a more efficient movement pattern was examined more closely. The results suggest that physical guidance can have beneficial effects not only on performance during practice but also-under certain conditions-on the learning of motor skills.
Feedback frequency effects on the learning of a complex motor skill, the production of slalom-type movements on a ski-simulator, were examined. In Experiment 1, a movement feature that characterizes expert performance was identified. Participants (N = 8) practiced the task for 6 days. Significant changes across practice were found for movement amplitude and relative force onset. Relative force onset is considered a measure of movement efficiency; relatively late force onsets characterize expert performance. In Experiment 2, different groups of participants (N = 27) were given concurrent feedback about force onset on either 100% or 50% of the practice trials; a control group was given no feedback. The following hypothesis was tested: Contrary to previous findings concerning relatively simple tasks, for the learning of a complex task such as the one used here, a high relative feedback frequency (100%) is more beneficial for learning than a reduced feedback frequency (50%). Participants practiced the task on 2 consecutive days and performed a retention test without feedback on Day 3. The 100% feedback group demonstrated later relative force onsets than the control group in retention; the 50% feedback group showed intermediate performance. The results provide support for the notion that high feedback frequencies are beneficial for the learning of complex motor skills, at least until a certain level of expertise is achieved. That finding suggests that there may be an interaction between task difficulty and feedback frequency similar to the interaction found in the summary-KR literature.
Because manipulations of knowledge of results (KR) are critical to motor learning, researchers have attempted to establish an optimal length for summary KR. Experiment 1 of the present study investigated the option that optimal summary length may be dependent on a subject's task-related experience. Participants in a summary 1, 5, or 15 condition practiced a simple striking task for one session on three consecutive days with each day followed by a 24-hour no KR retention test. The retention test results indicated that optimal summary length is dependent on task-related experience. Experiment 2 investigated the nature of the relationship between task-related experience and complexity and optimal summary length (summary 1, 5, or 15). Again, striking tasks (simple and complex) were used. There was one practice session with either a simple or complex striking task for either novice or experienced performers, followed by a 24-hour no KR retention test. Data from the two experiments suggest that task complexity and performer experience interact in determining optimal summary length.
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