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Banggai cardinalfish conservation: priorities, opportunities, and risks
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1
Banggai cardinalfish conservation: priorities, opportunities,
and risks
S Ndobe 1, A Moore 2, I Yasir 3 and J Jompa3
1Aquaculture Study Program, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Fisheries, Tadulako
University
2Doctoral Program, Faculty of Marine Science and Fisheries, Hasanuddin University
3Marine Science Department, Faculty of Marine Science and Fisheries, Hasanuddin
University
Email: samliok@untad.ac.id
Abstract. Human actions are undoubtedly the major factor affecting the biosphere in this
Anthropocene era, making it vital to involve all levels of society in the stewardship of natural
resources, in particular marine ecosystems and biodiversity. The Banggai cardinalfish
Pterapogon kauderni is a unique species at risk of extinction and an object of global
conservation concern. The endemic range of P. kauderni is limited to around 500km2, mostly
in the Banggai Archipelago, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. The objective of this study was to
evaluate the priorities for P. kauderni conservation, with a focus on the recently declared
Banggai Dalaka MPA, the National Plan of Action (NPOA-BCF) and the decisions taken at
CITES CoP 17 in 2016. Risks identified include the loss of genetic diversity and structure,
serial depletion of populations/stocks, loss of identity ("branding" issues), local threats to
habitat/microhabitat, and the impacts of global change. Opportunities include local, national
and international awareness, the CITES Animal Commission processes, iconic status, and
stakeholder capacity. Key priorities identified included: (i) prioritise endemic (not introduced)
P. kauderni populations; (ii) protect genetic diversity through site/stock-based management
(conservation, ornamental fishery, monitoring), initiated using existing genetic population
structure data, while seeking to develop a database of genetically unique (reproductively
isolated) stocks; (iii) protect and rehabilitate P. kauderni habitat and microhabitat (especially
Diadema urchins and sea anemones) within the Banggai Dalaka MPA; (iv) investigate, record
(and where necessary restrict) in-country movements of P. kauderni, especially removal from
the endemic range (e.g. currently unrecorded shipping to Kendari), as well as export and
international movements; (v) regulate and restrict the release of P. kauderni to the wild from
captivity and/or between known/suspected genetic stocks; (vi) institutionalisation at multiple
levels in a holistic socio-ecological context to provide robust and resilient conservation
management and capitalise on the "flagship species" potential of the Banggai cardinalfish.
1. Introduction
Human actions are undoubtedly the major factor affecting the biosphere in this Anthropocene Epoch
[1,2] threatening the life-support system on which we, as a species, depend [2,3]. In addition to the
many direct impacts often clearly visible to stakeholders at the local level, the so-called indirect
impacts generated by the cumulative actions of people around the world are increasingly evident at all
scales from the molecular level to the planetary scale, from the deepest ocean trenches to the outer
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reaches of our atmosphere, and we are now facing multiple crises at local to global levels. Of the nine
"planetary boundaries", within which it is proposed that a "safe operating space for humanity" might
be found, "biosphere integrity" is in the "red" (high risk) zone [4], and many consider that the sixth
mass extinction is now underway, in both terrestrial and marine biomes [5]. Indeed In view of the
complexity and pervasiveness of the problems faced, it is vital to involve all levels of society in the
stewardship of natural resources, in particular marine ecosystems and biodiversity.
The seas around Sulawesi and its satellite archipelagos are recognised for their high biodiversity,
resulting from the complex interweaving of tectonic history and biological evolutionary processes;
however the species and ecosystems of this unique region are under threat from increasing local
pressures as well as global trends [6]. The Banggai Archipelago east of Sulawesi is a case in point.
Home to the endemic Banggai cardinalfish (Pterapogon kauderni Koumans 1933), much of the
archipelago is now within the recently declared Banggai Dalaka provincial level MPA, spanning three
districts (Banggai, Banggai Kepulauan and Banggai Laut). Encompassing at least 90% of the P.
kauderni endemic (native) distribution and populations [7], this MPA has four main conservation
targets: tropical coastal ecosystems (coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangrove forests); P. kauderni
populations and habitat; other protected/priority conservation species; and fisheries resources (finfish
and invertebrates).
Considered at risk of extinction [8], P. kauderni has become an object of local, national, and global
conservation concern [9,10]. In 2016, the second proposal for listing P. kauderni in CITES
(Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) Appendix II
resulted in several decisions (17_259 to 17_263) at the 17th CITES Conference of Parties (CoP 17)
(https://www.cites.org/eng/dec/valid17/81887). In brief, the decisions task Indonesia with
implementing conservation and management measures to ensure the sustainability of international
trade in Pterapogon kauderni. Progress should be reported to the Animals Committee at specific
intervals, and all CITES parties and other relevant organisations are encouraged to assist Indonesia.
Indonesia has taken several actions including the compilation of a National Plan of Action (NPOA-
BCF), the implementation of which relies heavily on appropriate and effective management of the
Banggai Dalaka MPA, which is still in the planning stage. One outcome of the decisions was the
commissioning of a study by the CITES Secretariat through the IUCN in May-July 2018, prior to the
30th CITES Animal Commission meeting in 2018. The objective of this study [11] was to evaluate the
priorities for P. kauderni conservation, with a focus on the recently declared Banggai Dalaka MPA,
the National Plan of Action (NPOA-BCF) and the decisions taken at CITES CoP 17 in 2016.
Conservation of the Banggai cardinalfish should be grounded in sound science, taking into account
existing conditions; in particular, the current status of P. kauderni populations and trade as well as
knowledge regarding the biology and ecology of this species, its symbionts and habitat. Furthermore
in this Anthropocene Epoch, it is vital to consider the likely short and long-term impacts of global
change on this species. In this context it is considered important to evaluate the priorities for effective
conservation of the Banggai cardinalfish and its habitat, from local, national and global perspectives.
Opportunities and risks need to be identified, including those which may be time-bound, for example
due to national governance cycles as well as the CITES processes.
2. Methods
This study was based largely on secondary data (published as well as so-called "grey literature") on
the current condition of endemic P. kauderni populations and habitat, past and current management
initiatives for this species and it's habitat in the Banggai Archipelago, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia.
Data on the movement (trade) of P. kauderni were sourced from the Indonesian Fish Health and
Quarantine Service on-line database (http://bkipm.kkp.go.id/bkipmnew/?r=stats/). Also included in the
analysis were unpublished (primary) data collected during field surveys in the Banggai Archipelago
and during a study commissioned by the IUCN to support implementation of CITES CoP 17 Decisions
17.259-17.263, as well as preliminary (qualitative) results from an experimental study on the effects of
rising sea temperatures on P. kauderni and Diadema urchins. Data were analysed descriptively to
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identify key priorities, opportunities and risks in the context of P. kauderni conservation.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Current status of Pterapogon kauderni population and ESUs
There is overwhelming evidence that Pterapogon kauderni populations have declined substantially
since the species was "rediscovered" in the mid-1990's [7,11,12]. Furthermore, there is evidence for at
least two cases where populations have been extirpated [7,11,13]. The most recent survey in 2017
found extremely low P. kauderni densities at four sites, with at least one (Mandel) considered at risk
of extirpation; furthermore, there was a low percentage of juvenile fish at 14 out of 24 sites [11]. The
fine scale genetic population structure of P. kauderni [14,15] makes the Evolutionarily Significant
Unit concept [16] especially relevant at a sub-species level for this species. Existing genetic and
morphometric data [14,15,17,18,19] indicate that each small island with a P. kauderni population is a
separate ESU; meanwhile the larger islands appear to host several P. kauderni ESUs, as several
apparently reproductively isolated populations (stocks) have been identified, separated by as little as 2
km. At least 21 ESU's are supported by existing genetic data, while a similar or greater number of
unidentified ESUs are suspected. Of these 21 ESUs, 18 are within the Banggai Archipelago, although
one is just outside the Banggai Dalaka MPA (Figure 1), and 3 are on small islands further east, off the
coast of Taliabu Island.
Figure 1. Pterapogon kauderni endemic distribution and introduced populations within the
Banggai Dalaka MPA, showing ESUs supported by existing genetic population structure data
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The situation with respect to the genetic diversity and structure of P. kauderni has been further
complicated by the capture and subsequent release of P. kauderni both within and outside of the
endemic (native) distribution. The former has resulted in the mixing of genetic strains, some thought
to have been isolated reproductively for around 100,000 years or more [15], while the latter has led to
the establishment of introduced populations (Figure 1) within the Banggai region at other sites in
Sulawesi, and across the Indonesian Archipelago [11,13,14,20,21,22,23,24]. While early introductions
were mostly in connection with the P. kauderni ornamental fishery and trade, more recent
introductions have occurred under Government programs, including the intentional release of P.
kauderni at a second site in Luwuk (called Kilo 5) in 2017 and 2018.
3.1.1. Pterapogon kauderni habitat and microhabitat. Pterapogon kauderni habitat within the native
distribution (Figure 1) is limited to shallow waters (mostly 0.5-5m depth) including coral reefs/reef
flats, seagrass beds, some mangrove (Rhizophora sp.) stands, and lagoons [7,8,11,12,20], with an
estimated total extent of less than 30 km2 [7]. Within these habitats, P. kauderni is highly dependent
on symbiotic relationships with a range of protective microhabitats, especially for reproductive
success [7,25,26]. The shallow-water habitat of P. kauderni is typically subject to threats from
intensive human activity, resulting in environmental degradation [14,27]. Key P. kauderni
microhabitats are also under increasing pressure, with declining population trends observed in
Diadematid sea urchins (primarily the genus Diadema) and sea anemones as well as suitable hard
coral life-forms at a majority of sites surveyed since 2004 [12,13, 25,27,28]. While the main cause of
Diadema and sea anemone population decline is a sharp increase in harvesting since around 2007, the
drivers of hard coral degradation include all the commonly reported threats to corals in this region.
The harvest of a wide variety of shallow-water marine invertebrates (mostly through gleaning) is
pervasive throughout the region, but is rarely (if ever) reported in any statistics and has received very
little attention compared to fin-fish fisheries. In the past, such activities were generally for subsistence,
limited in terms of the number of people involved, and often seasonal [20]. The increase in scale and
shift towards commercial exploitation (e.g. large-scale bi-monthly collection and sale of Diadema at
Tolokibit) now appear to pose a real threat to P. kauderni populations and indeed to the integrity of
coastal ecosystems. An overview of trends at 10 P. kauderni sites monitored in 2011/2012 [13] and in
2017/2018 (this study) is shown in Table 1. In the case of Diadema microhabitat, declining trends
were observed in both abundance and average size (test diameter), with predominantly juvenile
individuals remaining at several sites in 2017 and 2018.
Table 1. Trends in P. kauderni habitat (ecosystem) and microhabitat at 10 sites
Survey Site
Ecosystem
Habitat Condition
Micro-habitat
trend
No.
Name
Typology
Exposure
Main
typea
Extent
(trend)
2011/2012
2017/2018
State
Trendb
Trendc
1
Popisi
bay
protected
RF/SG
stable
poor-average
decline
decline
decline
CR
decline
average
unknown
phase shift
to seagrass
sharp decline
2
Bone Baru
bay
semi-open
RF/SG
decline
average
declined
decline
3
Tinakin Laut
strait
protected
RF/SG
decline
poor
decline
stable
fluctuating d
4
Monsongan
bay
semi-open
CR/RF
decline
average
stable
decline
decline d
5
Tolokibit
bay
protected
RF/SG
stable
poor-average
decline
decline
sharp decline d
6
Toropot
bay/lagoon
protected
SG/RF
decline
poor-average
decline
stable
some recovery
7
Kombongan
bay
protected
RF
stable
poor-good
unknown
stable
no clear trend
8
Tanjung
Nggasuang
lagoon
protected
CR/RF/
SG
decline
severely
degraded
sharp
decline
some
recovery
some recovery
9
Toado
shoal
protected
MG
stable
good
unknown
stable
no clear trend
10
Liang
bay
protected
CR/SG
stable
poor
decline
decline
sharp decline d
a CR – coral reef (crest/upper slope); RF = reef flat; SG = seagrass; MG = mangroves (dominated by Rhizophora sp.)
b Comparison with 2004-2007 data, adapted from [13]; c Primary data 2017-2018, compared to 2011/2012 data
d Diadema populations dominated by small (presumed mostly juvenile) individuals of less than 3 m test diameter
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3.1.2. Pterapogon kauderni trade. There is a broad consensus that the trade in P. kauderni has not
been managed sustainably [7,11]. A study on the population dynamics of P. kauderni estimated an
exploitation rate E of 0.5 [12], well above the range recommended for such species. After the first
proposal for listing P. kauderni under CITES Appendix II in 2007, a number of measures were
implemented which had some success in reducing the volume and the impacts of the trade [29].
However at the end of the first NPOA (2007-2012) there was no statutory protection or other
regulation in place [10,13]. The shift in jurisdiction over waters 0-4 nm from the coastline (from
District to Provincial level) under the new regional autonomy law in 2014 (UU 23/2014) has been a
major factor driving an increase in many illegal and often destructive practices over the past four years
[10,11,27]. By 2017, both informal instruments (e.g. the community MPA in Bone Baru) as well as
formal fisheries management (e.g. routine patrols) in place before 2014 had, to all practical intents and
purposes, ceased to function. Meanwhile, as of the time of writing, the Banggai Dalaka MPA is not yet
operational.
One regulatory instrument currently functioning is the statutory obligation to report inter-regional
movement of fish and fisheries products to the Fish Health and Quarantine Service. There has been a
marked and sustained improvement in reporting of ornamental fish consignments to the Luwuk Fish
Quarantine, which has a branch office in the town of Banggai. The volume of consignments from
Luwuk represents the legal trade volume in P. kauderni from the Banggai Archipelago (i.e. from the
native/endemic distribution). However, these data do not represent all, or even the majority, of fish
leaving the Archipelago. Analysis of data from the national Fish Health and Quarantine database on
the (reported) movement of commodities between jurisdictions within Indonesia for the period from
2008 (when records began) to May 2018 (Figure 2) has revealed a major and hitherto unsuspected
shift in the P. kauderni trade since 2014. It also shows a mismatch between recorded dispatches and
arrivals, with no record of the arrival of the majority (50-90%) of fish dispatched between 2015 and
May 2018.
Figure 2. Recorded volume of P. kauderni dispatched to ornamental fish export centres (primarily
Denpasar; less than 20% to other destinations) from 2008 to May 2018 and recorded arrivals in
Denpasar from 2015 to May 2018 (Data source: http://bkipm.kkp.go.id/bkipmnew/?r=stats/)
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Ornamental fish collected in the Banggai Archipelago are typically destined for major export trade
centres, with Denpasar consistently the main point of export, followed by Jakarta and Surabaya. From
the beginning of the trade up to the early 2000's, the majority of P. kauderni traded were collected by
Bajo fishermen from Tumbak, working with local fishermen in the Banggai Archipelago, transported
by sea to Tumbak in wooden boats, and then carried overland to Manado; the remainder were mostly
collected and/or transported by ornamental fishing boats from Bali and Banyuwangi [20]. By 2008,
three routes from shared most of the trade, with almost equal volumes (via Luwuk and/or Palu, via
Kendari and via Manado) [28]; this was reflected in a quota system allocating 5,000 fish/month to
each route. Thereafter, the route to Manado continued to decline, and ostensibly so did the route via
Kendari, with Luwuk apparently becoming the main exit port, increasingly via air freight.
However, the national level data in Figure 2 show that dispatches from Kendari increased
exponentially from 2014-2016. Recorded shipments of P. kauderni into Kendari represent a tiny
fraction (approximately 2%) of this volume, and it is extremely unlikely the introduced populations in
Kendari could have produced this volume of fish. Based on these data, the only logical conclusion is
that most of these fish must have been caught in and illegally transported out of the Banggai
Archipelago. While as yet unsupported by field verification in Kendari, this conclusion is supported by
anecdotal evidence from the southern area of the Banggai Archipelago (sightings of fishing boats from
outside the area by fishermen, unreported consignments of many commodities to Kendari known to
now powerless district level fisheries officers).
The results of the T0 survey in 2017 under the NPOA-BCF [11] and additional data collected at the
same sites (Moore, unpublished data) also support this conclusion. Low or extremely low P. kauderni
densities were found at several remote sites reportedly not fished by the local ornamental fishers, and
population structures displayed a tell-tale gap in the marketable juvenile size class (approximately 25-
35 mm standard length). This gap was in fact more marked than it would appear from the official
results. The size classes recorded were: under 18mm SL (recent recruits); 18-35 SL (juveniles); and
over 35 SL (sub-adults and adults). The juvenile class at most sites in the southern Banggai
Archipelago (Bokan Kepulauan Sub-District) was dominated by individuals under 25 mm SL.
3.1.3. Pterapogon kauderni and global change. The global bleaching event in 2016 affected P.
kauderni coral reef habitat [30]. Coral genera and life-forms serving as P. kauderni microhabitat were
fully or severely bleached; furthermore, P. kauderni-hosting sea anemones were also affected.
Preliminary results from experimental research on the response of P. kauderni and Diadema setosum
to elevated temperatures indicate that adult D. setosum are capable of survival for at least a month at
sea temperatures of 32-33ºC, around 2ºC above recent average day-time values, and similar to
temperatures recorded during the 2016 global bleaching event. However, the survival of adult P.
kauderni decreased and morbidity increased above 31ºC, with close to 50% mortality after 1 week at
33ºC. Qualitatively, as temperature increased the amount of feed consumed by both organisms also
increased, indicating an increase in metabolic rate. However, at around 33ºC P. kauderni began to
appear emaciated, despite still consuming similar or higher amounts of feed compared to controls
(ambient temperature, around 28ºC). Pairing behaviour (although no spawning) was observed in most
experimental units below 32ºC, but none in units at 32-33ºC. Furthermore, predation of D. setosum on
P. kauderni was observed at 32-33ºC.
A review of likely global climate change impacts on P. kauderni and its microhabitats (this
volume) indicates that other negative impacts are likely, which cumulatively could reduce
reproductive success, recruitment, and growth of P. kauderni and its major symbionts. This study
concludes that while short term measures are vital, the long-term survival of native (endemic) P.
kauderni populations most likely hinges on global success in limiting climate change.
3.2. National Initiatives
The umbrella national instrument for P. kauderni conservation (developed shortly after CITES CoP 17
in 2016) is the National Plan of Action (NPOA), the implementation of which is strongly linked to the
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Banggai Dalaka MPA. One component of this NPOA is Ministerial Decree Kepmen 49/2018 by the
Minister for Marine Affairs and Fisheries dated 4 April 2018 and socialised in early May. This decree
gives limited protected status to the Banggai cardinalfish, with spatial and temporal limitations on
harvest. Temporally, the closed seasons are February-March and October-November. The rationale
behind this regulation is to reduce or eliminate disturbance of P. kauderni populations during peak
breeding seasons. Although P. kauderni spawning can occur (subject to lunar cycles) throughout the
year [7], there is strong evidence for an annual peak in recruitment during the inter-monsoonal calm
season (September/October to November/December) [12].
Spatially, seasonal closures under Kepmen 49/2018 apply within the restricted use area of the
Banggai Dalaka MPA (by definition the core zone is comprised of no-take areas). All or part of at
least 10 P. kauderni populations (known or inferred ESUs) within the MPA are included in core zone
areas, with the remainder in the restricted use zone (tourism, traditional fishery and aquaculture sub-
zones), or rehabilitation zone (Figure 1). As pointed out in [11], to be effective these closures will
need to be complemented by other fishing regulations (e.g. quotas during the fishing seasons), and
management of P. kauderni habitat and microhabitats (e.g. prevent overexploitation of the
microhabitat organisms such as Diadema urchins). This regulation does not include any provisions to
promote ESU-based management or prevent a serial depletion of ESUs during the open seasons.
The NPOA is structured under 6 focal aspects. An overview of the main planned activities (period
2017-2021) under each aspect (Table 2) also contains remarks. These aim to provide clarification and
highlight areas considered to be of particular concern.
Table 2. Overview of the NPOA for P. kauderni conservation
Focal Aspect
Core components/activities
Remarks
1
Development of
database,
information and
documentation
of P. kauderni
in natural
habitat and
introduced areas
P. kauderni population monitoring
(manual, training, 24 sites)
Initial survey in 2017 (T0) with 24 sites
selected; T1 in late 2018
Conduct genetic tests on P.
kauderni populations outside native
habitat (Banggai Laut, Gilimanuk,
Palu Bay, Kendari, Ambon,
Jakarta, Kepulauan Riau, Lombok,
Lampung)
Genetic characterisation of introduced
populations is not meaningful until there is a
comprehensive reference database on the
endemic populations, with diagnostic markers
to identify source ESUs
Note: Banggai Laut is native habitat
Develop database and information
system on P. kauderni fisheries
No information on progress; Fish Health and
Quarantine Data show an urgent need for this
component
2
Implementation
of protection
and preservation
of P. kauderni
and its habitat
Spatial protection
a. Identify crucial habitat
b. Expansion of conservation area
(MPA) under provincial authority
to incorporate P. kauderni habitat
c. Gazette the MPA
d. Develop MPA management plan
and zonation
e. Establish MPA management unit
Steps a to c: achieved through the
promulgation of the Banggai Dalaka MPA
(Decree of the Governor of Central Sulawesi
Number 523/635A/Dis.Kan GST/2017, dated
27 December 2017.
Step d: well underway.
Step e: no management unit to date.
Limited protected status for P.
kauderni and asses benefit of
moratorium
Status decreed through Kepmen 49/2018.
Decree socialised in May 2018, no
information on planned assessment.
3
Implementation
of sustainable P.
kauderni use
and distribution
Population assessments in
designated areas (Banggai Laut,
Gilimanuk, Palu Bay, Kendari,
Ambon, Jakarta, Kepulauan Riau,
Lombok, Lampung)
Banggai Laut: seems to be a duplicate of
population monitoring under aspect 1.
Introduced populations: strange that the
Luwuk population is omitted, some sites
probably captive P. kauderni.
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Focal Aspect
Core components/activities
Remarks
3
Implementation
of sustainable P.
kauderni use
and distribution
(continued)
Conduct extraction rate
assessments in each trade chain
Figure 2 confirms the urgency of this measure;
as far as is known, assessments not yet
conducted.
Establish and disseminate a quota
system
Previous quota is still perceived as in vigour
by many stakeholders, with conflicting views
as to volume and allocation.
Needs to be ESU-based; a potential quota
system is outlined in [11].
Surveillance and enforcement on
harvest, distribution, and trade
Currently very weak or non-existent; will
require significant resources and strong
community support/participation
Regulation of international trade,
including export data collection;
registration of potential exporters;
establishing a P. kauderni business
association
Exporters of all ornamental fish should be
registered, and there is a trade association for
these stakeholders. It is unclear what benefit
could be gained from a species-specific
association.
Develop SOP for P. kauderni
extraction from other habitats and
hatchery units
From a conservation viewpoint, the native
habitat should be the priority.
4
Improving
human
resources
capacity in P.
kauderni
management
Community based surveillance
Empowering existing coast-watch
groups/system has potential for wide-ranging
positive impacts on conservation and
community welfare.
Potential for use of village regulations to make
the system effective/efficient.
Establish sustainable use of BCF to
deliver economic benefit for local
community
Unlikely to have a significant impact if based
on the fishery or culture.
Tourism and "flagship" role of P. kauderni
could have much wider impact.
Training on BCF management
(aquaculture, restocking, trade
chain, etc.)
Aquaculture training underway in Bone Baru
(NGO LINI, supported by MMAF).
So-called restocking to date is actually
introduction, impoverishing endemic
populations to found/enlarge introduced
populations (e.g. Luwuk Kilo 5)
Goal to train 50 people for restocking is
questionable; one (small) team for exceptional
circumstances should suffice.
Socialization and public awareness
on the ecological importance of P.
kauderni and its habitat and
promotion of P. kauderni
management by local communities
to national and international forums
Various posters and other items produced.
P. kauderni displayed at many events, often
with significant fish mortality.
Local community management needs to
become a reality ; promotion of the concept
could prompt support.
5
Improve
Banggai
Cardinal Fish
Governance
Optimize Banggai Cardinalfish
Centre (BCFC)
Note: under the 2007-2012 NPOA,
the BCFC was designed as an
umbrella organisation for all
aspects of P. kauderni management
Original BCFC organisation and building left
with unclear status after the separation of
Banggai Laut from Banggai Kepulauan
District in 2013.
This issue, brought up at every stakeholder
meeting since 2013, is still unresolved
Development of ex-situ aquaculture
and training centre
Bali and Ambon (government research
centres); possible role for the Bone Baru unit.
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Focal Aspect
Core components/activities
Remarks
5
Improve
Banggai
Cardinal Fish
Governance
(continued)
Protect habitat to support P.
kauderni resilience in Indonesia
(Banggai Laut, Gilimanuk, Palu
Bay, Kendari, Ambon, Kepulauan
Riau, Jakarta, Lombok, Lampung)
This is clearly oriented toward introduced
populations.
Ideally limited resources should be focussed
on the native (endemic) P. kauderni range.
Mainstream BCF within national
fish governance; Trade network
and national promotion; Increase
the role of national forum or
national working group on
management of ornamental fish
The leading role of the MMAF in initiatives
post CITES CoP 17 BCF is a positive sign.
P. kauderni fishery and trade management
should indeed be integrated into the
ornamental fish system as a potentially
sustainable mechanism.
6
Implementation
of P. kauderni
restocking
activities
Provide training to communities to
breed P. kauderni (Bali, Jakarta,
Ambon, Kepulauan Riau, Lombok,
Kendari, Banggai Laut, Palu Bay,
Lampung)
and
Develop P. kauderni breeding
program (Banggai Laut, Banggai,
Banggai Kepulauan)
The rationale for training communities outside
the native P. kauderni distribution in breeding
this species is unclear, and likely to cause
resentment in the native area.
Breeding initiated in Bone Baru (Banggai
Laut); facilities in Liang (Banggai Kepulauan)
partial, not operational; unclear why Banggai
District (Sulawesi mainland) is included
unless as holding station for fish from the
Archipelago (captive-bred or wild caught).
Conduct assessment on broodstock
(Banggai Laut, Palu Bay,
Gilimanuk, Ambon)
The three introduced /captive populations are
of uncertain origin in terms of ESU, and thus
unsuitable for true re-stocking (replenishment
of native/endemic populations)
Needs assessment and guidelines
on P. kauderni population and
habitat rehabilitation
Guidelines currently under preparation. It is
crucial that the guidelines address the issue of
genetic structure to maintain ESU integrity.
Carry out socialization for re-
stocking programs (Banggai Laut,
Gilimanuk, Palu Bay, Kendari,
Ambon, Jakarta, Kepulauan Riau,
Lombok, Lampung)
This should be oriented towards well-studied
sites in the endemic range only (Banggai Laut
and Banggai Kepulauan Districts)
The need for care in sourcing broodstock from
the target ESU should be stressed.
Strengthen community group for
surveillance of re-stocking program
implementation and implement
population monitoring in re-
stocking areas (Banggai Laut,
Gilimanuk, Palu Bay, Kendari,
Ambon, Jakarta, Kepulauan Riau,
Lombok, Lampung)
These items should not be a priority, and it is
even questionable if they should be carried out
outside the native P. kauderni distribution.
The precautionary principle needs to be
strongly implemented in protocols and in field
implementation, especially with respect to
genetic stocks/ESUs and biosecurity issues
(e.g. pest and disease transmission).
Training on P. kauderni restocking
and implement re-stocking program
(Banggai District)
Fish captured in the endemic range were
released at Luwuk Kilo 5 introduced site on 1-
2 May 2018. Such actions are against accepted
conservation principles.
Of the six NPOA focal aspects, aspect 6 is by far the most controversial. In the field of endangered
fish management, it is vital to consider conservation genetics [31]. In particular, restocking should be
limited to native fish and even then only in cases of exceptional need (e.g. extirpation or high risk of
extirpation within the native distribution of a species) [11,31]. Furthermore, such restocking should
follow good practices such as those developed by the IUCN [11]. In the case of P. kauderni, this
means paying due attention to ESU issues. Furthermore, there needs to be a distinction between wild
broodstock (F0), their offspring (F1) and further generations (F2 and beyond).
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The issue of genetic structure and ESUs should not only be a prime consideration in restocking, but
also in all release of P. kauderni (wild or captive bred) at sites other than their native site within the
native (endemic) distribution of this species. In the case of introduced populations, the appropriateness
of introducing and thereafter increasing the population of a new species should be given mature
consideration. Invasive potential is a serious concern, especially as it has been reported that P.
kauderni has become an invasive alien species in Lembeh Strait [7,21]. In all cases, biosecurity should
be a concern, in particular the health of the fish being released, to avoid the potential spread of pests
and disease [11].
In addition to the ecological aspects, socio-economic aspects of the proposed activities should be
considered. Stakeholders in the Banggai Archipelago have expressed concern over what they see as a
loss of identity of "their" fish when it is produced in other areas, and even sold under names which no
longer reflect the origin of the species, for example “capungan Ambon”. This "branding issue",
important in trade and other economic sectors, for example in tourism, is also reflected in the
(erroneous) perception among some scientists that P. kauderni is no longer and endemic species
because it is now found (as yet in comparatively small numbers) outside of its native distribution. This
perception played a key role in the failure of efforts to give limited protected status to P. kauderni
under the 2007-2012 NPOA, significantly delaying effective protection measures for the species.
3.3. Priorities, opportunities and risks
The future of P. kauderni is at a crossroads, where the success or failure of the current NPOA will
have far-reaching effects. At this crucial point in time, a number of key priorities, opportunities and
risks based on the findings of this study are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Priorities for P. kauderni conservation
No.
Priority for action
Opportunities
Risk factors/needs
1
Prioritise endemic (not
introduced) P. kauderni
populations.
Central government support for
Banggai Dalaka MPA.
CITES recommendations and
international concern.
Local stakeholder awareness.
Scarce resources may be allocated to
actions with little or no impact on native
(endemic) P. kauderni populations.
Risk of negative impacts, e.g. loss of
ESU integrity.
2
Protect genetic diversity
through site/stock-based
management (including
conservation ornamental
fishery, monitoring),
ideally ESU-based.
Can be initiated using existing
genetic population structure
data, while seeking to develop a
database of genetically unique
(reproductively isolated) stocks
(ESUs).
Potential support for research to
determine ESUs and diagnostic
markers.
Risk of delay while waiting for
comprehensive ESU data.
Such delay is likely to enable further
loss of ESU integrity through
inappropriate actions at all levels, as
well as increase the risk of further
extirpations; this is likely even with
measures (e.g. quotas) applied
effectively, if they are set and
implemented at a spatial resolution
greater than the ESU/site/stock level.
3
Protect and rehabilitate P.
kauderni habitat and
microhabitat (especially
Diadema urchins and sea
anemones).
Potential for regulations and
other mechanisms through
Banggai Dalaka MPA as well as
village regulations and funds.
Growing body of relevant
research as well as growing
awareness of and interest in the
(lack of) sustainability of
invertebrate fisheries, including
gleaning.
Poorly designed rehabilitation could be
counterproductive (e.g. damage to donor
sites/organisms, as well as target site)
Risk of low compliance (e.g. urchin
collectors, traders and consumers) and
horizontal conflict (e.g. between local
communities and roving fishers).
Need for knowledge and technology,
e.g. on connectivity and culture to
support urchin conservation.
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No.
Priority for action
Opportunities
Risk factors/needs
4
Investigate, record (and
where necessary restrict)
in-country movements of
P. kauderni, especially
removal from the endemic
range
Existing Fish Health and
Quarantine systems, including
trained staff, promotional
materials, stakeholder relations,
and on-line database (albeit
database could be made more
user-friendly).
National and international
interest (linked to CITES).
Potential for wider application
to ornamental/other fisheries.
Transport by sea and overland much less
well documented than airfreight; fish
arrivals poorly documented compared to
dispatches. These discrepancies need to
be studied and remedied.
The logistics involved in compliance
provide some justification for
unrecorded shipping (e.g. to Kendari).
Need to improve data on export and
international as well as in-country
movements [11].
5
Regulate and restrict the
release of P. kauderni to
the wild from captivity
and/or between
known/suspected genetic
stocks
Regulations being drafted with
MMAF support under the P.
kauderni NPOA.
Potential for synergetic
measures under the Banggai
Dalaka MPA and through
village ordinances.
Awareness among fishermen of
subtle differences between P.
kauderni populations [11,22]
Risk that commercial and sectoral
interests could over-ride science-based
approaches, and allow (de jure or de
facto) the inappropriate release of fish.
The health and genetic integrity of an
ESU could be compromised through the
introduction of fish: from a different
ESU; descended from mixed/uncertain
strains; in poor health; poorly adapted or
acclimated to the release site; etc.
6
Institutionalisation at
multiple levels in a holistic
socio-ecological context to
provide robust and
resilient conservation
management
P. kauderni as an icon at village
to regional level, including on
the Banggai Laut District shield.
Opportunity to capitalise on the
"flagship species" potential of
the Banggai cardinalfish to
promote more sustainable
coastal resource management,
especially in the intensively
used shallow-water ecosystems
comprising P. kauderni habitat.
Lack of capacity at some levels and lack
of integration between levels, including
substantial decline in capacity through
dismantling of previous systems and
many other mechanisms under the new
regional autonomy law (UU 23/2014).
Project-oriented, short-term, and partial
or sectoral approaches driven by the
regulatory framework, including annual
budgetary mechanisms and political (e.g.
electoral) time-frames and systems.
7
Further research on
potential climate change
impacts and their
mitigation in a local
context (spatial scale)
Growing body of research and
research methods/tools.
Current momentum and concern
at national level and globally,
likely to increase as the 15th
IPCC report [3] is disseminated.
Risk of "too little, too late".
Risk of "ego-sectoral" approaches
impeding research and its application.
Limited appropriate funding for research
and its dissemination/application.
Despite the potentially grim threats we all face in the Anthropocene [1,3], it is important to
maintain optimism, and work to conserve our irreplaceable natural heritage at the local level, while at
the same time working to address issues requiring concerted global action, in particular on climate
change. We hope that this study and the suggestions it contains will be of use to stakeholders in
working to sustain the Banggai cardinalfish, together with its habitat and microhabitat, as part of a
vibrant socio-ecological system.
4. Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge support for this research from the Indonesian Ministry of
Research and Higher Education Pascadoktor grant scheme (Contracts 703.b/UN28.2/PL/2017 and
285.a/UN28.2/PL/2018). The authors also wish to recognise the valuable input from Sarah Foster and
Monique Biondo and to thank all colleagues and stakeholders who have supported the research on
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which this article is based.
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