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Metallurgiens oprindelse og udvikling
Abstract
Metallurgien – det vil sige en bevidst bearbejdning af metal – har haft stor indflydelse på udviklingen af de tidligste kulturer – tænk bare hvor stor en rolle metal spiller i dag. Kapitlet vil gennemgå 6000 års udvikling af metallurgien: fra menneskets tidligste bearbejdning af metal for cirka 10.500 år siden og frem til den første brug af bronze i Skandinavien for cirka 4000 år siden. Kapitlet starter således med menneskets første kontakt med metalholdige stoffer – eller rettere metalholdige pigmenter – og slutter med den europæiske bronzealders veletablerede metalteknologi. Metallurgien spredte sig – som det vil fremgå – på baggrund af kontakten mellem forskellige kulturer.
Historien om metallurgien og metallets udvikling, er dog ikke alene en historie om Skandinavien. Da de første forsøg med bearbejdningen af metal blev gjort i de tidligste byer i Nærøsten, var Sverige stadig delvist dækket af vand og is, og Maglemosekulturen blomstrede i Danmark, hvor menneskene fulgte deres byttedyrs vandring rundt i landskabet. Det nordeuropæiske og det skandinaviske folk var dog lærenemme, og da metallurgien nåede til Norden, gik der ikke lang tid, før skandinaverne havde skabt en unik teknologisk metaltradition. Denne unikke tradition kan genfindes i det meste af Europa og er dermed bevis på kulturelle kontakter på kryds og tværs af kontinentet.
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[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0179263.].
dansk kemi, 98, nr. 5, 2017 n ARKAEOLOGI
Danmarks bronzealder: På sporet af metallets lange rejse-sporstofanalyser
På trods af at Skandinavien ikke udnyttede egne ressourcer af kobber og tin, er Danmarks bronzealder kendt for sine bemaerkelsesvaerdige våben og smykker af bronze. Ved hjaelp af bly-og tin-isotoper arbejder vi nu på at kortlaegge metallernes oprindelse og deres lange rejse til Danmark.
Projektet er støttet af Det Frie Forskningsråd Sapere Aude program.
Childe´s theory about the organisation of metalworking in prehistory (Childe 1930; 1952) is one
of the most cited and discussed theories in archaeology (Trigger 1980; Pigott 1965; Rowlands 1971).
Childe concludes that Bronze Age metalworkers were highly specialised, full-time craftsmen, and, due to the technical demands of their work, were also accorded high social status (Childe 1930, 4). However, theoretical and investigative developments over the past two decades have proved his model unlikely. Ethnographic sources in particular do not support the fundamental pillars of
his model, such as that of full-time 2 craftsman (Rowlands 1971, 213-214; Neipert 2006, 51-73). This study will show, that an intensive investigation concerning the crafting of decorated bronze ornaments allows to identify individual craftspeople. And further more, these individual traces were found on items deposited fare away from each other. Based on these traces of individual craftspeople, the topic of mobile craftspeople is again in focus.
The authors reconsider the origins of metallurgy in the Old World and offer us a new model in which metallurgy began in c. eleventh/ninth millennium BC in Southwest Asia due to a desire to adorn the human body in life and death using colourful ores and naturally-occurring metals. In the early sixth millennium BC the techniques of smelting were developed to produce lead, copper, copper alloys and eventually silver. The authors come down firmly on the side of single invention, seeing the subsequent cultural transmission of the technology as led by groups of metalworkers following in the wake of exotic objects in metal.
This thesis examines a small corpus of artifacts from Tal-i Iblis, Iran dating to the mid-6th millennium BCE. When excavated in the late 1960s, these artifacts were presumed to be evidence of an early copper smelting technology on the Iranian Plateau, and they were delivered to MIT for further analysis. In this thesis I briefly describe the origins of early metallurgical activity in the Old World focusing mainly on the Iranian Plateau. This will provide a basis for the significance of the thesis and of the early date associated with the metallurgical objects. I have studied six of the Tal-i Iblis artifacts curated at MIT through extensive qualitative and quantitative analytical methods. These methods are described in Chapter IV. The results and discussion are presented in Chapters V and VI. I have found that these Iblis sherds provide substantial evidence for the presence of a copper smelting technology during the early occupation levels at Tal-i Iblis, Iran.
This paper integrates archaeological, material, microstructural and composi-tional data of c. 7,000 years old metallurgical production evidence with the aim to address the knowledge of the world's earliest metalworkers. The main focus is placed on copper minerals, ores, slags, slagged sherds and metal droplets coming from four Vinča culture settlements in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina: Belovode, Pločnik, Vinča and Gornja Tuzla, all dated between c. 5400 and 4400 BC. Chemical study of copper minerals throughout all sites points at striking uniformity in selecting black and green minerals from the early days of the settlements' occupation, some of which predate the metal smelting events. Microstructural examination of metal production debris showed convincing technological similarity throughout c. six centuries of copper making in the studied sites, as well as a consistent choice of black and green ores for metal extraction. We argue that black and green ores were intentionally selected as ingredients for the metal smelting 'recipe' in the early stages of Balkan metallurgy based on the knowledge related to their characteristic visual aspects. This finding demonstrates how important the adequate combination of colours was for the early copper metalworkers and suggests a unique technological trajectory for the evolution of metallurgy in this part of the world. It also illustrates the capacity that micro-research carries in addressing the how and why of the emergence of metallurgy, and outlines a methodology for future studies of early metallurgies worldwide.
Archaeometallurgy is one aspect of the widespread interdisciplinary field of science-based archaeology and is itself multifaceted (for a recent review, see Rehren and Pernicka 2008). This article deals mainly with the question of how to determine the provenance or origin of ancient metals, a subject that is undoubtedly of major importance in archaeology even though it has often been disputed. Here, a short history of the practice of provenance analysis of metals by chemical methods is presented. Studies in this direction were often loaded with high (and mostly unrealistic) expectations and were seemingly disappointing. Close to being regarded as a complete failure, provenance analysis of archaeological metal objects was revived through the introduction of lead isotope analysis, which itself went through a cycle of overly optimistic expectations, later condemnations and finally a realistic assessment of pros and cons. Combined with trace element patterns, lead isotopes do provide a tool with which to determine the provenance of most metals that were produced and used in antiquity. Not all problems can be solved, at least not in the near future, but this is not due to a wrong concept or methodology, but rather due to our limited ability to distinguish between ore deposits, and the imbalance between analyses of finished artefacts and those of archaeologically meaningful ore samples. More new parameters are emerging that also carry information on the provenance of a metal, and the methodology will be adjusted and improved for specific metal types. With realistic approaches and expectations, provenance studies of archaeological metal objects will remain a valuable component of archaeometallurgical and archaeological research. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York. All rights are reserved.
The settlement of Chalcolithic metalworkers of La Capitelle du Broum is a truly outstanding site. The first AMS 14C dating (3rd millennium BC) reveals it as the oldest site in the mining and metallurgy district of Cabrières. It is of the same age as the oldest metallurgy site discovered in continental France (Roquemengarde). It includes, near the prehistoric copper mines already discovered, double-facing dry-stone walls of the Fontbouisse type and a variety of metallurgy structures. Metalworking tools, including one of the very rare ingot crucibles known from this period in Western Europe, are found alongside ceramics typical of the Late Neolithic (Broum type?). To cite this article: P. Ambert et al., C. R. Palevol 1 (2002) 67–74.
The use of beads and other personal ornaments is a trait of modern human behavior. During the Middle and Upper Paleolithic periods, beads were made out of shell, bone, ivory, egg shell, and occasionally of minerals. During the transition to agriculture in the Near East, stone, in particular green stone, was used for the first time to make beads and pendants. We observed that a large variety of minerals of green colors were sought, including apatite, several copper-bearing minerals, amazonite and serpentinite. There seems to be an increase with time of distance from which the green minerals were sought. Because beads in white, red, yellow, brown, and black colors had been used previously, we suggest that the occurrence of green beads is directly related to the onset of agriculture. Green beads and bead blanks were used as amulets to ward off the evil eye and as fertility charms.
• transition to agriculture
• late Natufian
• Neolithic
• Near East
• symbolism
This volume examines prehistoric copper mining in Europe, from the first use of the metal eight thousand years ago in the Balkans to its widespread adoption during the Bronze Age. The history of research is examined, as is the survival of this mining archaeology in different geological settings. There is information on the technological processes of mineral prospecting, ore extraction, and metal production, as well as the logistics and organization of this activity and its environmental impact. The analysis is broadened to consider the economic and societal context of prehistoric copper mining and the nature of the distinctive communities involved. The study is based on a review of field data and research produced over many decades by the collaboration of archaeologists and geologists in a number of different countries, and covers such famous mining centres as the Mitterberg in Austria, Kargaly in Russia, the Great Orme in Wales, and those in Cyprus, from where the name of this metal derives. These regional studies are brought together for the first time to present a remarkable story of human endeavour and innovation, which marks a new stage in the mastery of our natural resources.
The study of ancient metals in their social and cultural contexts has been a topic of considerable interest in archaeology and ancient history for decades, partly due to the modern dependence on technology and man-made materials. The formal study of Archaeometallurgy began in the 1970s-1980s, and has seen a recent growth in techniques, data, and theoretical movements.
This comprehensive sourcebook on Archaeometallurgy provides an overview of earlier research as well as a review of modern techniques, written in an approachable way. Covering an extensive range of archaeological time-periods and regions, this volume will be a valuable resource for those studying archaeology worldwide. It provides a clear, straightforward look at the available methodologies, including:
• Smelting processes
• Slag analysis
• Technical Ceramics
• Archaeology of Mining and Field Survey
• Ethnoarchaeology
• Chemical Analysis and Provenance Studies
• Conservation Studies
With chapters focused on most geographic regions of Archaeometallurgical inquiry, researchers will find practical applications for metallurgical techniques in any area of their study.
Ben Roberts is a specialist in the early metallurgy and later prehistoric archaeology of Europe. He was the Curator of the European Copper and Bronze Age collections at the British Museum between 2007 and 2012 and is now a Lecturer in Prehistoric Europe in the Departm
ent of Archaeology at the Durham University, UK.
Chris Thornton is a specialist in the ancient metallurgy of the Middle East, combining anthropological theory with archaeometrical analysis to understand the development and diffusion of metallurgical technologies throughout Eurasia. He is currently a Consulting Scholar of the University of Pennsylvania Museum, where he received his PhD in 2009, and the Lead Program Officer of research grants at the National Geographic Society.
This chapter reevaluates the evidence and interpretation of early metallurgical practices and products in the central Mediterranean region, from the Middle Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The chronology of early metalworking and metal using is fully reassessed based on the most recent findings and radiocarbon dating. It is argued that copper and silver production first appeared in Italy in the late fifth millennium BC and fully developed during the fourth millennium BC, roughly at the same time as north of the Alps. This is suggestive of an east-west mode of transmission of metallurgical knowledge, which would have penetrated into the Italian peninsula from the eastern Alps. During the Copper Age, regional metalworking traditions developed in northern Italy, central Italy and Sardinia based on the manipulation of several metals and alloys including arsenical copper, silver, lead and antimony. This is indicated by variations in the typology and the chemical composition of metalwork in the three areas. Regional differences in the smelting, using and disposing of metal artefacts are also detectable across the central Mediterranean. This suggests that the cultural processes whereby metal technology was incorporated into prehistoric society rested upon context-specific strategies of signification, which turned a potentially meaningless technological innovation into a meaningful set of cultural practices. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York. All rights are reserved.
This chapter reviews the early evidence for metallurgy in south-eastern and central Europe from the fifth to the second millennium BC. This encompasses the use of copper minerals and ores through copper smelting, copper working and the development of different types of copper-based alloys. The development of metallurgy in this region was the result of technological choices drawing upon the cultural and social context of actors and communities connected through kinship-based networks of communication and decision-taking. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York. All rights are reserved.
Situated between the Caspian and the Black Seas, the Caucasus mountain range is not a barrier but rather links the vast Eurasian Steppe in the north to Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Iran to the south through several important passes. Cultural connectivity and exchange have always been a significant feature of this region. Among the various materials that bear witness to these cultural interactions in the past, it is clear that metals and metallurgy played an important role. The beginnings of metallurgy in this region correspond to a technological and conceptual revolution that had important cultural implications. In order to understand the importance of metal to the ancient peoples of the Caucasus, the term metallurgy is used in its broadest sense: from the extraction of ore to the use and deposition (or recycling) of objects. The aim of this chapter is to explain the development of extractive and manufacturing metallurgies in the northern and southern Caucasus and highlight the cultural consequences of the appearance of this new technology. This study combines archaeological, geological and metallurgical data in order to provide a broad synthesis of both early and recent research into the prehistoric metallurgy of the Caucasus. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York. All rights are reserved.
The excavations at Can Hasan were continued this year from 1st September to 6th October. Work, however, went on until October 16th on section drawing, photography, packing and storing. Further repairs were made to the fence enclosing the site and measures taken for the conservation of the site during the winter. Maintenance work was carried out on the dig house. As in the previous year, the excavation bekçi continues to live in the house during the winter months.
Those assisting in this year's excavations were Messrs. S. Payne and J. N. Postgate, field assistants and the Misses E. A. Dowman, A. C. Hird, S. M. Page and R. J. Worth, house assistants. Mr. Payne again had charge of the obsidian material; Miss Dowman was in charge of registration and conservation and Miss Worth of pottery. Bay Hayrettin Solmaz represented the Turkish Government. For most of the season we employed about eight men from the village.
Lascaux Cave is in the Dordogne region of SW France. It was discovered in 1940. The cave was closed to tourists in 1963 because the dust, fungi and dampness that entered the cave with the visitors were threatening to destroy the paintings. There are nearly 1 500 engravings and about 600 paintings. Flint tools, stone lamps and pallettes have been found in the cave. Scaffolding was used to work on the higher walls and ceiling. The area near the cave provided manganese oxide, red and yellow iron oxide and clay for pigments. Stone and bone artifacts in the cave all belong to the lower Magdalenian period of about 15 000 BC. Lascaux Cave offers a site to study the art of the Upper Palaeolithic.-F.McElhoe Jr
The process of the production of copper and bronze is presented in this paper as a sequential operation. Each stage of this process may influence the final product. The deconstruction of the process is a convenient way of examining each individual stage, using archaeological case studies from different places within the Old World and, where useful, ethnographic studies. The examination will focus on two aspects: innovation and specialization. It seeks to move beyond technological determinism by relating the study of technology to the context of those societies which shaped and practised it and which exercised certain choices in its execution.
This book describes the composition of the present upper crust, and deals with possible compositions for the total crust and the inferred composition of the lower crust. The question of the uniformity of crustal composition throughout geological time is discussed. It describes the Archean crust and models for crustal evolution in Archean and Post-Archean time. The rate of growth of the crust through time is assessed, and the effects of the extraction of the crust on mantle compositions. The question of early pre-geological crusts on the Earth is discussed and comparisons are given with crusts on the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus and the Galilean Satellites.
The earliest metal objects and metal production practices appeared in Western Europe during the fourth and third millennia
BC. The presence of earlier dates for copper, gold, silver, and lead, as well as arsenical copper and tin-bronze alloys in
Central and Eastern Europe implies that there is no evidence for the independent invention of metallurgy in Western Europe.
Instead, the acquisition of metal objects as exotica by communities appears to have led eventually to the movement of people
possessing metallurgical expertise. However, the metals, production techniques and object forms used in each region reflect
local standards seen in other materials. This implies a process of incorporation and innovation by the communities involved
rather than a straightforward or inevitable adoption. The presence of metal may have created new networks of communication
and exchange but, due to its small scale, there is no evidence for any metallurgical revolution.
Originally presented as the author's Habilitation--Freie Universität, Berlin, 2000. Includes bibliographical references (p. 270-282) and index.
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