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Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B — Soil & Plant
Science
ISSN: 0906-4710 (Print) 1651-1913 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/sagb20
Clinical aspects and health benefits of ginger
(Zingiber officinale) in both traditional Chinese
medicine and modern industry
Mohamad Hesam Shahrajabian, Wenli Sun & Qi Cheng
To cite this article: Mohamad Hesam Shahrajabian, Wenli Sun & Qi Cheng (2019): Clinical
aspects and health benefits of ginger (Zingiber�officinale) in both traditional Chinese medicine
and modern industry, Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B — Soil & Plant Science, DOI:
10.1080/09064710.2019.1606930
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09064710.2019.1606930
Published online: 24 Apr 2019.
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REVIEW
Clinical aspects and health benefits of ginger (Zingiber officinale) in both
traditional Chinese medicine and modern industry
Mohamad Hesam Shahrajabian
a,b
, Wenli Sun
a,b
and Qi Cheng
a,b
a
Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China;
b
Nitrogen Fixation Laboratory,
Qi Institute, Jiaxing, People’s Republic of China
ABSTRACT
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) has been used as a spice and medicine for over 200 years in Traditional
Chinese Medicine. It is an important plant with several medicinal, and nutritional values used in
Asian and Chinese Tradition medicine. Ginger and its general compounds such as Fe, Mg, Ca,
vitamin C, flavonoids, phenolic compounds (gingerdiol, gingerol, gingerdione and shogaols),
sesquiterpenes, paradols has long been used as an herbal medicine to treat various symptoms
including vomiting, pain, cold symptoms and it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory, anti-
apoptotic, anti-tumour activities, anti-pyretic, anti-platelet, anti-tumourigenic, anti-
hyperglycaemic, antioxidant anti-diabetic, anti-clotting and analgesic properties, cardiotonic,
cytotoxic. It has been widely used for arthritis, cramps, sprains, sore throats, rheumatism,
muscular aches, pains, vomiting, constipation, indigestion, hypertension, dementia, fever and
infectious diseases. Ginger leaves have also been used for food-flavouring and Asian Traditional
Medicine especially in China. Ginger oil also used as food-flavouring agent in soft drink, as spices
in bakery products, in confectionary items, pickles, sauces and as preservatives. Ginger is
available in three forms, namely fresh root ginger, preserved ginger and dried ginger. The
pharmacological activities of ginger were mainly attributed to its active phytocompounds 6-
gingerol, 6-shogaol, zingerone beside other phenolics and flavonoids. Gingerol and shogaol in
particular, is known to have anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In both Traditional
Chinese Medicine, and modern China, Ginger is used in about half of all herbal prescriptions.
Traditional medicinal plants are often cheaper, locally available and easily consumable raw and
as simple medicinal preparations. The obtained findings suggest potential of ginger extract as an
additive in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 28 January 2019
Accepted 9 April 2019
KEYWORDS
Superfood; superfruit;
traditional Asian medicine;
Western medicine;
pharmacological science
Introduction
Ginger occurrence and cultivation
Traditionally, Chinese medicine includes herbal medi-
cines and acupuncture (Akinyemi et al. 2016; Ogbaji
et al. 2018; Shahrajabian et al. 2018). Zingiber officinale
is a member of the Zingiberaceae plant family, native to
East and southern Asia, consisting of 49 genera and
1300 species, 80–90 of which are Zingiber. Its generic
name Zingiber is derived from the Greek zingiberis,
which comes from the Sanskrit name of the spice, singa-
bera; the Latin name, Zingiber, means shaped like a horn
and refers to the roots, which resemble a deer
,
s antlers.
The plant is known as Sringavera in Sanskrit (Vasala
2004). Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe.) has a long
history of being used as a medicine and herbal since
ancient time and had been used as an important
cooking spice throughout the world (Nour et al. 2017).
It is a plant that is used in folk medicine from south-
east Asia, and in Greco-Roman traditions, Brazil, Australia,
Africa, China, India, Bangladesh, Taiwan, Mexico, Japan,
Jamaica, the India, the middle east and parts of the
United States also cultivate the rhizomes for medicinal
purpose (Langner et al. 1998; Blumenthal et al. 2000;
Sekiwa et al. 2000; Yadav et al. 2016). El Sayed and Mous-
tafa (2016) reported that ginger rhizome is widely used
as a spice or condiment.
Ginger and the Silk Road
For centuries has been an important ingredient in Tra-
ditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurvedic, and Unani-Tibb
herbal medicines for the treatment of different diseases
(Willetts et al. 2003; Ali et al. 2008; Memudu et al.
2012). Zingiber officinale was also one of the first oriental
spices to be grown to the Europeans, it was introduced
to northern Europe by the Romans who got it from
Arab traders and was one of the most popular spices in
© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
CONTACT Qi Cheng chengqi@caas.cn Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, People’s Republic of
China; Nitrogen Fixation Laboratory, Qi Institute, Building C4, No.555 Chuangye, Jiaxing 314000, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China
ACTA AGRICULTURAE SCANDINAVICA, SECTION B —SOIL & PLANT SCIENCE
https://doi.org/10.1080/09064710.2019.1606930
the Middle Ages (Kala et al. 2016). Alakali et al. (2009) also
mentioned that ginger was one of the earliest oriental
species known in Europe in the ninth century, in the thir-
teenth century, it was introduced to East Africa by the
Arabs. In West African and other parts of the tropics, it
was introduced by the Portuguese in the sixteenth
century (Kochhar 1981). The spice was known in
Germany and France in the ninth century and in
England in the tenth century for its medicinal properties
(Yadav et al. 2016). Elzebroek and Wind (2008) found that
Marco Polo, introduced to ginger while visiting China
and Sumatra in the thirteenth century, transported
some to Europe. They have also discussed how the culti-
vation of ginger in Mexico was initiated by the Spaniard,
Francesco de Mendoza. In China, dried Ginger, known as
Gan-jiang is mentioned in the earliest of herbals, She
Nung Ben Cao Jing, attributed to Emperor Shen Nung
(almost 2000 BC). Chinese records dating from fourth
century BC indicate that Ginger was used to treat numer-
ous conditions including stomachache, diarrhoea,
nausea, cholera, haemorrhage, rheumatism, and tooth-
aches. Not only in Traditional Chinese Medicine, but
also in modern China, Ginger is used in about half of
all herbal prescriptions, because of its ability to act as
messenger, servant and guide herb that brings other
herbal medicines to the site where they are needed
(Afzal et al. 2001). Ginger cultivation back about 3000
years ago in India, and it remains an integral part of
Indian cuisine where it is commonly used in many
popular dishes (Daily et al. 2015). Lister (2003) revealed
that the ginger plant has a long history of cultivation
known to originate in China and it was one of the most
parts of Chinese Traditional Medicine, and then spread
to India, Southeast Asia, West Africa and the Caribbean.
In Korea, ginger has been used to season foods for the
last 1000 years approximately (Daily et al. 2015). Sliced
ginger with sugar added is used to make tea, pickled
ginger slices (Gari) are frequently used a condiment in
Japan, and ginger is commonly used to flavour cookies
and cakes in Western countries.
Ginger classification and variation in species
Z. officinale Roscoe classification is Kingdom: Plantae-
Plants, Subkingdom: Tracheobionta-Vascular plants,
Superdivision: Spermatophyta-Seed plants, Division:
Magnoliophyta-Flowering plants, Class: Liliopsida-Mono-
cotyledons, Subclass: Zingiberidae, Order: Zingiberales,
Family: Zingiberaceae –Ginger family, Genus: Zingiber
P. Mill –Ginger, Species: Zingiber officinale Roscoe –
Garden ginger.
Red Ginger (Z. officinale var. Rubra) is a variance of the
Z. Officinale species cultivated in Indonesia and Malaysia.
Moreover, having gingerols and shogaols, it is loaded
with anthocyanin and tannin in its root bark. Tradition-
ally, it is used in species, syrup and as a remedy for rheu-
matism, osteoporosis, asthma and cough.
Some of the countries grow with variation in species
viz: Indian, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka ginger –(Z.
officinale), Jamaican ginger –(Z. officinale), Chinese
ginger –(Asarum splendens), Australian ginger –(Alpinia
caerulea), Nigerian ginger –(Z. officinale white and
yellow variety), Japanese ginger –(Zingiber mioga), Indo-
nesian ginger –(Alpinia galangal), and Hawaiian Island –
(Zingiber zerumbet) (Sandeep 2017). Common names of
Ginger in different countries are, Chinese: Geung, Cook
Islands: Kopakai, English: Ginger, Fiji: Cagolaya ni vava-
lagi, Hawaiian: Awapuhi Pake, India: Adrak and Inchi,
Japan: Shoga, Java: San gurng, Gung Guung, San
geong, Atjuga, Niue: Poloi, Solomon Islands: Papasa,
Spanish: Jengibre, Thailand: Khing, Vietnamese: Gung.
Black ginger, the rhizome of Kaempferia parviflora
(Zingiberaceae), has traditionally been used as food and
a folk medicine for one thousand year in Asian Tra-
ditional Medicine especially in Thailand. The dried
rhizome is pulverised and used as tea bags, while fresh
one is utilized to brew wine. As dietary supplements, it
has been made into various preparations such as medic-
inal liquor or liquor plus honey, pills, capsules and tablets.
It has been claimed that black ginger is appropriate to
cure allergy, asthma, impotence, gout, diarrhoea, dysen-
tery, peptic ulcer and diabetes (Toda et al. 2016). Other
notable member of this family (Zingiberacea) is turmeric
otherwise called red ginger (Curcuma longa) (Akinyemi
et al. 2015). It is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial
plant, in the ginger family, employed as a dye source
food colorant due to its characteristics yellow colour
(Chan et al. 2009). Ginger is a warm-season crop
adapted for growth in tropical and subtropical regions.
Best growth occurs under moist conditions and tempera-
tures of 25–28°C. Growth efficiency declines with temp-
eratures above 30°C and below 24°C. Ginger grows well
in full sun. Vegetative growth is promoted with long
day lengths, and rhizome enlargement is promoted
under shorter day lengths. Ideal pH is 5.5–6.5 and it
requires a deep (25–40 cm), rock-free, sandy loam soil,
high in organic matter with adequate drainage that
allows for proper hilling of the crop. Ginger is usually
available in three different forms: (1) Fresh (green) root
ginger, (2) Preserved ginger in brine or syrup, (3) Dried
ginger spice. Fresh ginger is usually consumed in the
area where it is produced, although it is possible to trans-
port fresh roots internationally. Both mature and imma-
ture rhizomes are consumed as a fresh vegetable.
Preserved ginger is only made from immature rhizomes.
Most preserved ginger is exported, Hong Kong, China
2M. H. SHAHRAJABIAN ET AL.
and Australia are the major producers of preserved
ginger and dominate the world market. Dried ginger
spice is produced from the mature rhizome. As the
rhizome matures the flavour and aroma become much
stronger. Dried ginger is exported, usually in large
pieces which are ground into a spice in the country of
destination. Dried ginger can be ground and used
directly as a spice and also for the extraction of ginger
oil and ginger oleoresin.
Ginger nutritional composition and chemical
constituents
The main area under ginger covering is related to Nigeria
56.23% of the total global area followed by India (23.6%),
China (4.47%), Indonesia (3.37%), and Bangladesh (2.32%)
(Dhanik et al. 2017). Top ten Ginger producing country of
the world has been shown in Table 1. Nutritional compo-
sition of ginger is shown in Table 2. Nutritional profile of
Ginger (100 g) has been mentioned in Table 3.
Minerals content of ginger for ginger root (Ground)
consists of Calcium (114 mg per 100 g), Iron (19.8 mg
per 100 g), Magnesium (214 mg per 100 g), Manganese
(33.3 mg per 100 g), Phosphorus (168 mg per 100 g), Pot-
assium (1320 mg per 100 g), Sodium (27 mg per 100 g),
and Zink (3.64 mg per 100 g), and minerals contents
for ginger root (Raw) are Calcium (16 mg per 100 g),
Iron (0.6 mg per 100 g), Magnesium (43 mg per 100 g),
Phosphorus (34 mg per 100 g), Potassium (415 mg per
100 g), Sodium (13 mg per 100 g), and Zink (0.34 mg
per 100 g) (USDA 2013). It was found that ginger con-
tained 1.5%-3% essential oil, 2–12% fixed oil, 40–70%
starch, 6–20% protein, 3–8% fibre, 8% ash, 9–12%
water, pungent principles, other saccharides, cellulose,
colouring matter and trace minerals (Chan et al. 2009).
Ginger is called by different names in different parts of
the world such as Zingiberis rhizome, Shen jiany, Cochin,
Asia ginger, Africa ginger and Jamaican ginger (Peter
2000). Kala et al. (2016) stated that ginger oil also used
as food-flavouring agent in soft drink, as spices in
bakery products, in confectionary items, pickles, sauces
and as preservatives. There is variability in the com-
pounding of ginger products (Table 4). The relative com-
position in the extraction of ginger is determined by
species of ginger, maturity of the rhizome, climate in
which the plants are grown, when harvested, and prep-
aration method of the extract (Grzanna et al. 2005).
Gaur et al. (2016) also reported that agro-climatic con-
ditions are known to influence the production of second-
ary metabolites in ginger rhizome when same cultivar is
grown in two different locations. Ginger is affected by
leaf spots, leaves may have small, whitish spots with
yellow edges; these get larger and spread, making the
leaf yellow then brown, killing it. Early in the crop, it
can cause severe losses. Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia spp.
and Pseudomonas solanacearum have been found in dis-
eased leaves. Ginger propagation is usually performed
with rhizome but has a lot of obstacles, the obstacles
among other is the availability of good quality seed
rhizome (Melati et al. 2016). Rhizome again, filled out,
no wrinkles, bright shiny skin colour, and free of pests
attacks is characteristics of high-quality seed (Hasanah
et al. 2004).
Medicinal uses and potential health benefits
in traditional medicine
Ginger has direct anti-microbial activity and thus can be
used in the treatment of bacterial infections (Tan and
Vanitha 2004). In Traditional Chinese Medicine, it is
employed in colic and in atonic dyspepsia and used as
a stimulant (Keys 1985; Grant and Lutz 2000; Sharma
2017; Yilmaz et al. 2018). Ginger is regarded as a Yang
herb, which can decrease Yin and nourish the body (Jit-
tiwat and Wattanathorn 2012). Mishra et al. (2012) also
revealed that ginger in Traditional Chinese Medicine,
Table 1. Top ten ginger producing country of the world (Dhanik
et al. 2017).
No. Country Production (Tonnes)
1 India 683,000
2 China 425,000
3 Nepal 235,033
4 Indonesia 232,669
5 Nigeria 160,000
6 Thailand 140,000
7 Bangladesh 69,000
8 Japan 57,835
9 Cameroon 46,350
10 Philippines 28,216
Table 2. Nutritional composition of ginger (per 100 g) (Sandeep
2017).
Constituent Value
Moisture 15.02 ± 0.04
Protein (g) 5.087 ± 0.09 (5.98)
Fat (g) 3.72 ± 0.03 (4.37)
Insoluble fibre (%) 23.5 ± 0.04 (30.0)
Soluble fibre (%) 25.5 ± 0.04 (30.0)
Carbohydrate (g) 38.35 ± 0.1
Vitamin C (mg) 9.33 ± 0.08 (10.97)
Total carotenoids (mg) 79 ± 0.2 (92.96)
Ash (g) 3.85 ± 0.61 (4.53)
Calcium (mg) 88.4 ± 0.97 (104.02)
Phosphorous (mg) 174 ± 1.2 (204.75)
Iron (mg) 8.0 ± 0.2 (9.41)
Zinc (mg) 0.92 ± 0 (1.08)
Copper (mg) 0.545 ± 0.002 (0.641)
Manganese (mg) 9.13 ± 0.01(10.74)
Chromium (µg) 70 ± 0 (83.37)
All value in this table represent the mean ± SD (n= 4).
Figures in the parenthesis represent the dry weight values (Shirin Adel and
Prakash 2010).
ACTA AGRICULTURAE SCANDINAVICA, SECTION B —SOIL & PLANT SCIENCE 3
characterised as spicy and hot, and it is claimed to warm
the body and treat cold extremities, improves a weak
and tardy pulse, address a pale complexion, and
strengthen the body after blood loss. In Traditional
Chinese Medicine as herbal therapy against several cardi-
ovascular diseases (Wynn et al. 2001).
Based on the historical usage of ginger as an antie-
metic agent in the East Traditional Medicine. The antie-
metic effect of ginger has been known as a treatment
method in traditional medicine especially the Chinese
and Iranian Medicine (Eric Chan et al. 2011; Palatty
et al. 2013; Naderi et al. 2016; Soltani et al. 2018).
Sharma (2017) explained that many of herbs and plant
extracts such as ginger are based on what has been
used as part of Traditional Medicine Systems and there
is a large body of anecdotal evidence supporting their
use and efficacy. Some other researchers emphasised
that ginger plays an important role in Ayurvedic,
Chinese, Arabic and African traditional medicines used
to treat headaches, nausea, colds, arthritis, rheumatism,
muscular discomfort and inflammation (Baliga et al.
2011; Dehghani et al. 2011). Recently, ginger rhizomes
are used in Traditional Medicine as therapy against
several cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension
(Ghayur et al. 2005). Niksokhan et al. (2014) reported
that ginger has been used in Traditional Medicine of
Iran as an anti-edema drug and is used for the treatment
of various diseases including nausea, gastrointestinal dis-
orders, respiratory disorders, athero-sclerosis, migraine,
depression, gastric ulcer, cholesterol; and other benefits
of giner are reducing pain, rheumatoid arthritis, anti-
inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. Surh et al.
(1998), and Manju and Nalini (2010) mentioned that
ginger is one of the most widely used spices in India
and has been utilised frequently in traditional oriental
medicine for common cold, digestive disorders and
rheumatism. Ursell (2000) and Oludoyin and Adegoke
(2014) reported that ginger is a perennial plant with
narrow, bright green, grass-like leaves, and it is cultivated
in the tropics for its edible rhizomes and has been found
to be useful for both culinary and medicinal purposes.
Schwertner and Rios (2007) reported that the main com-
ponents of ginger are 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 8-gingerol,
and 10-gingerol and these constituents have previously
been shown to exhibit strong antioxidant activity. 6-gin-
gerol was reported as the most abundant bioactive com-
pound in ginger with various pharmacological effects
including antioxidant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory and
antipyretic properties (Kundu and Surh 2009;Dugasani
et al. 2010). The shogaols can be partially transformed
to paradols upon cooking or metabolised to paradols in
the animals
,
body after being consumed and absorbed
by digestive system (Wei et al. 2017). Gingerol and
shogaol in particular, is known to have anti-oxidant and
anti-inflammatory properties (Kim et al. 2005)(Figure 1).
Medicinal uses and potential health benefits
in modern medicine industry
Ginger extract can remove disorders caused by oxidative
stresses as a strong anti-oxidant. Studies have shown
that extant phenolic compounds and anthocyanins
including gingerols and the sugevals had many neuro
protective effects such as analgesic effects, memory
improvement, and learning caused by the aging
process (Fadaki et al. 2017). For culinary purposes
ginger is suitable for all dished both sweet such as
drinks, puddings, apple pie, cakes, breads, candies, etc;
and savoury such as soups, sauces, stews, savoury
Table 3. Nutritional profile of ginger (100 g) (Singh et al. 2017).
Types of nutrient Examples of nutrient Amount
Protein –1.8 g
Water –78.9 g
Phyto-sterols –15 mg
Total carbohydrate 18 g
Carbohydrates Dietary fibre 2 g
Sugar 1.7 g
Total fat 750 mg
Saturated fat 203 mg
Fats and Fatty acids Monounsaturated fat 154 mg
Polyunsaturated fat 154 mg
Omega-3 fatty acids 34 mg
Omega-6 fatty acids 120 mg
Vitamin C 5 mg
Vitamin E 260 mcg
Vitamin K 0.1 mcg
Thiamin 25 mcg
Vitamins Riboflavin 34 mcg
Niacin 750 mcg
Vitamin B6 160 mcg
Folic acid 11 mcg
Pantothenic acid 203 mcg
Choline 28.8 mg
Calcium 16 mg
Iron 600 mcg
Magnesium 43 mg
Phosphorous 34 mg
Minerals Potassium 415 mg
Sodium 13 mg
Zink 340 mcg
Copper 226 mcg
Manganese 229 mcg
Selenium 0.7 mcg
Table 4. Active chemical constituents of ginger (Kathi 1999).
Phenols
Volatile
Sesquiterpenes Others
Gingerols and
Shogoals
Bisapolene,
Zingiberene,
Zingiberol,
Sesquiphellandrene,
Curcurmene
6-dehydrogingerdione,
Galanolactone,
Gingesulfonic acid,
Zingerone,
Geraniol,
Neral,
Monoacyldigalactosylglycerols,
Gingerglycolipids
4M. H. SHAHRAJABIAN ET AL.
puddings, grills, roasts, etc. (Oludoyin and Adegoke
2014). Oludoyin and Adegoke (2014) stated that the
active hypoglycaemic component of ginger was not
affected by heat, hence, the consumption of ginger in
raw and cooked forms in different cuisines maybe an
effective regimen in the management of diabetes. Simi-
larly, the medicinal uses of ginger are enormous such as
exert anti-microbial, anti nausea (Portnoi et al. 2003), anti
pyretic (Suekawa et al. 1984), analgesic, anti-inflamma-
tory, hypoglycaemic (Ojewole 2006; Young et al. 2005),
anti ulcer, antiemetic (Mascolo et al. 1989), cardio tonic,
anti-hypertensive (Ghayur and Gilani 2005), hypolipi-
demic (Al-Amin et al. 2006), anti-platelet aggregation
(Bordia et al. 1997)effects in both laboratory animals
and human subjects. Turmeric is one of the main ingre-
dients for curry powder, and used as an alternative to
medicine and can be made into a drink to treat colds
and stomach complaints (Chan et al. 2009). In folk medi-
cine, turmeric has been used in lowering blood pressure
and as tonic and blood purifier (The Wealth of India
2001). Phytochemical investigation of several types of
ginger rhizomes has indicated the presence of bioactive
compounds, such as gingerols, which are antibacterial
agents and shogaols, phenylbutenoids, diarylheptanoids,
flavanoids, diterpenoids, and sesquiterpenoids (Siva-
sothy et al. 2011; El Makawy et al. 2019). It has been
proved in some researches that ginger leaves has great
potential to be developed into functional foods and
other health products, because it has higher antioxidant
activity than rhizomes and flowers (Park et al. 2014).
When compared to the Indian varieties, the Chinese
ginger is low in pungency and is principally exported
as preserves in sugar syrup or as sugar candy (Govindar-
ajan 1982). Semwal et al. (2015) reported that an infusion
of ginger rhizomes with brown sugar is administered to
relieve common colds, while scrambled eggs with pow-
dered ginger is taken as a home remedy to reduce
coughing in China. While, ginger is used in the United
States as a remedy to alleviate motion sickness and
morning sickness during pregnancy and to reduce hear
cramps (Semwal et al. 2015). Furthermore, there are
many studies that proved their beneficial effects
against the symptoms of diseases, acting as anti-inflam-
matory, anti-tumour, anodyne, neuronal cell protective,
anti-fungal and anti-bacterial agent (Mesomo et al.
2012; Yassen and Ibrahim 2016). Various ginger com-
pounds and extracts have been tested as anti-inflamma-
tory agents, where the length of the side chains
determines the level of the effectiveness (Bartels et al.
2015). But, a combination of ginger extracts is more
effective in decreasing inflammatory mediators than an
individual compound (Lantz et al. 2007). The active ingre-
dients in ginger are thought to reside in its volatile oils
(Aldhebiani et al. 2017). The major ingredients in
ginger oil are bisabolene, zingiberene, and zingiberol
(Moghaddasi and Kashani 2012). Some other scientists
noted that the interest in ginger is endorsed to its
several biologically active compounds content such as
gingerol, shogaols, gingerdiol, gingerdione, α-zingiber-
ene, curcumin, and β-sesqui-phellandrene (Zhao et al.
2011). Ginger has been part of the folk medicine and
popular nutraceuticals (Bartels et al. 2015). Ginger con-
sists of a complex combination of biologically active con-
stituents, of which compounds gingerols, shogoals and
paradols reportedly account for the majority of its anti-
cancer inflammatory properties (Tjendraputra et al.
2001). 6-paradol was suggested as a therapeutic agent
to effectively protect the brain after cerebral ischemia,
likely by attenuating neuroinflammation in microglia
(Gaire et al. 2015). Zinger officinale used as a condiment
in several countries but also it acts as a treatment for ail-
ments; for instance, gastrointestinal disorders, colds,
arthritis, hypertension and migraines (White 2007; Hos-
seini and Mirazi 2015). Maghbooli et al. (2014)
Figure 1. Structure of 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol and 6-shogaol (Zick et al. 2010).
ACTA AGRICULTURAE SCANDINAVICA, SECTION B —SOIL & PLANT SCIENCE 5
confirmed the efficiency of ginger powder in the therapy
of common migraine attacks and its similarity to the anti-
epileptic drug. Many studies have reported that Ginger
has useful effects to cancer prevention (Lee et al. 2008),
also the treatment of nausea and vomiting due to preg-
nancy and chemotherapy (Pongrojpaw et al. 2007; Ryan
et al. 2012). The anti-spasmodic effect of Ginger is due to
the blocked of cyclooxygenase and 5-lipoxygenase (Van
Breemen et al. 2011). Also, It has been reported that
ginger lowers blood pressure through blockade of
voltage-dependent calcium channels (Ghayur and
Gilani 2005). Khaki et al. (2012) reported that ginger
has a protective effect against DNA damage induced
by H
2
O
2
and maybe promising in enhancing healthy
sperm parameters. In Iran, traditionally ginger rhizome
was used for enhancing male sexuality, regulating
female menstrual cycle, and also reducing painful men-
strual periods (Hafez 2010). Adib Rad et al. (2018)
reported that ginger as well as Novafen is effective in
relieving pain in girls with primary dysmenorrhoea, and
treatment with natural herbal medicine, non-synthetic
drug, is recommended to reduce primary dysmenor-
rhoea. Karangiya et al. (2016) concluded that the sup-
plementation of garlic improves the performance of
broilers when added at the rate of 1% of broiler and
can be a viable alternative to antibiotic growth promoter
in the feeding of broiler chicken. Manju and Nalini (2010)
found that ginger supplementation to 1,2-dimethyl
hydrazine (DMH) treated rats inhibited colon carcinogen-
esis, as evidenced by the significantly decreased number
and incidence of tumours; in addition ginger optimised
tissue lipid peroxidation and antioxidant status in DMH
treated rats. Dinesh et al. (2015) suggested that for
growth promotion and management of soft rot disease
in ginger, GRB35 B. amyloliquefaciens and GRB68
S. marcescens could be good alternatives to chemical
measures; they also recommend the use of
B. amyloliquefaciens for integration into nutrient and
disease management schedules for ginger cultivation.
Mahassni and Bukhari (2019) found that the extract of
ginger rhizome have different effects on cells and anti-
bodies of the immune system in smokers and non-
smokers, although both benefited from enhancement
of the thyroid gland. In their research, it has been
found that ginger maybe beneficial for smokers with
anaemia, while for non-smokers, it may lead to a stronger
antibody response or humoral immunity against infec-
tions. Vemuri et al. (2017) found that aqueous natural
extracts mixtures (NE mix) prepared from common
spice like ginger is a potential alternative therapeutic
approach in certain types of cancer. Bartels et al. (2015)
concluded that ginger maybe considered as a part of
the symptomatic treatment of osteoarthritis (OA),
where the patient is motivated for trying this nutraceuti-
cal. Schnitzer (2002) mentioned that evidences is now
provided suggesting that it may have a place in the man-
agement of OA of the knee, and coated ginger extract
maybe considered for this purpose in the future. Adib
Rad et al. (2018) found that Ginger reduced menstrual
pain, and it is effective in relieving pain in girls with
primary dysmenorrhoea; moreover, Drozdov et al.
(2012) mentioned that Ginger is a safe drug with
minimal side effects. Sinagra et al. (2017) reported that
ginger is an effective non-pharmacological option for
treating hyperemesis gravidarum with respect to the
inherent heterogeneity of the available studies. Gholam-
pour et al. (2017) found that ginger extract appears to
exert protective effects against ferrous sulphate-
induced hepatic and renal toxicity by reducing lipid
peroxidation and chelating iron. Atashak et al. (2014)
mentioned that 10 weeks of either ginger supplemen-
tation or progressive resistance training (PRT) protects
against oxidative stress and therefore both of these inter-
ventions can be beneficial for obese individuals. Jittiwat
and Wattanathorn (2012) demonstrated that ginger
pharmacopuncture at GV20 can improve memory
impairment following cerebal ischemia more rapidly
than acupuncture, and one probable mechanism under-
lying this effect is improved oxidative stress. Yilmaz et al.
(2018) found the positive effects of ginger in folliculo-
genesis and implantation. They have also found that
ginger may enhance implantation in rats in the long
term with low dose. In other studies, the favourable out-
comes have been reported on the positive effects of
ginger on male infertility and sperm indices (Khaki
et al. 2012; Ghlissi et al. 2013). Akinyemi et al. (2016)
described that dietary supplementation with both
types of rhizomes, namely ginger and turmeric, inhibited
arginase activity and prevented hypercholesterolaemia
in rats that received a high-cholesterol diet. In con-
clusion, these activities of ginger represent possible
mechanisms underlying its use in herbal medicine to
treat several cardiovascular diseases. Amri and Touil-
Boukoffa(2016) concluded that Ginger has an important
anti-hydatic effect in vitro, and this herbal product may
protect against host
,
s cell death by reducing the high
levels of nitric oxide (NO). They finally suggest the prom-
ising use of ginger in the treatment of Echinococcus
granulosus infection. Soltani et al. (2018) recommend
administration of oral ginger one hour before operation
to control the severity of postoperative nausea and
vomiting (PONV) in patients undergoing laparoscopic
cholecystetcomy. Daily et al. (2015) claimed that ginger
root supplementation significantly lowers blood
glucose and HbA1c levels, and when combined with
dietary and lifestyle interventions, it maybe an effective
6M. H. SHAHRAJABIAN ET AL.
intervention for managing Type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Islam et al. (2014) boiled ginger extracts can be used in
food preparation as well as against pathogenic bacteria
during active infection. Viljoen et al. (2014) suggested
potential benefits of ginger in reducing nausea symp-
toms in pregnancy. They have found that ginger could
be considered a harmless and possibly effective alterna-
tive option for women suffering from nausea and vomit-
ing during pregnancy (NVP). Zaman et al. (2014)
mentioned that ginger root extract significantly inhibited
the gastric damage and ginger root showed significant
anti-ulcerogenic activity in the model studied, it can
be a promising gastro-protective agent. Willetts et al.
(2003) concluded that ginger extract is a more effective
treatment than placebo for nausea and retching during
pregnancy. Yadav et al. (2016) demonstrated that
ginger is one of the most commonly used spices and
medicinal plants, and it is effective to improve diet-
induced metabolic abnormalities, however the efficacy
of ginger on the metabolic syndrome-associated
kidney injury remains unknown. Naderi et al. (2016)
stated that ginger powder supplementation at a dose
of 1 g/d can reduce inflammatory markers in patients
with knee osteoarthritis, and it thus can be rec-
ommended as a suitable supplement for these patients.
Mahmoud and Elnour (2013) discovered that ginger has
a great ability to reduce body weight without inhibiting
pancreatic lipase level, or affecting bilirubin concen-
tration, with positive effect on increasing peroxisomal
catalase level and HDL-cholesterol. Ebrahimzadeh Attari
et al. (2015) revealed a minor beneficial effect of ginger
powder supplementation on serum glucose and a mod-
erate, significant effect on total cholesterol, as compared
to the placebo. Malhotra and Singh (2003)also
mentioned the effect of ginger on lowering cholesterol,
and anti-hyperlipidemic agent, the role of ginger in the
treatment of nausea and vomiting (anti-emetic), ginger
possesses anti-skin tumour promoting effects, and that
the mechanism of such effects may involve inhibition
of tumour promoter-caused cellular, biochemical, and
molecular changes (Chemo-protective), anti-viral activity,
anti-motion and anti-nauseant effects, anti-inflamma-
tory, diminishing or eliminating the symptoms of hyper-
emesis gravidarum, ginger influence on exert abortive
and prophylactic effects in migraine headache without
any side effects and anti-ulcerogenic, Ginger and its con-
stituent play pharmacological effects in cancer manage-
ment via modulation of molecular mechanism, and the
mechanism consist of Inhibition of VEGF, Activation
of Bax, Inhibition of Lypoxygenase, Activation o P53,
Inhibition of Interlukin, Inhibition of Bcl2 & Survivin, Inhi-
bition of Cycloxygenase, Inhibition of IFN-γ, Suppression
of TNF & NF-kB and Activation of G0/G1 phase (Rahmani
et al. 2014). Accumulating evidence suggests that many
dietary factors maybe used alone or in combination with
traditional chemotherapeutic agents to prevent or treat
disease, and ginger is example of medicinal plants
which is gaining popularity amongst modern physicians
(Sakr and Badawy 2011). Gagnier et al. (2006) provide an
excellent framework for the development of future trials
that focus on providing satisfactory answers to issues
relating to the efficacy of Z. officinale to ameliorate
different types of pain, as well as, dosing strategies, treat-
ment duration, safety, and cost effectiveness. The most
important health benefits of ginger are shown in Table 5.
Conclusion
Ginger is used worldwide as a cooking spice, condiment
and herbal remedy, and it is also extensively consumed
as a flavouring agent. Ginger, a plant in the Zingiberaceae
family, is a culinary spice that has been as an important
herb in Traditional Chinese Medicine for many centuries.
More than 60 active constituents are known to be
present in ginger, which have been broadly divided
into volatile and non-volatile compounds. Hydrocarbons
mostly monoterpenoid hydrocarbons and sesquiterpene
include the volatile component of ginger and impart dis-
tinct aroma and taste to ginger. Nonvolatile compounds
include gingerols, shogaols, paradols, and also zinger-
one. The active ingredients like gingerols, shogaols, zin-
gerone, and so forth present in ginger exhibit
antioxidant activity. Among gingerols and shogaol the
major pungent components in the rhizome are 6-gin-
gerol and 6-shogaol. Gingerol, the active constituent of
ginger has been isolated and studied for pharmacologi-
cal and toxic effects. Fresh ginger has been used for
Table 5. The most important benefits of ginger.
Relieves nausea
Treats cold and flu
Removes excess gas
Aids in proper digestion
Reduces arthritis pain
Stomach ulcers
Liver protection
Relives asthma
Prevents obesity
Improves cognition
Prevents cancer
Relieves muscle pain
Prevents menstrual cramps
Controls diabetes
Boosts heart health
Prevents infection
Detoxifies the body
Skin care
Treats diarrhoea
Increases sexual activity
Improves brain function
Regulates blood sugar
ACTA AGRICULTURAE SCANDINAVICA, SECTION B —SOIL & PLANT SCIENCE 7
the treatment of nausea, cold-induced disease, colic,
asthma, cough, heart palpitation, swellings, dyspepsia,
loss of appetency and rheumatism. Medicinal properties
associated with ginger are anti-inflammatory properties,
anti-thrombotic properties, cholesterol-lowering proper-
ties, blood pressure-lowering properties, anti-microbial
properties, anti-oxidant properties, anti-tumour proper-
ties, and hypoglycaemic properties. Consumption of
ginger also has beneficial effects on heart disease,
cancer, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, osteoarthritis,
and bacterial infections. Ginger is an herbal, easily avail-
able, low price medication which is associated with low
risk can be substituted for a chemical, scarce and expens-
ive drugs. Based on other scientific literature, ginger
demonstrates some promising health benefits, and more
information gleaned from additional clinical studies will
help confirm whether ginger
,
s multiple health benefits
can be significantly realised in humans. Herbal remedies
and other nutraceuticals are increasingly and extensively
used by a substantial part of the population. To sum up,
treatment with natural herbal medicine especially
ginger, non-synthetic drug, is recommended.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes on contributors
Dr. Mohamad Hesam Shahrajabian, Senior Researcher at Bio-
technology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural
Sciences, Beijing 100081, People s Republic of China. Senior
Researcher at Nitrogen Fixation Laboratory, Qi Institute, Build-
ing C4, No. 555 Chuangye, Jiaxing 314000, Zhejiang, People’s
Republic of China. Email: Hesamshahrajabian@gmail.com
Dr. Wenli Sun, Research Assistant at Biotechnology Research
Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing
100081, People’s Republic of China. Senior Researcher at Nitro-
gen Fixation Laboratory, Qi Institute, Building C4, No. 555
Chuangye, Jiaxing 314000, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of
China. Email: sunwenli@caas.cn
Prof. Dr. Qi Cheng, Full Professor at Biotechnology Research
Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing
100081, People’s Republic of China. Senior Researcher at Nitro-
gen Fixation Laboratory, Qi Institute, Building C4, No. 555
Chuangye, Jiaxing 314000, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of
China. Email: chengqi@caas.cn
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