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Lean project planning and control: empirical investigation of ETO projects
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to empirically investigate an effective project management practice focusing on planning and control. By doing so, it contributes to the debate on rethinking traditional project management practices and accentuates the need for adjustments based on the project context.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper extends the project management theory by proposing a lean project planning (LPP) and control framework, developed and tested in collaboration with ten engineer-to-order (ETO) companies. By following a design science research approach, elements from lean thinking and current project planning and control practices are combined into a maturity model (MM).
Findings
ETO project characteristics are identified, and their implications for planning and control are discussed. Nine enablers that transform current project planning and control approaches into a lean approach are defined, allowing the analysis of the underlying complexity of planning and controlling ETO projects and thus facilitating the determination of the actions required to improve project performance.
Research limitations/implications
Once fully embedded in an organization, the presented MM can provide a safe framework for self-criticism and can be used to conduct self-assessments without the need for an external facilitator. Thus, this paper is of particular interest to practicing project managers who aim to implement LPP and control.
Originality/value
To the authors’ best knowledge, this paper is the first to empirically examine the journey toward LPP and control from a MM perspective. This research attempts to describe the enablers of LPP and control.
... A atenção à relação com os fornecedores e subcontratados é mandatória. Essas empresas podem representar até 75% do valor do produto de uma ETO [7]. ...
... Essas modificações podem ser demandadas pela própria ETO ou pelos clientes [3]. Modificações também podem ocorrer quando se tenta reduzir o Lead Time por meio da execução simultânea das atividades de projeto, compras e produção [7]. Erros originados no setor de Engenharia quando da integração dos sistemas CAD com os Sistemas ERP também podem gerar problemas para os setores de produção e/ou compras [3]. ...
... Requisições tardias podem gerar atrasos na produção, comprometendo a produtividade e o resultado do projeto [3]. A mitigação desses problemas pode se dar por meio do Value Stream Mapping (VSM) [4] [5], do uso de ferramentas Lean para redução da variabilidade [6], ou do planejamento e controle de projetos Lean [7]. Contudo, essas alternativas parecem não ser suficientes para resolver os problemas. ...
... In times of highly competitive markets, it is critical that SMEs deliver high-value products at the lowest possible operating cost. This is specifically relevant for project-based organizations delivering highly customized engineering-to-order (ETO) projects [2], often experiencing project delays, budget overruns and quality defects [2]. Knowledge workers play an important role in engineering companies, as their specific skills, knowledge and creativity are the source of innovation in the workplace [3,4]. ...
... In times of highly competitive markets, it is critical that SMEs deliver high-value products at the lowest possible operating cost. This is specifically relevant for project-based organizations delivering highly customized engineering-to-order (ETO) projects [2], often experiencing project delays, budget overruns and quality defects [2]. Knowledge workers play an important role in engineering companies, as their specific skills, knowledge and creativity are the source of innovation in the workplace [3,4]. ...
... LPPC is a response to poorly planned and controlled ETO projects, caused by lack of routines, few staff members included in planning, poor monitoring, or no response to delays [2]. The model ( Figure 2) was tested by several ETO manufacturing companies delivering advanced equipment to the oil and gas industry. ...
The purpose of this manuscript is to propose a framework for implementing 5S+S in engineering-to-order (ETO) projects with a focus on knowledge work. The application of this framework helps to improve overall performance in companies providing knowledge work. The methodology allows transparency and control over projects in day-to-day management, through the implementation of digital tools such as visual management, 5S+S online audits, key performance indicators (KPI), dashboards, etc. This paper presents the implementation of lean management concepts in customer-specific tailor-made engineering projects, which has not been sufficiently addressed in the existing literature. The methodology used in this paper is based on the application by researchers of lean concepts in a combination of three different disciplines, namely, lean project planning and control (LPPC), lean quality management system (LQMS) and Lean Design. First, attempts at knowledge work improvement through lean are presented, based on the existing literature. Second, all three approaches: LPPC, LQMS and Lean Design are explained. Third, the possibility of combining all three concepts into one framework is discussed. The use of 5S+S in knowledge work is demonstrated, and a framework is developed, based on a DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control) approach. The use of the framework is presented by means of an illustrative case in a small and medium size enterprise (SME) providing engineering services. The suggested methodology is applicable for engineering services-providing companies seeking overall project performance improvement. The findings are useful for project managers and engineering discipline leaders who aim to implement lean thinking in engineering projects.
... To achieve such product customization, ETO companies apply non repetitive processes that are labor intensive and require a highly skilled workforce [10]. The technical design therefore hardly includes the search for the optimal production process (i.e., the technical design effort cannot be amortized by many sold items), yet it must be possible to evaluate the profitability of the project as accurately as possible from the beginning [11]. In addition, several phases and parts of an ETO project are outsourced to specialized suppliers, increasing the number of companies involved in each project [11]. ...
... The technical design therefore hardly includes the search for the optimal production process (i.e., the technical design effort cannot be amortized by many sold items), yet it must be possible to evaluate the profitability of the project as accurately as possible from the beginning [11]. In addition, several phases and parts of an ETO project are outsourced to specialized suppliers, increasing the number of companies involved in each project [11]. These ETO characteristics have a strong influence on the entire planning process, which also includes the scheduling of purchasing activities. ...
The production of highly individualized engineer-to-order products has special characteristics that lead to a significant increase in the complexity of production planning and control. Therefore, aggregate resource planning is a dynamic and complex process that must always deliver reliable results. But without appropriate tools, these predictions can only be achieved with significant manual effort. Therefore, this paper presents a holistic method that predicts and schedules the required manufacturing resources for new customer orders based on a type representative by means of product modularization and data preparation of approximately identical historical manufacturing orders. This allows the actual processing status of the current customer project to be derived from the preplanning by means of a concurrent calculation in order to be able to initiate countermeasures at an early stage in the event of project delays and also to reduce the lead time of the customer order by preallocating the required production resources.
... After the first analysis, a pattern among existing frameworks was noted because most contemplate planning, development and evaluation phases. Moreover, based on the findings, the themes were positioned on a lean planning and control approach, the plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle (Jünge et al., 2019). The PDCA model provides an iterative process to ensure continuous improvement while promoting development from a long-term and systematic perspective (Moumen and Elaoufir, 2018;Silva et al., 2020). ...
Purpose
Information and communication technologies brought a new paradigm that allows policymakers to ground their actions on real-time events. Smart cities were initially conceived as a technological vision separate from urban planning. As a result, projects were rarely connected between departments, objectives were not aligned with strategic goals and there was a lack of citizen participation. This study aims to propose a framework to guide and support the design and implementation of a smart city.
Design/methodology/approach
Interviews with eight policymakers and one secretary of state are conducted to explore current decision-making processes, specifically, to understand if and how smart city strategies are designed and who their main contributors are. Based on these findings, an inductive thematic analysis of existing literature studies to inspire the steps of the proposed framework is performed. Finally, these steps are discussed in a focus group with nine smart city experts to characterize the guidelines comprehensively.
Findings
Policymakers confirmed the lack of a standard method and approach to orient their smart city strategies. Results describe a flexible, participatory framework that envisions 12 steps divided into 4 phases with dedicated guidelines.
Originality/value
This paper integrates the plan-do-check-act cycle approach into the thinking for urban planning design. In addition, it raises the need to reflect on the definition of a country’s strategic plan and the alignment and execution of cities’ roadmaps.
... However, the methods and techniques used for planning and control cannot be universally applied to all projects. Instead, they must be tailored to each project's specific characteristics, constraints, and requirements (Jünge et al. 2019). Simply put, what works for one project may not work for another. ...
A successful construction project relies heavily on planning and control. The prevalent practice is to adopt a single control method throughout a project, such as earned value management (EVM), which integrates costs and schedules to monitor project targets throughout execution. Although a single control method may be effective at a certain project phase, it might overlook important perspectives and be insufficient for other stages. Therefore, this study introduces a framework to evaluate the necessity for a multidimensional alternative perspective in project control. The study aims to diagnose some limitations of using a single method like EVM and demonstrate how adding another perspective , such as the last planner system (LPS) for project control, yields better insight into project performance. A design science research (DSR) methodology is adopted to address five key questions by conducting quantitative data analyses and Monte Carlo simulation for a large-scale project. The results show that although EVM performs well when dealing with controlled performance variability, it may yield undesirable results in uncontrolled performance variability, impacting its forecast accuracy. Moreover, the aspects covered by LPS in the project proved to be complementary to EVM. Furthermore, the results indicate an inconsistent divergence between planned and actual activities, resulting in disrupted flow and a purging effect, which can be attributed to the lack of a multidimensional approach in project control. The practical implication of these findings is that using a multidimensional perspective offers a more robust and adaptable project control strategy that improves forecast accuracy and project flow, especially under uncontrolled performance variability conditions, where single-method approaches like EVM alone may falter. Hence, adopting a multidimensional perspective can significantly enhance the management of construction projects, leading to more reliable outcomes and efficient resource utilization. Practical Applications: In the construction industry, project managers are continuously seeking more efficient strategies to ensure projects are completed on time and within budget. A widely adopted technique for tracking project progress is earned value management. However, this research indicates that EVM alone may not suffice, particularly in the face of unforeseen challenges such as supply chain disruptions or abrupt work stoppages. This study advocates for the integration of EVM with the LPS, a methodology that enhances planning and resource utilization. The authors found that relying solely on one approach may overlook critical issues, especially those arising unexpectedly. Combining EVM and LPS equips project managers with the tools to anticipate and navigate both foreseeable and unforeseen obstacles. Why is this finding important? It addresses the crucial issue of managing unpredictability in construction projects. By merging these two project management methodologies, project managers gain a more comprehensive understanding of project dynamics, enabling them to make more informed decisions and adapt more fluidly. This synergy not only promotes the efficient use of resources but also fortifies project management practices against the inevitable uncertainties of construction work. It is about enhancing the project management approach, ensuring resilience even when the unexpected occurs.
... Several studies have been conducted using the DSR strategy that has generated frameworks in the applied social sciences, particularly in the field of project management (e.g., Ahlemann et al., 2013;Jünge et al., 2019;Amorim et al., 2020;Narazaki et al., 2020). Thus, research supports the use of DSR in the present study by generating an artefact following the approach proposed by Peffers et al. (2007). ...
Purpose - Knowledge production in project studies is continuously challenged to combine scientific rigour and practical relevance, and a professional graduate programme in Project Management is a suitable environment for addressing this issue. This research aims to generate a framework of the Ecosystem of a University Research Centre in Project Studies (URC-PS) to enhance the benefits of research developed in a professional graduate programme.
Design/methodology/approach - The research was developed under the paradigm of Design Science and operationalised through a method of Design Science Research. The prescriptive approach was used to identify, design, develop, demonstrate, and evaluate the framework.
Findings – The framework comprises four macro-elements: Project Studies; Impact Generation Process; Circumstances, Governance and Management; and Context, broken into sixty elements. It provides a structure that is simultaneously holistic, integrative, and procedural. It also develops a perspective of knowledge co-creation between academics and practitioners in an engaged scholarship approach.
Originality/value - The framework contributes to Organisational Knowledge Creation Theory by including and discussing outcomes and impacts from co-created knowledge in a URC-Project Studies environment. It also explores the concept of 'Ba' in its proposal for structuring, organising, and operationalising the 'Ba'.
Practical implications – The framework provides a more thorough understanding of the ecosystem university management to the research centre itself, to engaged academics, and to external actors, which allows them to discuss, plan, execute, and evaluate the co-creation of knowledge in Project Studies.
... Thus, as displayed in Fig. 1, an integrated planning and scheduling model appears to be more suitable than two sequential and independent models (Little et al., 2000). Besides, the use of an integrated planning approach that includes the different activities and the departments related to the project is one of the nine principles of lean design in ETO projects as defined by Jünge et al. (2019Jünge et al. ( , 2021. Other models can be used at the operational level (activities C in Fig. 1) to schedule more precisely the working hours of employees or the tasks of computer-controlled machines. ...
This paper presents a new mathematical formulation for planning and scheduling activities in the Engineer To Order (ETO) context. Designed from an Advanced Planning System perspective, the proposed formulation not only schedules production operations but also takes into account the assembly, design, engineering, and validation phases. The definition of resources is thus generic and enables to model employees, finite capacity machines, and consumable materials. The definition of operations allows to represent short production operations, respecting precedence relations representing the assembly of elements, but also non-physical activities. Non-physical activities are longer, subject to validation, and applied once for multiple identical elements. Furthermore, to integrate planning and scheduling, the proposed formulation is not limited to time-based objectives but also considers financial and organizational aspects. The experiments carried out on instances with up to 100 operations show that our model performs well and requires reasonable computing times. Besides, we propose an ETO strategy that tends to validate the design of non-standard and highly uncertain items first and delay their production or purchase. Our integrated model governed by the proposed ETO strategy is compared to a model that mimics decision processes in existing industrial systems. The comparative study and experimental results highlight how this strategy yields robust integrated solutions that offer a good trade-off between the wastes caused by unpredictable changes in the BOM and the projects completion time.
... A well implemented PCS contributes to the boarder strategic goals of the organization by supporting an integrated framework of processes and people that work together to execute projects successfully (Jayaraman, 2016;Jünge et al., 2019). A clear understanding of the enablers and barriers that impact PCS implementation has a direct bearing on an organization's ability to deliver successful projects. ...
Purpose
There is growing recognition that effective project control systems (PCS) are critical to the success of projects. The relationship between the individual elements of PCS and successfully achieving project objectives has yet to be explored. This research investigates the enablers and barriers that influence the elements of PCS success and drive project objectives.
Design/methodology/approach
This study adopts a mixed approach of descriptive analysis and regression models to explore the impact of six PCS elements on project outcomes. Petroleum and chemical projects in Saudi Arabia were selected as a case study to validate the research model.
Findings
Data from a survey of 400 project managers in Saudi’s petroleum and chemical industry reveal that successful PCS are the key to achieving all project outcomes, but they are particularly critical for meeting project cost objectives. Project Governance was identified as the most important of the six PCS elements for meeting project objectives. A lack of standard processes emerged as the most significant barrier to achieving effective project governance, while having skilled and experienced project team members was the most significant enabler for implementing earned value.
Practical implications
The study offers a direction for implementing and developing PCS as a strategic tool and focuses on the PCS elements that can improve project outcomes.
Originality/value
This research contributes to project management knowledge and differs from previous attempts in two ways. Firstly, it investigates the elements of PCS that are critical to achieving project scope, schedule and cost objectives; secondly, enablers and barriers of PCS success are examined to see how they influence each element independently.
... Salah satu strategi yang dapat diterapkan adalah strategi kolaborasi. Kolaborasi merupakan Kerjasama antara dua atau lebih lembaga untuk mencapai tujuan yang telah ditetapkan dan disetujui bersama (Linden, 2002(Linden, , 2010 merupakan sebuah terobosan dalam meningkatkan kualitas maupun pencapaian tujuan dari perguruan tinggi (Jünge et al., 2019;Munoz et al., 2015;Sirat, 2017). Dalam kolaborasi yang dilakukan orientasi terhadap pencapaian mutu pendidikan merupakan basis utama yang ada. ...
The tridharma of higher education in the form of education, research, and community service is the mandate of the legislation for universities. In implementing tridharma, universities should adapt to the development and needs of the community as well as science and technology (Science, Technology and the Arts). It can hardly be fulfilled by a university alone because of the growing needs of the society where all branches of science need to be integrated and connected. This study explained how collaboration could be applied in universities with a TQM approach. TQM has been widely used in various organizations and has proven its success for this approach was chosen in developing the existing collaboration model. Literature analysis method of TQM and collaboration was used in this study. The result is collaboration in fulfilling the Tridharma of higher education by using the TQM approach in a model stage could help organizations achieve previously agreed goals and adapt to existing science and technology needs.
... Project planning now a day's using different modern management techniques and can achieve predetermined objectives of scope that lead to qualitative satisfaction. Project planning is the most effective coordinator to project success (Zhang et al. 2019;Jünge et al. 2019). Various established literature has been stated that there is a positive relationship between project planning and project success (Boyuan et al. 2019). ...
Project performance of the construction sector can be significantly improved by proper project planning and scheduling. A divergence opinion is included in this area which implies the amount of effort that is required or should be invested in construction planning and scheduling activity to make the project management effective. A lot of work has been already reported in the literature which clearly shows that the project performance can be enhanced by raising the efforts invested in project planning, scheduling, and controlling activities. The organizational characteristics of the construction firms and the project environment have a great influence on planning and scheduling efforts. The firm should be organized appropriately to maintain a relevant environmental context in the project planning. In India, after agriculture, it has been notified that the construction sector is the second largest employment sector. Also, it has been considered as one of the largest sectors which support the economic growth of the country. The magnification of the construction sector is based on the growth of the corporate sector and infrastructure development either directly or indirectly. The construction sector generates employment and provides job opportunities to millions of unskilled, semi-skilled, and skilled workforce. When it comes to the economic development of the country and a large labour force are engaged in this sector, definitely a high work effort we can consider from appropriate project planning activity. To keep in mind the importance of project management in the construction sector, our study is focusing on the relationship between construction planning efforts and their effectiveness in the field of project performance. Software used for Construction Project Management (CPM) is also discussed.
... Efforts were made towards improving the efficiency of EC operations conducted by ETO SMEs, as identified in the literature. Some of these efforts involve creating methods for handling EC project planning and control (Jünge et al., 2019). The consequences of using digital technologies for integrating ETO operations conducted by SMEs are scarcely addressed in the literature or not at all. ...
Purpose
This paper aims to investigate the impact of the strategic transformation of engineering to order company (ETO) at the level of the internal value-adding chain of operations on its position as a sub-supplier. The transformation is motivated and enabled by end-to-end business intelligence related to processes revolving around the product’s design, configuration and engineering. The investigation builds on case-based research following the company’s decision of converting its product portfolio to only one family of products, thus increasing process efficiency whilst at the same time enlarging its market reach by offering individualized and innovative products. By digitally integrating operations related to sales, product development and production preparation, the traditional trade-off between cost-effective solutions with high product variety and low lead-time is significantly reduced.
Design/methodology/approach
A design science research project has been conducted to create knowledge on the effects of integration across the value-adding chain of operations. Several design cycles illustrate how development based on business intelligence and available technological enablers for inter-operation integration influence the traditional approach towards supply chain pipeline selection strategies.
Findings
Relating to digital transformation, the consequences and means of adopting digital business intelligence for integrating several administrative and engineering operations in small-medium enterprises (SME) are studied. The product delivery performance of the SME is improved, thus, having ETO lead-time comparable to manufacturing to order company. The findings show how the adoption of state-of-the-art technological solutions for cross-operation digital integration challenges traditional supply chain, coordination models.
Research limitations/implications
The conclusions are drawn based on a single case. The limitations associated with case-based research call for further work to support generalization. Furthermore, the long-term influence of the effects of increased interoperability on supply chain coordination strategies requires further investigation.
Practical implications
As technological solutions evolve, new opportunities for supply chain management arise, which put into question the traditional understanding that complex supply chain pipeline characteristics should be handled by complexity reducing initiatives, which opens up new competitive opportunities for companies in high-cost countries.
Social implications
Enabling the use of human resources towards expanding the business (rather than running it only) are aligned with the current economic and political situation in high-cost countries like Denmark and potentially releases skilled employees from repetitive and low value-adding work and reengages them in business development.
Originality/value
By embracing flexibility and volatility as an opportunity, this publication exemplifies how to move beyond hedging the supply chain volatility, but systematically enable the supply chain to deal with complexity efficiently.
Companies with an engineer-to-order (ETO) manufacturing strategy develop and produce customised products typically in high-mix low volumes and non-repetitive production settings. Lean methods are often difficult to apply in non-repetitive environments and the literature reports on Lean implementation barriers in the ETO context. Although, new emerging technologies from Industry 4.0 (I4.0) have the potential to mitigate these barriers, this has not yet been empirically validated in the ETO industry. In this article, we propose a framework that shows the mitigation effect of some of the I4.0 technologies and concepts on barriers to Lean implementation in the ETO context using an interview protocol followed by semi-structured interviews with 17 companies from the construction, customised machinery , and shipbuilding sectors located in Northern, Central and Southern Europe. Future research should further validate the findings using specific case studies in the ETO industry to highlight the necessity to apply both Lean and Industry 4.0. ARTICLE HISTORY
At present, there is a discrepancy between the overall goal of cultivating applied talents in the context of new engineering disciplines and the social demand, which leads to the problems of unimpressive student learning outcomes and low employment rate caused by the single traditional teaching mode. Based on the the educational philosophy of OBE (Outcome based education) and CDIO (Conceive--Design-Implement-Operate), this paper toke the course of “Project Planning and Control” in Henan University of Economics and Law as an example, and adopt the blended course mode of combining project task-driven and round table seminar to carry out the teaching reform of the course, which has the The design of four modular teaching contents, the construction of teaching method(70% of concentrated lectures and 30% of immersion seminars) and evaluation system were finnaly conpleted. so that students could improve their professionalism and practical application ability in real work tasks and professional scenarios, and complete the initial exploration of the comprehensive education path of “policy, position, course, competition and certificate”.
Industrialization brings several advantages to the construction industry, which are strongly related to moving production activities to a controlled environment. By contrast, there are additional challenges in managing the overall construction process due to the combined effect of interdependence between off-site and on-site processes and uncertainty caused by internal and external factors. In the context of Engineer-to-order (ETO) industrialized building systems, products are customer-specific and require continuous negotiations between the provider and the customer, making the system even more complex and requiring reliable information. The use of slack may be interpreted as a dimension of project risk management, offering opportunities to make production systems more responsive to the impacts of project complexity. However, in the context of ETO industrialized building systems, research on using slack is still scarce. The research work aims to devise a framework of slack categories to support planning and control systems for the delivery and assembly of ETO industrialized building systems. Regarding theoretical contributions, some connections were established between different categories of slack and some core concepts and principles of the Lean Production Philosophy such as production flow and pull production. This investigation also explores the use of some digital technologies, such as 4D BIM.
Purpose
The present research aims to investigate how lean project management (LPM) and agile project management (APM) affect project performance outcomes in the construction sector in Jordan. This study focuses on six key project performance outcomes, namely cost, time, quality, client satisfaction, innovation and responsiveness.
Design/methodology/approach
The present study employed a quantitative approach to achieve the research objectives. Accordingly, a multi-item survey questionnaire was prepared to gather data from 392 project managers from construction companies in Jordan. The study’s model showed acceptable levels regarding reliability, validity, fit indices and discriminant validity. In order to test the hypotheses of this study, path analysis was employed using Amos 24.0 software.
Findings
LPM demonstrated a remarkably high positive impact on cost performance. It also positively affected quality performance and client satisfaction. However, LPM insignificantly affected time, innovation and responsiveness performance measures. On the other hand, APM showed a notably high positive impact on innovation and responsiveness. The findings also revealed that APM positively impacted quality performance and client satisfaction. In addition, APM negatively impacted cost performance and insignificantly impacted time performance.
Originality/value
This study is one of the first comprehensive studies to empirically examine the impact of both LPM and APM on various project performance outcomes in the construction industry in the context of a developing country. It reveals some similarities and differences between LPM and APM with regard to their impacts on project management outcomes. The findings are expected to guide managers in selecting the appropriate project management approach based on the desired performance outcomes. Accordingly, it offers important implications for project managers in construction companies.
Purpose
This research aims to examine the challenges of recruiting participatory action research (PAR) in managing innovation projects. An enhanced methodology based on PAR was developed to mitigate the challenges related to recruiting PAR in managing innovation projects. The proposed methodology was evaluated by comparing it to established methodologies/frameworks such as Scrum, Design Thinking (DT) and The Lean Startup (TLS). The evaluation aimed to determine the advantages and limitations of the proposed methodology in managing innovation projects.
Design/methodology/approach
The proposed enhanced methodology consists of eight steps, ranging from developing an understanding of the industry and business structure to learning and knowledge management. In addition, the enhanced methodology uses other techniques, such as Force field analysis and 12 boundary questions.
Findings
The research findings indicate that using the proposed methodology can improve the formalization of collaboration in PAR, enabling the organization to respond better to market changes. It helps define the project scope more clearly, encouraging innovation, addressing communication barriers and considering different worldviews and practical issues. Based on the findings, the proposed enhanced methodology could complement other methodologies/frameworks such as Scrum, DT and TLS.
Research limitations/implications
The current research adds to the existing literature by identifying the challenges of recruiting PAR in managing innovation projects. A deductive reasoning process was utilized because there is no comprehensive research concerning the challenges of recruiting PAR in managing innovation projects. On the other hand, the PAR 4-phase cycle has been reviewed and enhanced to manage innovation projects.
Practical implications
The proposed methodology was used in a new product development project. The case study was done on one of the payment service provider companies that design, develop and deploy a digital product for marketing, installation, repair and maintenance of electronic funds transfer at point of sale devices.
Originality/value
No research has yet sought to identify the challenges of using PAR in innovation project management (IPM). Identifying the challenges associated with applying PAR in the IPM and providing an enhanced methodology to mitigate the challenges could fill a gap in IPM studies.
Companies in engineer–to–order (ETO) manufacturing environments that seek efficiency gains through adopting a mass
customisation strategy meet significant challenges. The implementation of mass customisation (MC) strongly focuses on
transitioning from mass production. The purpose of this study is to identify current areas of concern and operational challenges
when adopting mass customisation principles in ETO companies. A Systematic Literature Review (SLR) was carried out to evaluate
the challenges the Portuguese Industry faces in the moulding companies’ sectors and how they are improving their ability to meet deadlines. The study will look at ways of boosting customer satisfaction by providing unique products at a relatively low cost. The study exposed issues of MC in ETO companies in general, it is critical to achieving more efficient use of resources, workflow, and
innovative management methods and approaches to deal with the variability and complexity of this manufacturing system. The
competitive pressure to achieve better efficiency and effectiveness in this type of organisation requires constantly searching for new concepts and tools that can be developed and applied. Furthermore, this paper explores the ETO companies' significant difficulties and the technical and scientific solutions used and proposed as its significant contribution, as well as a proposal for future research and development to increase ETO companies' resilience and performance level in managing their value chain and executing operations in response to customer requirements.
Purpose
The absorptive capacity (AC) leads to firm performance and influences the development and evolution of capabilities and routines, but the influence of AC in projects remains unclear. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effect of AC on project performance (PP) in the construction industry of Sao Paulo State, Brazil.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conducted a survey questionnaire with project managers and collected 157 responses in the construction sector. They also used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and multiple linear regression techniques to assess the data.
Findings
The study provides empirical evidence that realized absorptive capacity (RAC) has a direct and indirect positive effect on PP. Conversely, the potential absorptive capacity (PAC) only indirectly impacts PP through project management practices (PMPs). PAC and RAC positively influence PMPs that in turn positively influence PP. The findings reinforce the relevance of AC to the development of internal knowledge for processes and routines, thereby enhancing PP.
Practical implications
The findings provide practical implications: the AC influences PP by refining and adapting routines. Moreover, the consistent application of accepted practices is not enough for PP, but the ability to adapt, adjust and transform the relevant knowledge into routines.
Originality/value
This paper provides empirical evidence that the knowledge application of PMPs improves organizational performance through PP. However, despite what the literature has discussed, this paper proved that AC has no effect as a moderating factor between PMPs and performance; however, AC's role significantly impacts PP through PMPs.
The five-volume set IFIP AICT 630, 631, 632, 633, and 634 constitutes the refereed proceedings of the International IFIP WG 5.7 Conference on Advances in Production Management Systems, APMS 2021, held in Nantes, France, in September 2021.*
The 378 papers presented were carefully reviewed and selected from 529 submissions. They discuss artificial intelligence techniques, decision aid and new and renewed paradigms for sustainable and resilient production systems at four-wall factory and value chain levels. The papers are organized in the following topical sections:
Part I: artificial intelligence based optimization techniques for demand-driven manufacturing; hybrid approaches for production planning and scheduling; intelligent systems for manufacturing planning and control in the industry 4.0; learning and robust decision support systems for agile manufacturing environments; low-code and model-driven engineering for production system; meta-heuristics and optimization techniques for energy-oriented manufacturing systems; metaheuristics for production systems; modern analytics and new AI-based smart techniques for replenishment and production planning under uncertainty; system identification for manufacturing control applications; and the future of lean thinking and practice
Part II: digital transformation of SME manufacturers: the crucial role of standard; digital transformations towards supply chain resiliency; engineering of smart-product-service-systems of the future; lean and Six Sigma in services healthcare; new trends and challenges in reconfigurable, flexible or agile production system; production management in food supply chains; and sustainability in production planning and lot-sizing
Part III: autonomous robots in delivery logistics; digital transformation approaches in production management; finance-driven supply chain; gastronomic service system design; modern scheduling and applications in industry 4.0; recent advances in sustainable manufacturing; regular session: green production and circularity concepts; regular session: improvement models and methods for green and innovative systems; regular session: supply chain and routing management; regular session: robotics and human aspects; regular session: classification and data management methods; smart supply chain and production in society 5.0 era; and supply chain risk management under coronavirus
Part IV: AI for resilience in global supply chain networks in the context of pandemic disruptions; blockchain in the operations and supply chain management; data-based services as key enablers for smart products, manufacturing and assembly; data-driven methods for supply chain optimization; digital twins based on systems engineering and semantic modeling; digital twins in companies first developments and future challenges; human-centered artificial intelligence in smart manufacturing for the operator 4.0; operations management in engineer-to-order manufacturing; product and asset life cycle management for smart and sustainable manufacturing systems; robotics technologies for control, smart manufacturing and logistics; serious games analytics: improving games and learning support; smart and sustainable production and supply chains; smart methods and techniques for sustainable supply chain management; the new digital lean manufacturing paradigm; and the role of emerging technologies in disaster relief operations: lessons from COVID-19
Part V: data-driven platforms and applications in production and logistics: digital twins and AI for sustainability; regular session: new approaches for routing problem solving; regular session: improvement of design and operation of manufacturing systems; regular session: crossdock and transportation issues; regular session: maintenance improvement and lifecycle management; regular session: additive manufacturing and mass customization; regular session: frameworks and conceptual modelling for systems and services efficiency; regular session: optimization of production and transportation systems; regular session: optimization of supply chain agility and reconfigurability; regular session: advanced modelling approaches; regular session: simulation and optimization of systems performances; regular session: AI-based approaches for quality and performance improvement of production systems; and regular session: risk and performance management of supply chains
*The conference was held online.
In 2009 a literature review on supply chain management in Engineer-to-Order (ETO) situations was published in the International Journal of Production Economics (Gosling and Naim, 2009). The paper has received more than 200 citations from over 100 international journals. The ETO body of knowledge has been particularly relevant to those seeking to mobilise operations and supply chain concepts within the context of complex innovative engineering work. These are all increasingly pressing concerns for many organisations in the contemporary global economy; hence, it is timely to revisit this body of knowledge. Consequently, this study performs a systematic review of the last decade (2010-2020) ETO studies to identify the major advances revealed and develop a future research agenda. The results show that literature, over the last decade, presented new emerging trends related to: (i) ETO definitions through conceptualisation of the engineering flows and integration of engineering/production flows via the two-dimensional decoupling point; (ii) strategies for decoupling positioning, supply chain integration, planning and control, uncertainty/risk management, industry 4.0, exploration of new business models and system design, design automation and engineering management in ETO situations; (iii) applicability of lean within ETO situations. Finally, the paper suggests guiding research questions in relation to linkages between different disciplinary areas, evaluation of the application of new technologies, guidance for managing transitions between decoupling configurations and understanding of the new servitisation trends in ETO situations. In conclusion, the study highlights four research challenges to address: positive science challenge, comparative research challenge, multidisciplinary research challenge, and prescriptive research challenge.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to presents a new modeling approach that provides a measurement tool for evaluating the effectiveness of Project Control Systems (PCS) and the improvement of the project control capability as a part of an organization's project management processes.
Design/methodology/approach
This study used a project management maturity approach to develop a measurement model of PCS success. The key elements in this model have been identified using the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP) method to analyze data from a case study involving contractor companies in Saudi's petroleum and chemical industry.
Findings
The results identified six critical elements for PCS success: (1) Change Management, (2) Earned Value, (3) Baselined Plan, (4) Resource Loaded, (5) Progress Method and (6) Governance Program. In addition, Project Forecasting and Corrective Action Verification were identified as the main areas where clients and contractors need to focus for the effective deployment of a PCS.
Practical implications
The results of this study were used to create a PCS Maturity Model (PCSMM) and a PCS Success Index (PCSSI). The value of this index can help project managers to identify the maturity level of their PCS and improvement areas that lead to enhanced project performance.
Originality/value
This research presents an alternative maturity model for PCS assessment that provides a practical tool to identify areas for improving the critical elements of PCS success. The study draws a clear distinction between overall project success and the success of the PCS.
This article explores how waste reduction approaches as found in lean thinking can be applied to engineering design in Engineer-To-Order (ETO) projects based on a multiple case study of ten companies over a 2-year period. ETO projects deliver capital goods that are customised to individual customer requirements. Customisation and ultimately value generation are achieved through an iterative engineering design process. Although inevitable, iterative engineering design allows much leeway for waste generation, expressed in higher costs and longer lead times. Accordingly, this paper investigates the iterative nature of engineering design in current practice and discusses how these iterations create wastes. It applies the concept of lean engineering design and elaborates on how this concept can eliminate wastes. The findings extend the literature on lean thinking by demonstrating its applicability to engineering design and provide a unique description of the most common wastes found in ETO projects. Furthermore, this article provides managerial implications on how lean engineering design can eliminate wastes and ultimately improve ETO project performance based on lessons learned from the case companies.
Academic literature on Lean Manufacturing (LM) is widely available. However, due to its fragmentation, the contribution of LM from practical and academic perspectives is controversial. This paper establishes the practical implications of LM studies carried out worldwide and identifies novel research streams. A Systematic Literature Review (SLR) of peer-reviewed journal articles was conducted. A total of 403 articles published in 62 journals during 2010–2019 were collected from four major management science publishers. An ‘affinity diagram’ was applied to organise the data into natural and logical themes. Conceptual frameworks concerning LM practical implications and future research agenda were formulated. Meaningful themes of LM practical implications and future research suggestions were revealed and classified into two categories. In category one pertaining to the internal nature of LM, themes related to the pre-implementation, implementation and post-implementation phases of LM were identified. In category two pertaining to the external nature of LM, themes related to the country in which the companies operate, the diverse managerial systems available, and the methodological research approach were identified. The main themes supported in the literature by most references were determined. Finally, respective statements concerning the practical implications of LM and the future research agenda are analytically presented.
The aim of this paper is to explore current state-of-the-art on lean in High-Mix/Low-Volume (HMLV) industry. For this purpose, authors propose a systematic literature review of 110 articles published in 66 peer-reviewed international journals that explicitly discuss lean in HMLV context. The purpose is to investigate research that is available, in order to analyse theoretical aspects of lean considerations in HMLV context, identify the level of lean maturity, the scope of lean, the way lean is implemented, and tools and practices that are commonly used. The results of the analysis show that current research is mainly focussed on practice, with little attention to theory development. The maturity of lean implementation is rather low, as articles mostly address obvious waste reduction, while more advanced concepts such as variability management and buffering remain under-researched. Studies are often operationally and internally oriented, with shop-floor improvements being the area of interest, while embedding lean in strategy is not sufficiently addressed. Lean implementation frameworks presented in the literature are usually tool-based, addressing a narrow set of simplified cases that do not take fully into account complexities of HMLV industry. Lastly, a rather narrow set of tools is used, with tools often being adapted without proper consideration of relevance of a certain tool for HMLV industry. As publications reviewing lean in HMLV context are scarce, this study presents valuable insight and serves as an excellent resource for research on the subject, since it not only presents the existing knowledge in a structured way, but also identifies possible directions for future research.
The implementation of Lean Manufacturing (LM) philosophies in the 1980s and 1990s revolutionized manufacturing in high volume flow-oriented production processes. In project-oriented industries such as shipbuilding, long lead times, lumpy demand, and dependence on external and often international suppliers have made LM implementation challenging. This paper analyzes lean manufacturing implementation at Estaleiro Atlântico Sul (EAS) a shipyard located in an underdeveloped region in northeastern Brazil. EAS was the recipient of multiple oil tanker contracts from the Brazilian oil company Petrobras, but was unable to meet delivery deadlines and suffered cost overruns until a strong LM culture was introduced. From the EAS case, we make suggestions for a more appropriate lean manufacturing implementation in an emerging economy context. This is especially relevant in those situations associated with special project types of manufacturing initiatives such as shipbuilding, aviation, construction projects and other forms of low volume high complexity and other long-lead time production operations.
The Last Planner® System (LPS)3 was initially designed as a system for planning and controlling production on projects, that is, to do what is necessary to achieve set targets (Ballard 2000). It was understood to differ from project controls, which sets targets (objectives and constraints on their delivery) and monitors progress toward them. Initially, LPS consisted only of lookahead planning (Ballard 1997), weekly work planning, and learning from breakdowns. In the early 2000s, planning and scheduling project phases (which provide inputs to lookahead planning) were added to its scope, as described in the 2016 Benchmark (Ballard and Tommelein 2016). This 2020 Current Process Benchmark further extends LPS in principle to both production4 (i.e., striving for targets) and project planning and control (i.e., setting targets). That does not mean there is no longer a role for technical specialists such as schedulers, estimators, inspectors, etc. It means that a single system is needed rather than two systems; a system for the project chain of command to both manage the project and continuously improve the project’s planning and control system. Technical specialists are still needed to collect and analyze information that managers at different levels need in order to make good decisions.
There are basically three avenues for dealing with risk and uncertainty in project planning as - 1) forecast its impact before making a decision, 2) maneuver or adapt to uncertainty and risks that materializes and thus making it irrelevant, or 3) accept it. To discuss this the very defi nitions of uncertainty and risk are revisited because there is great confusion about uncertainty and its cousin risk - also in the literature. Once a proper distinction between these two concepts are established, the paper will show that if project planning is contemplated as 'planning for coordination' we can augment it with agility to handle surprises, which is in contradistinction with the 'planning the future' approach which is path dependent and fails to handle surprises.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the benefits of the agile project management (APM) framework compared to the traditional waterfall model, and understand how it can help companies add value and gain competitive advantage.
Design/methodology/approach
The methodology used was the exploratory qualitative research through a case study of a software project, developed with the support and application of the Scrum framework, in a pharmaceutical industry information technology project.
Findings
There were benefits found in the utilization of the agile framework, such as increased motivation and staff satisfaction, better control of requirements and especially higher quality of the delivered system, generating added value to the organization. Additionally, the project allowed the use of features from the first month of the application deployed, enabling a 75 percent reduction in development time, compared to traditional methods. The software development time was four months, 30 percent of what would be the total if the traditional methodology was adopted. Based on the results, the agile framework, especially the Scrum, proved to be a viable option as a project management approach.
Research limitations/implications
Since this research is an exploratory case study, its results cannot be generalized.
Practical implications
The paper provides relevant practical information and experiences to managers interested in implementing APM, as well as those interested in improving the management of projects.
Originality/value
This paper provides a case study with practical implications of using APM, and APM’s benefits and advantages are compared with the traditional waterfall approach. Companies can use this case study to better understand about the advantages and strengths of APM over the traditional approach.
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify the major trends and contributions published in the
Advances in Project Management book series and place them in the context of the findings and outputs
from the Rethinking Project Management Network. A key aim is to address the concerns of project
practitioners and explore the alternatives to the assumed linear rationality of project thinking. The
paper further offers a guided catalogue to some of the key ideas, concepts and approaches offered to
practitioners through the series.
Design/methodology/approach – This is a conceptual review paper that reflects on the main areas
covered in a book series aimed at improving modern project practice and explores the implications on
practice, knowledge and the relationship between research and practice. The topics are addressed
through the prism of the Rethinking Project Management Network findings.
Findings – The paper explores new advances in project management practice aligning them with key
trends and perspectives identified as part of the Rethinking Project Management initiative. It further
delineates new areas of expertise augmenting those mentioned in the disciplinary canons of knowledge.
Research limitations/implications – The paper offers a new understanding of how knowledge is
created in, for and by practice. Improving the relationship between theory and practice may demand a
new appreciation of the role of practitioners and the value of their reflection in context.
Practical implications – The primary implication is to explore the new directions and perspectives
covered by authors in the Advances in Project Management series, and identifymain areas and topics that
feature in the emerging discourse about project management practice. In addition, new conceptualisations
of the role of practitioners in making sense of project realities are offered and considered.
Originality/value – New areas of interest and activity are identified and examined, offering
a catalogue of new writing and perspectives in project practice. Reflection on the relationship
between research and practice encourages fresh thinking about the crucial role of practitioner
knowledge and reflection.
Keywords: Practice, Practitioner, Reflective practitioner, Theory-practice gap, Stakeholders, Theory,
Success, Reflective practice, Rethinking Project Management, Project management theory,
Modern project management
Paper type: Research paper
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explore the extent of the continuing influence on project management (PM) research directions of rethinking project management over the last ten years.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors chose a qualitative research approach that involved reading all papers published in the International Journal of Managing Project in Business since its commencement in 2008. Content analysis was performed on these papers to allow axial coding of key article content influence themes.
Findings
The research identified the strength, over time, of the three research interest clusters on the PM research agenda and resultant changes in the PM paradigm. The five directions put forward by the rethinking PM agenda and other researchers ten years ago have continued to influence the PM research agenda.
Originality/value
Findings provide a better understanding the changes in PM research directions since rethinking PM, the increased breadth and sophistication of PM research in general, and future research directions.
The paper motivates, presents, demonstrates in use, and evaluates a methodology for conducting design science (DS) research in information systems (IS). DS is of importance in a discipline oriented to the creation of successful artifacts. Several researchers have pioneered DS research in IS, yet over the past 15 years, little DS research has been done within the discipline. The lack of a methodology to serve as a commonly accepted framework for DS research and of a template for its presentation may have contributed to its slow adoption. The design science research methodology (DSRM) presented here incorporates principles, practices, and procedures required to carry out such research and meets three objectives: it is consistent with prior literature, it provides a nominal process model for doing DS research, and it provides a mental model for presenting and evaluating DS research in IS. The DS process includes six steps: problem identification and motivation, definition of the objectives for a solution, design and development, demonstration, evaluation, and communication. We demonstrate and evaluate the methodology by presenting four case studies in terms of the DSRM, including cases that present the design of a database to support health assessment methods, a software reuse measure, an Internet video telephony application, and an IS planning method. The designed methodology effectively satisfies the three objectives and has the potential to help aid the acceptance of DS research in the IS discipline.
To facilitate the implementation of lean production, practitioners and researchers have suggested an array of critical success factors (CSFs). However, despite a broad consensus about what needs to be done, companies still struggle to implement lean. Contingency theory posits the explanation that the common advice is not universal but is instead contingent on the situation. This paper investigates how contingency variables influence what practitioners see as success factors for implementing lean. A survey asked 432 practitioners from 83 factories belonging to two multinational companies for their opinions about what managers should do to ensure the success of the factory-level implementation of lean production. The survey responses were grouped into general success factors, which were then tested for differences across four contingency variables: corporation, factory size, stage of lean implementation and national culture. In general, the analysis supports a generic list of CSFs, but with some minor exceptions. For example, the stage of lean implementation in a factory influences to a slight extent which factors are perceived as more effectual than others. The paper contributes to the literature on lean production and offers several recommendations for managers striving to implement lean in their firms.
Planning should be a crucial element of all types of projects, and its importance can hardly be overstated. Yet, planning is often not performed well. In this paper it is argued that this is due to a fundamentally erroneous approach to planning which is based on a division of the process between planners, who plan, and doers that use the plans which inhibits effective communication. By applying lean principles – principles that have produced excellent results in a number of settings – we propose to change this approach radically. Borrowing from the Last Planner System and combining it with Earned Value Project Management, we get a new approach called Lean Project Planning.
This paper illustrates the results of an empirical study involving 21 engineer-to-order (ETO) companies, operating in the machinery-building industry. The study investigates the needs and requirements of such companies in terms of software support for governing the businesses, with particular emphasis on production planning and control (PPC) processes. An empirical analysis investigated two main aspects: (i) the set of business activities performed by the companies in the analysed industry and (ii) the relevant, high-level software functionalities required for the execution of such activities. As an answer to the observed compelling need for reviewing the general approaches to PPC in machinery-building companies, we develop an empirical, high-level production planning and scheduling reference framework, encompassing all the activities involved in the order fulfilment process.
A systems view of lean product development is presented integrating people, process, and tools. This systems approach was derived from intensive study of Toyota's product development system. Principles and methods based on this systems model of lean product development were applied with great success at Ford Motor Company helping to bring to market a record number of products that helped fuel a rebuilding of the company to financial success and award winning world-class product quality.
Over the last 20 years, the field of performance measurement (PM) has evolved from measurement to management. Investigations demonstrated the relevance of PM in management of organisations’ results. Although maturity model concept was widely used, the value of maturity models in PM has not been purposefully investigated. To address this gap, this research formulated three research questions: (1) How do maturity models in the field of performance measurement and management (PM&M) add value in practice? (2) How do such maturity models compliment and/or replicate the value added by an expert? (3) How do maturity models contribute to the development of the organisation’s PM&M practices? Using a predefined research protocol, 12 European manufacturing organisations and independent experts were engaged in conducting two separate studies: (1) the experts conducted reviews with 12 companies using a standard business review format; (2) research team adopted one of the available maturity models and facilitated self-assessments with the management teams of the same 12 companies. Results from both the studies were compared and high levels of congruence were identified. The analysis demonstrates that the maturity models with certain characteristics, promote organisational learning as well as enabling efficient and effective assessment of the performance management practices of the organisations.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the empirical research on project management (PM) maturity assessments, specifically based on a maturity model.
Design/methodology/approach
– The empirical data are based on a case study including in-depth interviews with a semi-structured approach, followed by a focus group interview. A survey was distributed within a project-based organisation (PBO) and to client and stakeholder representatives, and then analysed. The organisation in the case study is a project department within a Swedish mining company.
Findings
– Careful considerations are needed when choosing a PM maturity model (PM3) as the model structure can influence the assessment’s focus. It is also important to include both internal and external project stakeholders in the assessment to achieve an efficiency and effectiveness perspective when analysing PM capabilities. Valid information from an assessment is crucial, therefore, clear communication from management is important in order to motivate the participants in the assessment.
Research limitations/implications
– Improved understanding for implementing and applying a PM3 contributes to the increased knowledge of drivers, enablers and obstacles when assessing PM maturity, which also creates a basis for further research initiatives.
Practical implications
– An increased knowledge of drivers, enablers and obstacles should be valuable for practitioners introducing and applying a PM3.
Social implications
– Projects are a common way of working in many businesses. Activities which aim to improve PM capabilities should contribute to more effective and efficient project performance.
Originality/value
– This case study gives an in-depth insight into the implementation of a PM3 within a PBO. Through conducting a literature review, it was found that this type of empirical research is rare.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to show that project success is dependent on the project management approach selected, relative to the challenges posed by the project, and to develop an analytical model for analyzing the performance of the project organization.
Design/methodology/approach
– The research is based on literature review, model development, interviews, and case studies.
Findings
– The findings define two different approaches in project management: The prescriptive approach focusses on the formal qualities of the project organization, including governing documentation and procedures. The adaptive approach focusses on the process of developing and improving a project organization, project culture and team commitment. The two approaches have been identified through studies of three different case projects. An analytical model, referred to as the Pentagon model, has been applied for analyzing the performance of the project organization and explaining the project management approach. The model focusses on five different organizational aspects: structure, technologies, culture, social relations and networks, and interaction.
Research limitations/implications
– The research is limited to megaprojects and to project management success.
Practical implications
– It is suggested that project teams consider and select their project management approach at project initiation, and accordingly decide on relevant success factors to focus on. The adapted Pentagon model can be applied to develop the project management organization and assess its performance in the course of project delivery.
Originality/value
– The contribution of the research is the application of the analytical model, and the identification as well as illustration of the prescriptive, vs adaptive management approach.
Lean Project Planning (LPP) is a new approach for project planning that has been developed from the Last Planner System to overcome shortcomings in the Earned Value Management approach. In this paper, we investigate how LPP has been successfully used in shipbuilding of a so called Platform Supply Vessel. Due to the highly advanced vessel, we managed to stress-test the approach and found a number of improvements to be made. However, the overall judgment is that LPP is a success. By now, these improvements are more or less implemented except those relevant for the engineering part. When it comes to the engineering processes further improvements are still needed.
Purpose
– The purpose of the paper was to conduct an empirical investigation to explore the impact of project management maturity models (PMMMs) on improving project performance.
Design/methodology/approach
– The investigation used a cross-case analysis involving over 90 individuals in seven organisations.
Findings
– The findings of the empirical investigation indicate that PMMMs demonstrate very high levels of variability in individual's assessment of project management maturity. Furthermore, at higher levels of maturity, the type of performance improvement adopted following their application is related to the type of PMMM used in the assessment. The paradox of the unreliability of PMMMs and their widespread acceptance is resolved by calling upon the “wisdom of crowds” phenomenon which has implications for the use of maturity model assessments in other arena.
Research limitations/implications
– The investigation does have the usual issues associated with case research, but the steps that have been taken in the cross-case construction and analysis have improved the overall robustness and extendibility of the findings.
Practical implications
– The tendency for PMMMs to shape improvements based on their own inherent structure needs further understanding.
Originality/value
– The use of empirical methods to investigate the link between project maturity models and extant changes in project management performance is highly novel and the findings that result from this have added resonance.
Heavy equipment manufacturing firms are increasingly challenged by the integration of service planning and execution in their established product-centred information systems (IS) environment. Despite a few standardisation efforts, there is no common understanding of service systems in industry goods companies and the corresponding requirements for the appropriation of information systems. We address this need by developing a maturity model. The design of the model is grounded in extant literature, focus group and case study research involving eleven organisations over 1.5 years. The evaluation confirms that the maturity model makes a novel and useful contribution to the design of service systems in heavy equipment manufacturing companies.
This paper uses a literature review to present the risk factors that are most common to project success criteria through a project's entire life cycle. Empirical investigation and statistical analysis examined correlations between these factors. On the basis of the statistical correlations found we conclude that there are four factors in the initiation phase that could lead to the occurrence of additional risks factors in the implementation and evaluation phases. These are 1) having an incomplete set of criteria due to lack of knowledge about project context, 2) diverse and competing expectations about gains and benefits, 3) basing the project on unrealistic targets, and 4) using ambiguous criteria to describe the expected benefits or gains from the product or the project result. These factors affect all aspects of management and evaluation. The presence of these factors is also statistically correlated to the presence of other factors such as lack of organizational commitment and weakened alignment to success criteria in the performing organization and subjective assessment of the project outcome during evaluation phase.
This paper uses a literature review to present the risk factors that are most common to project success criteria through a project’s entire life cycle. Empirical investigation and statistical analysis examined correlations between these factors. On the basis of the statistical correlations found we conclude that there are four factors in the initiation phase that could lead to the occurrence of additional risks factors in the implementation and evaluation phases. These are 1) having an incomplete set of criteria due to lack of knowledge about project context, 2) diverse and competing expectations about gains and benefits, 3) basing the project on unrealistic targets, and 4) using ambiguous criteria to describe the expected benefits or gains from the product or the project result. These factors affect all aspects of management and evaluation. The presence of these factors is also statistically correlated to the presence of other factors such as lack of organizational commitment and weakened alignment to success criteria in the performing organization and subjective assessment of the project outcome during evaluation phase.
As a commentary to Juhani Iivari's insightful essay, I briefly analyze design science research as an embodiment of three closely related cycles of activities. The Relevance Cycle inputs requirements from the contextual envi- ronment into the research and introduces the research artifacts into environ- mental field testing. The Rigor Cycle provides grounding theories and methods along with domain experience and expertise from the foundations knowledge base into the research and adds the new knowledge generated by the research to the growing knowledge base. The central Design Cycle sup- ports a tighter loop of research activity for the construction and evaluation of design artifacts and processes. The recognition of these three cycles in a research project clearly positions and differentiates design science from other research paradigms. The commentary concludes with a claim to the pragmatic nature of design science.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to propose a quick maturity test to assist a company's development of a supply chain operations strategy. Maturity tests and models have been developed within several areas, but there is a lack of maturity tests targeting supply chain operations.
Design/methodology/approach
A literature review on maturity models is carried out in order to build the structure of the test, while a literature review on best practices in supply chain management is the basis for the test content.
Findings
The proposed maturity test is an audit scheme built on best practice statements within seven key strategic decision areas – strategy, control, processes, materials, resources, information and organisation. The test is designed with simplicity as a key feature and takes only one hour to complete. The test results are the input to strategic decisions regarding use of best practices in supply chain operations.
Practical implications
Supply chain managers ask for a simple and quick tool that can be used as an eye‐opener and a compass early in the development process of the supply chain operations strategy. The proposed test has a proven potential to point out directions for supply chain improvement areas.
Originality/value
There is a need for a quick assessment tool for mapping the maturity of a company's supply chain operations. The proposed test is a potential answer to this need.
Project Management Maturity Model (PMMM) is getting popular because of its versatility and its ability to control time and cost most efficiently. More and more organizations have embraced Project management as a key strategy for remaining competitive in today's highly competitive business environment. The PMMM allows the organization to identify what steps must be taken, what deeds must be accomplished and in what sequence to realize meaningful and measurable results. The purpose of this study is to see whether PMMM can be used in educational organizations. By the help of maturity model, educational organizations can determine their capability to deliver high education on a five scale. A literature review have been made about maturity model and it has been discussed how to use maturity level in educational organizations in this paper. In order to improve educational organizations’ effectiveness, it should become a strategic part of annual plan of the organization.
How Toyota's product design and development process helps find the best solutions and develop successful products.
Strategic planning for project management, combined with good project processes, can compress time, cost, and quality initiatives. However, there are still critical decisions that must be made. Marketing must decide what products to offer and which markets to serve. The information systems people must assist in the design, development, and/or selection of support systems. And senior management must provide sufficient, qualified resources. Strategic planning for excellence in project management needs to consider all aspects of the company: from the working relationships among employees and managers and between staff and management, to the roles of the various players (especially the role of executive project sponsors), to the company's corporate structure and culture. Effective strategic planning can mean the difference between long‐term success and failure. Even career planning for individual project managers ultimately plays a part in a company's excellence, or its mediocrity, in project management.
The principal goal of this study was to determine the financial and organizational impacts of project management. This study began with the development of a project management maturity model and an analysis methodology to assess the maturity of project management processes. The project management maturity analysis methodology consists of 148 multiple-choice questions that measure project management maturity, and cover 8 knowledge areas and 6 project phases. The maturity model and methodology were then applied by benchmarking 38 different companies and government agencies in 4 different industries. This assessment methodology provides solid and comparative studies on project management practices across industries and companies within an industry. It also provides a set of tools for organizations to use in identifying key areas of opportunity for improvement in project management.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to understand the context of major projects and their management from an OM perspective; the authors provide a foundation for exploring how the body of work on lean production (the “old” theory) can contribute to the development of major projects (the “new” context). In doing so, it extends the prevailing economic approach to major projects (best described as “predict and provide”) and posits the development of an alternative approach based on extending the lean production logic to this new context (referred to as “predict and prevent”).
Design/methodology/approach
The paper investigates the scope for adopting lean practices in context of major project. To this effect the authors review the current state of both lean thinking and major project management, and use “Universal Credit” as an exploratory case study to illustrate and verify the arguments in practice.
Findings
Two main findings are proposed: first, the authors demonstrate the inherent performance challenge of major projects in OM terms, which the authors argue presents significant scope for the application of OM concepts to improve major project performance. Second, using lean thinking as framing, the authors identify three distinct process levels and common wastes in major projects, and identify five principles how lean could improve the delivery of major projects.
Research limitations/implications
Major projects present an untapped area for OM research; based on the exploratory case the authors propose ways how OM concepts can be applied to this new context. Further research will be needed to validate and generalise.
Practical implications
Major projects, including organisational transformations, IT-enabled change, major events and large infrastructure projects, constitute a large proportion of economic activity. Despite their prominence, however, they are also commonly associated with low success rates. This paper provides one route for exploring how a successful set of principles could be applied to improving their performance.
Originality/value
This work translates a popular set of ideas from OM to strengthening a relatively neglected context within OM. An agenda for further research is suggested to support the development of this application.
Organization Tables with Lean Enablers for Systems Engineering (LEfSE)
Purpose
Barnes’ Iron Triangle was one of the first attempts to evaluate project success based on time, cost and performance, which were portrayed as interdependent dimensions. Over time, these criteria were expanded and especially criteria taking the satisfaction of stakeholder groups into account are becoming more and more popular. The purpose of this paper is to find out whether specific patterns for the selection of project success criteria across various fields of applications emerged which has not been regarded in literature before. Furthermore, the authors seek to identify of additional key factors influencing project success assessment next to the choice of project success criteria.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper uses a review of recent literature published in academic journals, in standard references and in widespread project management frameworks (Organisational Competence Baseline, PRINCE2 and PMBoK Guide).
Findings
The findings show that Barnes’ ideas are an integral part of all approaches investigated in the study. Additionally, the relevance of the so-called “soft criteria” related to the satisfaction of stakeholder groups, could be substantiated. However, the authors found no indications that patterns for the selection of project success criteria have emerged across various fields of applications. Factors influencing project success assessment are not taken into account in the examined articles in a systematic manner. This motivates for further research in this field.
Research limitations/implications
Access limitations, papers not yet digitally available or the interpretations have an impact on the results.
Practical implications
For appropriate project assessment the sound and well-rounded selection of hard and soft criteria and the consideration that not the field of application, but influencing factors yet to be analysed influence the selection of project success criteria are crucial. Project management professionals should choose the criteria suitable for their projects individually on a project-by-project basis.
Originality/value
This paper reveals that no patterns have so far been developed to assess project success in various fields of application. Furthermore, factors influencing project success assessment are not considered in a systematic manner.
For the past several decades, Norwegian shipyards have focused on innovative, customized, and technologically advanced ships, often serving the offshore oil and gas industry. Usually, a significant part of the ship production is off shored, especially steel-related tasks. That is, such tasks are carried out in a country with lower factor costs. The Norwegian yards focus on the more advanced outfitting tasks, such as the installation and commissioning of machinery and deck equipment, electrical systems, and accommodation. Nevertheless, the amount of work performed abroad before the Norwegian yard takes over and continues production differs among various yards; some only offshore block construction, others construction of the entire hull. Yet others finish the ship to such a degree abroad that it does not need to be recovered from the water in Norway and all the remaining work can be done from the quayside. This paper introduces a typology of shipbuilding strategies that differ in how much of the steel and outfitting work is performed in a country with lower cost levels. The strategies are discussed and compared in terms of relevant build strategic elements, such as preoutfitting, concurrent execution of engineering and production, yard capabilities, and vertical integration. The strategies' likely effect on performance is also addressed, in terms of costs, quality, delivery dependability, delivery time, and flexibility. The results are based on a qualitative study of Norwegian yards and their offshoring strategies.
1. Introduction
Throughout history, Norway has played a central role in the design and production of ships and marine constructions. Until some decades ago, yards along the entire coast built various types of ships, such as tankers, bulkers, ferries, roll-on/roll-offs, and fishing boats of different sizes. During the 1970s, the competition from Eastern Asia rose, benefitting from significantly lower labor costs. The larger yards in Norway could not adapt and scale down, and they eventually closed down and their properties were adapted for other, typically urban purposes. In the 1990s, mainly the smaller yards on the West coast managed to survive, focusing on ship conversions and repairs as well as an increasing specialization toward ships serving the offshore oil and gas exploration and extraction industry. Since then, a big portion of all larger ships delivered from Norwegian yards has been made up of such customized, technologically advanced offshore support vessels (OSVs). Other types of customized, advanced ships, such as fishing vessels, live fish carriers, research vessels, cruise ships, mega yachts, and naval ships, have also been relevant market segments. Though of far less historic significance over the last 20 years, they have helped counteract crises in the offshore segment over the years.
Purpose
Investigating the beginning of project management (app. 30 BC) with a focus on business models similar to the “PDCA” cycle, the purpose of this paper is to find an approach which could be used as a new standard procedure for the eradication of projects in Lean project management.
Design/methodology/approach
Based on literature research of models similar to Walter A. Shehwart’s three-step and Edward W. Deming’s four-step (PDC(A)) wheel, the investigated models are interconnected to form a new concept which represents an innovative cycle logic proposed to be applied in Lean project management. This new cycle logic is rolled out on three different levels, which are transferred from the Lean management hoshin kanri model to Lean project management. In addition to literature research, semi-structured interviews were performed to get an indication as to the integration of Lean management (with a focus on PDCA) in project management today.
Findings
It was found that the “Check Plan Do” cycle is a Lean variant of the “Plan Do Check Act” model that is already used in consulting projects in practice, partially appears in project management standards, in governance models of ambulance, fire services, human aid and military forces and in quality management models of Six Sigma, design for Six Sigma and an excellence model of the European Foundation for Quality Management. To ensure continuous improvement it was found that the new CPD cycle can be used on different “planning” levels in analogy to the hoshin kanri logic.
Originality/value
To the best of the author’s knowledge, a discussion as to how the PDCA cycle can be adapted to Lean project management, considering the implication of business models similar to the PDCA wheel, has not yet been conducted within the field of project management.
- This paper describes the process of inducting theory using case studies from specifying the research questions to reaching closure. Some features of the process, such as problem definition and construct validation, are similar to hypothesis-testing research. Others, such as within-case analysis and replication logic, are unique to the inductive, case-oriented process. Overall, the process described here is highly iterative and tightly linked to data. This research approach is especially appropriate in new topic areas. The resultant theory is often novel, testable, and empirically valid. Finally, framebreaking insights, the tests of good theory (e.g., parsimony, logical coherence), and convincing grounding in the evidence are the key criteria for evaluating this type of research.
Since the Last Planner System® (LPS) was devised in the early 90s, a number of studies have pointed out the need to understand the underlying theory in which it is based on. The Language-Action Perspective (LAP) has been suggested as a suitable approach to understand the management of commitments in the LPS. This paper aims to assess the contribution of LAP to understand construction planning and control systems based on LPS. Two case studies were carried out in different construction companies, both highly experienced on the use of LPS. The results reveal the role of LAP for creating explicit representations of commitment flows that can be used to explain the sources of complexity and failures in planning systems, as well as for describing the profile of planning and control meetings.
Short delivery times are considered a competitive advantage in the engineer-to-order (ETO) sector. Design-related tasks contribute to a substantial amount of delivery times and costs since ETO products have to be either fully developed or adapted to customer specifications within tendering or order fulfillment. Approaches aiming at a computerised automation of tasks related to the design process, often termed design automation or knowledge-based engineering, are generally regarded as an effective means to achieve lead time and cost reductions while maintaining, or even improving product quality. In this study we propose a maturity model as a framework for analyzing and improving such activities in ETO companies. We contribute to the literature in being the first to investigate design automation in the ETO sector from a maturity perspective. Beyond that, we extend the extant literature on design automation, which is of a highly technical nature, by providing a framework considering organizational and managerial aspects. The findings indicate that five different levels of maturity can be achieved across the dimensions strategies, processes, systems, and people. Empirical cases give insight into these different levels. Our investigation draws from extant literature and a comparative case study involving four companies over two years.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to examine the perceptions of local project teams on critical success factors and project success in the context of international development projects in Maldives. It identifies the critical success factors of international development projects, examines how the success of international development projects in Maldives is perceived by local project team members, and analyzes the relationship between critical success factors and project success from the project teams’ perspective.
Design/methodology/approach
– A survey questionnaire was used and 41 project team members participated in the study. Correlation analysis and regression analysis were performed to understand the relationship with project success and critical success factors.
Findings
– The study found out that the levels of success of projects were perceived high among the project teams. The results indicated that monitoring CSF, coordination CSF, design CSF, training CSF, and institutional environment CSF had a significant relationship with project success. However, results of the regression analysis indicated that only monitoring CSF was significant in influencing project success.
Research limitations/implications
– The limited sample size and optimism bias of respondents were a constraint. Furthermore, further analysis of data may be required to advance analysis.
Originality/value
– The study looks through the lens of project implementation teams in order to provide insights from their vantage point. The study provides insights based on the Maldivian context which will benefit similar island nation communities implementing similar projects.
Planning, scheduling, controlling and measuring design and engineering activities is challenged nowadays not only by the strong competition, but also by the technology and the way projects are organized.The project organization challenges the planning process through its variety of people, organizations and cultures participating along the whole building project.Concurrent engineering is a building method dependent on a dynamic planning process that integrates and coordinates all the entities involved in the project. 3D modeling is a tool that necessitates more specialized engineers and a more collaborative way of engineering a project. It seems that today’s planning systems fail to take into consideration these challenges. This literature review is an attempt to find if and how the fields of project management and lean construction deal with planning and measuring design/engineering activities in a concurrent engineering process that is globally dispersed both on engineering and on production part of a project.
The project management community is currently investing substantially in the development of viable methods to assess and improve project management maturity. This investment often drives a corresponding need to monitor progress—internally and with respect to other similar organizations. To support this need, this research provides a cross-industry benchmark of project management maturity. Based on a survey of 123 firms, this research determined that nearly 67% of the organizations are currently at an overall project management maturity of level 2 (out of 5) or below. Additionally, the research concludes the level of project management maturity is statistically consistent between industries and among companies of varying size.
In this paper, a visual, data-driven operational level lean maturity model is developed. The model can be used to assess level of lean maturity and to compare it to performance results in different axes of manufacturing cells in order to evaluate lean effectiveness. As demonstrated in this paper, to measure effectiveness of lean manufacturing, both inputs (tools and processes) and outputs (performance) are measured separately and analyzed together. A case study is carried out for gathering data, analysis, and explanatory study of results. Qualitative and quantitative data on lean capability and performance of two manufacturing cells is collected using historical data and audit. A scoring system based on the major and minor non-conformances is suggested to quantify the indicators of leanness. Minimum of fuzzy membership values is selected to calculate overall performance. Then, the results of leanness are compared with performance to highlight the gaps of lean effectiveness. Results of the study show that the developed model can be used to measure both leanness and lean effectiveness through assessment of lean performance. The model can be applied by practitioners as a framework to design and develop a company-specific lean maturity model.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to conceptualize archetypes of engineer-to-order (ETO) to support companies in determining the appropriate degree of design standardization and automation, and as a result achieve superior performance. Products of ETO manufacturers are classified in a 2×2 matrix using annual units sold and engineering complexity as dimensions.
Design/methodology/approach
– This research adopted a theory refining approach based on multiple case studies. Seven ETO manufacturers from different industry sectors participated in the study. Data collection was primarily based on a series of in-depth interviews supported by observations and archival sources.
Findings
– The paper proposes four distinct archetypes of ETO (complex, basic, repeatable, and non-competitive) and empirically validates three of them. The organizational structures and processes most suitable for the different archetypes are described, and standardization and automation strategies are linked to the quadrants of the matrix. The matrix can support practitioners in making strategic choices and provides a framework for benchmarking their ETO products and processes.
Originality/value
– Existing conceptualizations of ETO consider the company as the primary object of investigation, rather than the product or product family. However, companies often have different product families demanding different strategies. Also, there is little or no focus on the engineering perspective. The authors move the engineering perspective to the center of investigation and identify a set of standardization and automation strategies for different types of ETO products.
The success framework describes performance aspects of large-scale engineering programs. It consists of 26 metrics in 5 categories. They are: 1. Enterprise strategy alignment, 2. Performance and quality, 3. Learning and change, 4. Process quality and efficiency, and 5. Financial and business success. It adds to the current literature accounting for added complexity and uncertainty when progressing from the project to the engineering program level. The findings are based on an extensive literature review and validation through an industry focus group.
Purpose
– Engineer-to-order (ETO) supply chains involve multiple companies for performing complex projects. The ability to effectively coordinate cross-business activities is essential to avoid delays, cost overruns and quality problems. Coordination is related to a number of contingent factors that need to be better comprehended. The purpose of this paper is to highlight such contingent factors and to analyse their effect on the occurrence of project delays.
Design/methodology/approach
– A multiple case study is used to investigate the moderating factors affecting coordination in projects carried out in an ETO supply chain. Such factors are examined through a cross-analysis of six shipbuilding projects based on data from interviews, project documentation and clips from the media press.
Findings
– In ETO supply chains, the engineering and production activities involve mutual interdependences that need to be coordinated. The findings suggest that both the integration of engineering and production and the production capability are the most critical factors influencing coordination in an ETO supply chain.
Research limitations/implications
– The study was carried out within shipbuilding projects as a setting to represent the ETO domain. To extend the findings, further research can examine other types of projects, such as: oil and gas, construction, military and aerospace.
Practical implications
– In practice, there is no “one-fits-all” solution for coordination. Each project represents a unique context which has specific objectives, actors and constraints. From that perspective, this study provides a basis to comprehend coordination in a complex setting.
Originality/value
– This study builds knowledge upon coordination by generating a number of propositions regarding the effectiveness of coordination on avoiding delays in complex projects carried out in ETO supply chains. Focusing on the engineering and production activities, the authors extend the existing theory by demonstrating that coordination can vary according to the level of several moderating factors.
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Currently, one of the main challenges for most of the shipbuilding companies is to manage the activities performed by a network of suppliers worldwide. Empirical evidence shows that the lack of integration and coordination between partners of the same supply chain affects the quality and the delivery date. Supply chain management (SCM) has been proposed to manage the flow of material, information, and service through the supply chain. However, the literature has dedicated significant emphasis to the high-volume sector, while other sectors have been largely ignored. Different approaches for SCM should be considered according to the characteristics of each industry. Therefore, this paper was proposed to provide an understanding of the role of SCM in the shipbuilding industry. A review of the literature identifies the main concepts, principles, and methods of SCM, and a case study provides a discussion of the barriers to implementing them. The results showed that SCM in shipbuilding depends essentially on improving the relationship with suppliers and adopting appropriate information and communication technology (ICT).
Maturity models are valuable instruments for IT managers because they allow the assessment of the current situation of a company as well as the identification of reasonable improvement measures. Over the last few years, more than a hundred maturity models have been developed to support IT management. They address a broad range of different application areas, comprising holistic assessments of IT management as well as appraisals of specific subareas (e. g. Business Process Management, Business Intelligence).
The evergrowing number of maturity models indicates a certain degree of arbitrariness concerning their development processes. Especially, this is highlighted by incomplete documentation of methodologies applied for maturity model development.
In this paper, we will try to work against this trend by proposing requirements concerning the development of maturity models. A selection of the few well-documented maturity models is compared to these requirements. The results lead us to a generic and consolidated procedure model for the design of maturity models. It provides a manual for the theoretically founded development and evaluation of maturity models. Finally, we will apply this procedure model to the development of the IT Performance Measurement Maturity Model (ITPM3).
Engineer-to-order (ETO) firms comprise approximately one-fourth of all North American manufacturing, and the number is growing. These firms produce complex one-of-a-kind products and, like most firms, desire shorter lead times as a key component to cost competitiveness. In ETO firms, the engineering process is the largest controllable consumer of lead time using one-half of the total. Hence, one critical process is to accurately determine the engineering due date. However, unlike other manufacturing models such as Make to Stock or Make to Order, the design for an ETO product is not realised until after the engineering process has been completed; therefore, the only information available does not include data normally required by most due date-setting algorithms. The question then becomes how does one accurately determine the engineering due date in a complex transactional process when the job has not even been designed yet? This paper investigates this issue in the context of the engineering process within the ETO model. Analytical research is conducted in conjunction with multiple ETO firms. Several common factors are identified which drive complexity in the ETO engineering environment. A new framework and algorithm are then presented for using these factors to predict ETO engineering flow times in the absence of normally assumed information. Comparison of the performance of this new algorithm with that reported in the literature shows it to be a statistically significant improvement.
Context: Maturity models offer organizations a simple but effective possibility to measure the quality of their processes. Emerged out of software engineering, the application fields have widened and maturity model research is becoming more important. During the last two decades the publication amount steadily rose as well. Until today, no studies have been available summarizing the activities and results of the field of maturity model research. Objective: The objective of this paper is to structure and analyze the available literature of the field of maturity model research to identify the state-of-the-art research as well as research gaps. Method: A systematic mapping study was conducted. It included relevant publications of journals and IS conferences. Mapping studies are a suitable method for structuring a broad research field concerning research questions about contents, methods, and trends in the available publications. Results: The mapping of 237 articles showed that current maturity model research is applicable to more than 20 domains, heavily dominated by software development and software engineering. The study revealed that most publications deal with the development of maturity models and empirical studies. Theoretical reflective publications are scarce. Furthermore, the relation between conceptual and design-oriented maturity model development was analyzed, indicating that there is still a gap in evaluating and validating developed maturity models. Finally, a comprehensive research framework was derived from the study results and implications for further research are given. Conclusion: The mapping study delivers the first systematic summary of maturity model research. The categorization of available publications helps researchers gain an overview of the state-of-the-art research and current research gaps. The proposed research framework supports researchers categorizing their own projects. In addition, practitioners planning to use a maturity model may use the study as starting point to identify which maturity models are suitable for their domain and where limitations exist.
This paper describes the application of an Operations Strategy (OS) approach to project-based operations (PBOs), defined as low to medium volume and medium to high variety operations. The OS approach has been extensively and beneficially used in high and medium volume operations. By examining the development of OS from its genesis in manufacturing operations, we identify four aspects of the OS approach — strategic intent, focus, fit and resource configuration. These elevate the discussion of how to configure resources to gain competitive advantage from PBOs, to the level of business leaders. The four aspects are then analysed in greater detail, with a view to determining the adaptations required for application in a PBO.
The results of this engaged study indicate that the approach delivered significant new insight for the organisation involved in the study. The contributions of this paper are identified for both practice and theory. For practice we demonstrate an alternative to a reliance on standards and process compliance to an opportunity to gain competitive advantage from PBOs. For theory, we have extended OS into PBOs and provide a basis for future theory testing. We conclude that there is a significant opportunity for further practical and theory development through using an OS perspective.