Content uploaded by Aqilah Mohammad
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Aqilah Mohammad on Apr 17, 2019
Content may be subject to copyright.
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu Journal of Undergraduate Research e-ISSN: 2637-1138
Volume 1 Number 2, April 2019: 26-35 ©Penerbit UMT
MACROFUNGI OF PULAU BIDONG
TSIA MUN KAIK AND AQILAH MOHAMMAD*
School of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,
21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu.
*Corresponding author: aqilahmohammad@umt.edu.my
Abstract: Studies on fungal taxonomy and fungal diversity are crucial for a better understanding of the
interactions between fungi and their habitats. To date, there is no published record on macrofungal diversity
in Pulau Bidong, Terengganu. Therefore, this study aimed to identify macrofungi species found with their
respective substrates and to determine the macrofungal diversity in the island. The study was conducted at
two different occasions and comprised of two trails near Universiti Malaysia Terengganu Research Station
in Pulau Bidong, Terengganu. Collection of fresh macrofungi was made and additional data including host
information, distinctive features of each fungal sample and several environmental parameters was also
recorded. Fresh specimens were later observed and identified before being dried prior to storage. Overall,
65 macrofungal species with 2 unidentified species belonging to 21 families and 34 genera were recorded.
Trail A and trail B recorded diversity index of 2.67 and 3.14 for Shannon Index while Simpson index
recorded 0.90 and 0.94 respectively. The macrofungal diversity was dominated by family Polyporaceae
while rare species discovered were from family of Tricholomataceae, Hericiaceae, Stereaceae,
Schizophyllaceae, Sclerodermataceae, Dacrymycetaceae, Tremellaceae, Russulaceae and Clavulinaceae.
The most common macrofungal substrates was decayed branches while other macrofungal substrates found
were decayed trunks and leaves, soil, termite mounds, and living tree. In conclusion, the macrofungal
species were randomly distributed with high diversity in both trails. Therefore, it is recommended that an
increase in sampling trips, sampling efforts and areas covered be provided to increase the number of
macrofungal species discovered and accuracy of diversity studies in the future.
Keywords: macrofungi, diversity, Bidong, Terengganu, Malaysia
Introduction
There are limited reports on macrofungal diversity on
local islands published by local mycologists in
Terengganu. One of the studies on macrofungal diversity
in island ecosystem in Terengganu was reported by
Zainuddin et al. (2010) who recorded 19 families of
fungi species identified from Redang Island,
Terengganu. They also compared macrofungal diversity
from Aur Island, Johor and recorded 14 families.
Another recent macrofungal diversity study in
Terengganu was reported by Mohammad et al. (2019)
who documented 31 macrofungi
species belonging to 26 genera, and 14 families in several
areas of Tasik Kenyir at different occasions between
October 2013 and March 2016. Their findings marked
the first report of the macrofungi surveyed in the largest
human-made island in the Southeast Asian region.
Similar studies were also documented at different
areas within Peninsular Malaysia. Abdullah et al. (2005)
who conducted a study of macrofungi in Northeast
Langkawi Island revealed that there were a total of 212
specimens collected from eight sites namely Kilim
Mangrove Forest, Kisap Mangrove Forest, Pulau
Langgun, Pulau Dendang, Sungai Sireh, Durian
Perangin, Selat Panchor Forest Reserve and Gunung
Raya Forest Reserve from 2003 to 2004. Their studies
showed an increase in the number of specimens
collected, with additional 114 specimens more than the
number of macrofungal species reported earlier by
Kuthubutheen (1981), due to the difference in sampling
effort and sampling sites in Langkawi Island.
Pulau Bidong is one of the well-known islands
within Bidong Archipelago, and once became a home to
Vietnamese refugees. The island is covered with
secondary forest mainly composed of dipterocarps trees,
lowland forest vegetation and rocky areas within coastal
forest (Adanan et al., 2016; Pesiu et al., 2016). Pulau
Bidong has a great potential to contain various
macrofungal species as there are diverse substrates such
as twigs, decaying leaves and soil that support the growth
of macrofungi. Previously, a short-term study on
macrofungi in Pulau Bidong was initiated and reported
by Aziz (unpublished, 2014) and Razak (unpublished,
2015) to obtain descriptions and composition of
macrofungal species in the island. Aziz (unpublished,
2014) recorded 16 species, followed by Razak in 2015
with 45 species which included all of 16 species found
by Aziz (2014) and additional 29 new species. However,
the diversity of macrofungi in the island is not yet fully
understood. This study therefore aims to document the
species of macrofungi occurring in Pulau Bidong and to
update the checklist of macrofungal species in the island.
MACROFUNGI OF PULAU BIDONG
Materials and Methods
This study was carried out in Pulau Bidong (5°37’N,
103°4’E) which is located off the coast of Terengganu,
Peninsular Malaysia (Figure 1). Study areas were visited
on the 25th August 2016 and 14th October 2016 where
two days and one night were spent on each occasion.
Occurrence of macrofungal fruit bodies was observed at
two assessable forest trails labelled as trail A and trail B.
The first forest trail or trail A (represented by red line)
was located near the former Vietnamese refugee camp
area near to the sandy beach (Figure 1). This area was
exposed to sunlight as it was less shaded by trees.
Furthermore, forest litters were scarce at the first few
metres of the entry of trail A and the area mostly
consisted of rocks on the forest floor (Figure 2A).
Meanwhile, the second forest trail or trail B (represented
by yellow line) was located behind the dorm of Bidong
Island Research Station, further away from the sandy
beach (Figure 1). Trail B was accessible with the
presence of ropes for hiking along the trail. The trail was
thickly wooded and shaded with trees. The starting point
for this trail showed moist soil covering huge amount of
forest litters including dead leaves, decaying plant
materials and living trees (Figure 2B).
Fresh, mature and good condition macrofungi
samples were collected from the sites for further
examination. Substrates of the specimens were identifed
and recorded including their host and their associated
host (i.e. living tree). Next, undisturbed sample’s colour,
colour changes before and after collecting were also
recorded for subsequent identification of colour using
Flora of British identification chart by Rayner et al.
(1969). All data were recorded in a recording sheet and
field notes. Photos of fresh samples of macrofungi
spotted along the trail were taken before samples were
collected. Photographs of fresh specimens were taken in
three different angles which were the bottom that
displayed the gills and pores of the specimen, the top of
the sample which displayed the cap of the specimen and
side of the sample that displayed the natural habitat and
substrate of the sample (Figure 3A-C). Environmental
parameters including temperature, relative humidity and
light intensity were measured using appropriate devices
and were recorded in field notes. Average temperature
and relative humidity were measured using 3 in 1
anemometer Ex-tech 45160. Light intensity was
measured using Hanna HI97500 lux meter. Meanwhile,
elevation and coordinates of respective locations of
macrofungi were recorded using Garmin E-Trex 10/20
Global Positioning System device. A ruler was used to
measure the size (height and width) of the samples
collected.
Tabulation of data for macrofungi species,
macrofungi substrates and coordinates of the macrofungi
samples and environmental parameters was done in
Microsoft Office Excel and was used for data
interpretation. Comparison of sampling effort was made
using rarefaction curve plotted using Paleontological
Statistics (PAST) and ECOSIM software. Apart from
this, SPSS software was used to plot and analyse data
collected from sampling trips which included
macrofungal species composition and the types of
substrates according to macrofungi species. Besides that,
the diversity index calculation was made which included
species diversity and species evenness of Bidong Island.
Shannon Diversity index and Simpson Index of Diversity
(Molles, 2013; Cruz, 2015) were used for diversity index
calculations.
Figure 1: Sampling site in Bidong Island (Source: Google Earth, accessed on 30th October 2016 at 5:15 pm and
18 February 2017).
27
Tsia Mun Kaik & Aqilah Mohammad
Figure 2: Forest trail in former Vietnamese refugee camp area or trail A (A) and forest trail behind the dorm of
UMT Bidong Island Research Station or trail B (B)
Figure 3: Bottom angle of sample (A), top angle of sample (B) and side angle of sample (C)
Results and Discussion
The mushroom taxa recorded during the study is
enumerated in Table 1. There were a total of 65
macrofungi species collected along two sampling trails
in Pulau Bidong on two sampling trips (Table 1). Of all
the species found, 63 species could be identified while 2
species could not be identified. Of the 63 species, 20
species were identified until species classification level
while 43 species were identified until genus
classification level. The 63 macrofungal species
belonged to 21 families and 34 genera. Among the 21
families, 20 families were from the phylum
Basidiomycota and 1 family was from phylum
Ascomycota. The high abundance of Basidiomycota
fungi could be due to the unique difference of spore-
producing structures with varied sizes and fruit body
structures between species from phylum Basidiomycota
and Ascomycota that contributed to the effectiveness of
the dispersal. The low effectiveness of spore dispersal
decreased the abundance of macrofungi species in an
area. Basidiomycota have spore-producing structure on
the surface outside the basidia while Ascomycota have
asci inside which the spores are stored (Oberwinkler,
2012). The spore’s dispersal rate of Ascomycota might
be disturbed by the surrounding condition such as rain
that causes the spores to be unevenly dispersed in large
quantity and this decreased the effectiveness of dispersal
in Ascomycota (Kendrick, 2002). This is because the
operculum structure of asci absorbed water from the
surrounding and could not evenly explode their spores
(Staples, 2007).
A
B
A
B
C
28
MACROFUNGI OF PULAU BIDONG
Table 1: Collection of macrofungi species from Trail A and Trail B in Pulau Bidong
Macrofungi
Trail A
Trail B
ASCOMYCOTA
Order Xylariales
Family Xylariaceae
Xylaria carpophila (Pers.) Fr.
14
-
Xylaria hypoxylon (L.) Grev.
-
2
BASIDIOMYCOTA
Order Agaricales
Family Agaricaceae
Agaricus sp.
1
-
Family Inocybaceae
Crepidotus spp.
2
-
Family Lepiotaceae
Lepiota sp.
1
-
Macrolepiota sp.
1
-
Family Lyophyllaceae
Termitomyces microcarpus
(Berk. & Broome) R. Heim
18
-
Termitomyces sp.
1
-
Family Marasmiaceae
Crinipellis sp.
-
4
Marasmiellus spp.
39
2
Marasmius crinis-equi F. Muell.
ex Kalchbr.
18
-
Marasmius rotalis Berk. &
Broome
-
12
Marasmius spp.
2
20
Mycetinis sp.
3
-
Family Mycenaceae
Mycena minya Grgur.
-
6
Mycena spp.
1
5
Family Psathyrellaceae
Coprinellus spp.
2
4
Psathyrella sp.
1
Family Schizophyllaceae
Schizophyllum commune Fr.
-
23
Family Tricholomataceae
Leucopaxillus sp.
1
-
Order Boletales
Family Boletaceae
Boletus sp.
-
1
Xerocomus sp.
-
1
Family Sclerodermataceae
Scleroderma sp.
-
1
Order Cantharellales
Family Cantharellaceae
Cantharellus spp.
1
1
Family Clavulinaceae
Clavulina leveillei (Sacc.)
Overeem
-
3
Order Dacrymycetales
Family Dacrymycetaceae
Dacryopinax spathularia
(Schwein.) G.W. Martin
-
15
Order Polyporales
29
Tsia Mun Kaik & Aqilah Mohammad
Family Polyporaceae
Earliella scabrosa (Pers.) Gilb.
& Ryvarden
1
-
Favolus alveolaris (DC.) Quél.
-
8
Microporus xanthopus (Fr.)
Kuntze
-
7
Nigroporus vinosus (Berk.)
Murrill
-
13
Polyporus tenuiculus (P. Beauv.)
Fr.
-
1
Polyporus spp.
9
9
Trametes pubescens (Schumach.)
Pilát
-
2
Trametes sp
-
1
Trichaptum brastagii (Corner) T.
Hatt.
-
8
Trichaptum sp.
-
2
Family Ganodermaceae
Amauroderma rude (Berk.)
Torrend
-
2
Amauroderma sp.
-
1
Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P.
Karst.
2
-
Ganoderma spp.
9
4
Order Russulales
Family Hericiaceae
Hericium sp.
8
7
Family Stereaceae
Stereum lobatum (Kunze ex Fr.)
Fr.
6
-
Family Russulaceae
Russula sp.
-
3
Order Tremellales
Family Tremellaceae
Tremella fuciformis Berk.
-
3
Unknown
Unknown species 1
1
-
Unknown species 2
-
2
Total specimens
142
173
The total number of macrofungi species collected on
trail A (former Vietnamese refugee camp area) were 27
species with 173 individual specimens. On the other
hand, trail B (behind the dorm of UMT Bidong Island
Research Station) provided 39 species with 142
individual specimens. Both trails contained macrofungql
species from family Polyporaceae, Cantharellaceae,
Ganodermaceae, Marasmiaceae, Mycenaceae,
Psathyrellaceae and Xylariaceae with family
Polyporaceae having the most diverse species among
other families with 13 species out of 65 macrofungi
species (Figure 4). The second highest number of species
were from family of Marasmiaceae (n=9 species). This
was followed by Ganodermataceae, Mycenaceae and
Psathyrellaceae. Species from family Polyporaceae are
wood-inhibiting macrofungi that are abundant and
diverse in this study because of the diversity of substrates
mainly woods available for them to grow on (Bolhassan
et al., 2013). A previous study by Pesiu et al. (2016)
reported that there were a total of 102 living tree species
in Bidong Island which indicated that there were diverse
types of wood substrates including living trees and
decaying woods. This could increase the diversity and
abundance of species from order Polyporales as these
species have a larger variety of host to grow on.
30
MACROFUNGI OF PULAU BIDONG
Figure 4: Number of species and families of macrofungi found in Pulau Bidong
In 2014, Aziz (unpublished thesis) recorded 16
species, and in 2015 Razak (unpublished thesis) recorded
45 species which included all of 16 species found by
Aziz (2014). In addition, the study by Razak recorded 29
new species. The comparison of species composition
between the previous study by Razak (2015) with the
current study was made (Figure 5). An additional 56 new
species were found in the current study with 9 similar
macrofungal species recorded in both studies. The
current study recorded similar common species from
family of Agaricaceae, Ganodermaceae and
Polyporaceae.
The dominant family with the most diverse species
recorded in this study was similar to the previous study
by Razak (2015) which was family Polyporaceae (Figure
4). In 2015, 22 species from the family Polyporaceae
were recorded while in the current study 13 species were
recorded. New species recorded in the current study were
from family Cantharellaceae, Clavulinaceae,
Dacrymycetaceae, Hericiaceae, Inocybaceae,
Lepiotaceae, Lyophyllaceae, Mycenaceae,
Psathyrellaceae, Schizophyllaceae, Stereaceae,
Tremellaceae and Tricholomataceae. Overall, the total
accumulated macrofungi species according to the studies
from 2014, 2015 and 2016 in Bidong Island were 88
species.
31
Tsia Mun Kaik & Aqilah Mohammad
Figure 5: Species composition for 2014, 2015 and 2016
There were two types of indexes used which were
Shannon diversity index and Simpson diversity index.
Table 2 shows the values generated when diversity index
was calculated using the data obtained. The diversity by
Shannon index showed a high diversity on trail B. An
index value of 4.00 indicates a very high diversity and
the diversity decreases with the decrease in diversity
index value, with 0 indicating zero diversity. However,
Simpson diversity index for trail A was 0.90 and Trail B
0.94 (Table 2). Based on the values generated by
Simpson diversity index, both trails showed high
diversity. Simpson diversity index value of 1.00
indicates infinite diversity and the diversity decreases
with the decrease in diversity index value, with 0
indicating zero diversity. The evenness based on
Shannon index of both trails showed that not all species
were evenly distributed with 0.54 for trail A and 0.59 for
trail B (Table 4.2). The Shannon and Simpson Diversity
Index generated indicated that trail B had high diversity
of 3.14 that nearly reached 4.00 and 0.94 that nearly
reached 1.00 respectively. The high diversity on trail B
could be due to its longer distance, creating a higher
chance of discovering higher number of macrofungi
species. The environmental condition mainly the
humidity and temperature of the surrounding for trail B
was more favourable for macrofungi to grow. Trail B
was widely covered with trees or shaded and the floor
was filled with leaf litters consisting of diverse substrates
mainly living and dead dipterocarps trees (Pesiu et al.,
2016). These encouraged macrofungi on trail B to grow,
thus causing the high diversity on trail B. A study by
Karun & Sridhar (2016) reported that the high diversity
of macrofungi could be due to the occurrence of suitable
abiotic conditions such as moisture or temperature and
deposition of substrates on the forest floor mainly wood
and leaf litters. This could be due to the accumulated
litters on the floor providing important lignocellulose
materials that favour the growth of macrofungi.
32
MACROFUNGI OF PULAU BIDONG
Table 2: Table of diversity index
Title
Trails
Trail A
Trail B
Number of Species
27
39
Individuals
142
173
Shannon Index of Diversity (H)
2.67
3.14
Simpson Index of Diversity (1-D)
0.90
0.94
Evenness (Shannon Index)
0.54
0.59
The rarefaction curve generated using
Paleontological Statistics (PAST) and ECOSIM software
for both trails indicated that there would be an increase
in the number of species if there was an increase in
sampling efforts. This is because both trails generated
curves that had not reached the asymptotes (Figure 6).
The rarefaction curve in this study indicated that there
would be more species discovered with the increase in
sampling efforts for both trails. This could be due to
limited sampling trips and sampling period. The number
of species might increase if there were more sampling
trips involved as the discovery rate would increase with
diversity when more trips were involved until the curve
reached asymptotes. It is also expected that different
species may be discovered on different trips due to varied
environmental conditions depending on the weather and
time for every trip (Ujang, 2002). Thus, these may
encourage different kinds of macrofungi to grow
depending on their preferences (Kutszegi et al., 2015).
Figure 6: Rarefaction curve for trail A and trail B
There were six types of substrates based on the
macrofungi species found on both trail A and trail B in
Pulau Bidong, which included soil, decayed branches,
decayed trunks, termite mounds, decayed leaves and
living trees (Figure 7). From the specimens collected, the
most abundant substrates based on the macrofungi
species found were decaying plants materials including
decayed branches, decayed trunks and decayed leaves.
Decayed branches made up the highest number of
substrates for the macrofungi species found. In addition,
30 species out of 65 species were found growing on the
dominant substrates which were decaying branches. This
could be due to a variety of forest community structures
that wete available for macrofungi to grow on such as
various plants species and habitat condition (Moore et al,
2001). The varieties of plant species including a variety
of tree composition with varied ages, nutrient
compositions within the decaying plant materials and
sizes of the substrates could encourage wide ranges of
macrofungi to develop and grow. Pesiu et al. (2016)
reported that the composition of trees in Pulau Bidong
consisted of 102 species with diameter at breast height
(DBH) of between 5 cm to 44.99 cm and the height of
the trees varied between 3 m to 22.99 m. This shows that
the variety of tree species with different sizes could
produce wide ranges of substrates in the island. A study
in Redang Island of Malaysia also showed similar results
on the macrofungi substrates with the dominant
33
Tsia Mun Kaik & Aqilah Mohammad
substrates being decaying plant materials including
branches, trunks, roots, twigs and fruits (Zainuddin et al.,
2010). On the other hand, a study in India also showed
that the major substrates preferred were wood litters that
included barks, twigs and woods (Karun & Sridhar,
2016). Thus, it was proven that the common substrates
for macrofungi were decaying plant materials.
Figure 7: Types of substrates with the number of species
Trail A had an average humidity of 78.84% at the
location where 173 individual specimens were found
while trail B had an average humidity of 84.03% (Table
3). Trail B had higher average humidity compared to trail
A. Also, the average temperature for trail A and trail B
did not differ much. Higher light intensity was recorded
at Trail A compared to trail B.
Table 3: Average environmental parameters for trail A and trail B
Average
Trails
Trail A
Trail B
Humidity (%)
78.84
84.03
Temperature (◦C)
29.14
29.93
Light Intensity (cd)
1.67
0.68
This study may provide a baseline information for
assessment of diversity and health of the forest in Pulau
Bidong. Besides that, it can contribute towards
conservation efforts on ecosystem health and forest
resources in island ecosystems. As there were some
limitations such as limited sampling trips and overlooked
samples in this study, it is recommended that sampling
efforts be increased in future studies by having longer
sampling periods and frequent visits for better outcomes.
References
Abdullah, N., Vikineswary, S., Yusoff, M. & Desjardin,
D.E. (2005) Higher fungi of Northeast Langkawi.
Malaysian Journal of Science, 24, 95-102.
Adanan, N.A., Basari, N., Rosmidi, F.H., Pesiu, E. &
Abdullah, M.T. (2016) Preliminary studies on bees at
Pulau Bidong and Pulau Perhentian, Terengganu.
Journal of Sustainability Science and Management,
1, 36-40.
Aziz, S.A.A. (2014) Identification of macrofungi species
at Bidong Island, Terengganu. B. Sc. Thesis.
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu.
Bolhassan, M.H. (2013) Diversity of Polyporales in the
Malay Peninsular and the application of Ganoderma
australe (fr.) Pat. in biopulping of empty fruit bunches
of Elaeis guineensis. Ph.D. dissertation. University
Of Malaya.
Karun, N.C. & Sridhar, K.R. (2016) Spatial and temporal
diversity of macrofungi in the
Western Ghats forests of India. Applied Ecology and
Environmental Research, 14(2), 1-21.
Kendrick, B. (2002) The Fifth Kingdom. 3rd ed.
Mycologue Publications, United States. 386 pp.
34
MACROFUNGI OF PULAU BIDONG
Kuthubutheen, A.J. (1981) Notes on the macrofungi of
Langkawi. Malayan Nature Journal, 34(3), 123-13.
Kutszegi, G., Siller, I., Dima, B., Takcs, K., Mernyi,
Z.S., Varga, T., Turcsnyi, G., Bidl, A., dor, P.
(2015) Drivers of macrofungal species composition
in temperate forests, West Hungary: functional
groups compared. Fungal Ecology, 17, 69-83.
Mohammad, A., Yee, L. S., & Kasran, A. K. (2019).
Macrofungi of Tasik Kenyir. In: Abdullah,
M.T., Mohammad, A., Nor Zalipah, M., Safiih Lola,
M. (Eds). Greater Kenyir Landscapes. Cham:
Springer. pp. 67-74
Moore, D., Nauta, M.M., Evans, S.E. & Rotheroe, M.
(2001) Fungal conservation: issues and solutions. In:
Molina, R., Pilz, D., Smith, J., Dunham, S.,
Dreisbach, T., O’dell, T. & Castellano, M. (Eds.)
Conservation And Management Of Forest Fungi In
The Pacific Northwestern United States: An
Integrated Ecosystem Approach. British Mycological
Society Symposium. United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press. pp. 19-63.
Oberwinkler, F. (2012) Evolutionary trends in
Basidiomycota. Stapfia, 96, 45-104.
Pesiu, E., Abdullah, M.T., Salim, J. & Salam, M.R.
(2016) Tree species composition in Pulau Bidong and
Pulau Redang. Journal of Sustainability Science and
Management, 1, 48-60.
Rayner, R.W., Watling, R. & Turnbull, E. (1969) Flora
of British Fungi: Colour Identification Chart. United
Kingdom: Her Majesty, The Stationery Office. 189
pp.
Razak, F.A.A. (2015) Macrofungi flora in Bidong Island,
Terengganu. B. Sc. Thesis. Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu.
Staples, R. (2007) Fungal cannons: Explosive spore
discharge in the Ascomycota. Journal Table of
Contents, 276(1), 12-18.
Ujang, S., Jones, E.B.G. & Watling, R. (2002) The
distribution of wood-inhabiting fungi in Peninsular
Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 14(4),
433-440.
Zainuddin, N., Alias, S.A., Kin, T.B., See, L.S. & Twu,
C.H. (2010) Macrofungi of Pulau Redang,
Terengganu and Pulau Aur, Johor in the South China
Sea. Journal of Science and Technology in the
Tropics, 6, 120-125.
35
