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Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Sivil ve Türkçe Tıp Eğitimine Geçiș Transition to Civil and Turkish Medical Education in the Ottoman Empire
Abstract
In this article, it is aimed to present a general framework about the transition to civilian and Turkish medical training in the Ottoman Empire. Considering the history of Turkish medical training, demilitarization of medical training and medical training translating into Turkish are among important steps. Also both incidents were taken place in the Ottoman’s last century. Considering status of the Ottoman Empire, the importance of the steps can be understood. Modern medical training in The Ottoman Empire initiated with Tıbhane-i Amire which was founded in 1827 and was at the same time a military school. Tıbhane-i Amire became the only school for medical training over time. Medical training within the Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Șahane which was a continuation of Tıbhane-i Amire, was continued in French from 1839. Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Mülkiye was founded in 1867 as a civilian medical school and Turkish medical training was given at this school. Starting from 1870, medical training in the Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Șahane, a military school, was also conducted in Turkish. The processes of establishing the civilian medical school and transition to Turkish medical training advanced parallel to each other and influenced each other. The occurrence of certain conditions and special efforts of some people also positively affected this process.
... Bu vakaların % 67.4'ü ölümle sonuçlanmıştır. 10 12 II. Abdülhamid döneminde ise koleraya karşı bitki ve baharatlardan elde edilen formüllerle ilaç denemeleri olmuştur. ...
Salgın hastalıklar insanlık tarihi boyunca birçok kez meydana gelerek toplumların ve devletlerin sosyal, ekonomik, siyasal ve askeri hayatlarını derinden etkilemiştir. Göç, ekonomik kriz ve nüfus azalmasına sebep olan salgınların önüne geçilmesi hususunda yüzyıllarca çeşitli yöntemlere başvurulmuştur. Bu da modern tıbbın gelişimine kadar geçen süreci pozitif yönde etkilemiştir. Toplumları büyük ölçüde etkileyen salgınlardan biri de koleradır. Hijyen koşullarından uzak yerlerde ortaya çıkan kolera, Osmanlı Devleti’nde birkaç kez yayılmıştır. İnsan hareketliliğinin yoğun olduğu yerlerin başında gelen İstanbul, koleradan etkilenen başlıca şehirlerden biridir. XIX. yüzyılda, en az beş büyük kolera salgını geçiren kentte 1911 yazı kolera ile mücadeleyle geçmiştir. Bu çalışmanın amacı 1911 yazında İstanbul’da meydana gelen kolera salgınının etkisini dönemin muhalif yayınlarından birini oluşturan Alemdar Gazetesi aracılığıyla saptamaktır. İncelenen nüshalara göre, 1911 yılının yaz mevsimi boyunca etkili olmasına rağmen hastalık Ağustos ayında artış göstermiştir. Eylül ayının sonlarında kontrol altına alınmaya başlanan hastalık, kışa doğru neredeyse bitme noktasına gelmiştir. Bu çerçevede gazetede yer alan kolera vakaları, koleraya karşı alınan tedbirler, halkın ve devletin koleraya bakış açısı incelenmiştir. 1911 yazında İstanbul’da meydana gelen salgında vaka sayısı 2.500’ü aşmıştır. Salgına karşı alınan tedbirlerde ise yetersiz kalınmıştır.
Throughout history, Cyprus has hosted many civilizations and states due to its strategic location in the Mediterranean. One of them is the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans conquered the island in 1571 and maintained their rule until 1878. The scholarly attempt to grasp the Ottoman Empire with its all institutional, political, social, economic and cultural aspects has been one of the fields of interest for world historiography. It is obvious that local history studies in the countries experienced the Ottoman rule, would help and contribute to draw a general picture of the Ottoman Empire. In this context, the current work, mainly relying on the religious court records, aims to identify the diseases except the contagious ones such as cholera, plague and malaria. The other aim is to investigate and analyse the doctor-patient relations within social, economic and juridical contexts in Ottoman Cyprus. The results reveal that the overwhelming majority of the doctors operating in Cyprus were in private practice until the second half of the 19th century when the Ottomans started the centralization and modernization of its institutions including the health services, and thus to view the healthcare services as a public service. Although the state did not take responsibility for public healthcare services for public, it had a certain control mechanism on the doctors and their operations.
The
main purpose of this study is to become acquainted with the educational
institutions in Ottoman Empire during and after the 18th century.
In this respect, special attention is given to which initiatives were taken in
terms of education and which educational institutions were established during
the aforementioned period. The need to comply with the West in terms of
science, culture, reasoning, and technological advancements has led to the
questioning of the current madrasah system. Upon revising the educational
system of the madrasah, which had difficulties in being productive and attaining
to the necessities of the time, there have been initiatives primarily to
establish and structure military schools. These attempts to reform education
was intensively seen as from the early 18th century. The
above-mentioned changes and progress have gained momentum with the Tanzimat
era. It was observed that during this period, many schools were established
beyond military; education levels were clarified and; females were given right
to study. Similar to Tanzimat era during the first Constitutional Monarchy and
Autocracy eras, positive contributions toward educational reforms were made.
However, beginning from the middle of the second Constitutional Monarchy era,
the economic and social complications that the state was going through had a
negative impact on the educational system and the practicality of the
educational institutions.Summary: Education has been the most important factor in determining the social,
economic, and cultural level of a society. The level of development, which is
the determinant of the superiority of the nations to each other over the world,
varies according to the importance given to education. To be a pioneer in the
scientific sense, to be able to have technological opportunities, to make
people live more comfortable and peaceful, to have more power in the economic
field and to ensure the continuity of the nation that depending on all these,
it will be possible with the understanding of education that can read the time
and future well. The fact that world states are superior to each other in
different periods of history is directly related to their understanding of
education. It can be said that in the centuries following the beginning of the
new age, especially the Western nations have taken a more positive step at this
subject. The changes in both mental and action spheres such as XVI. century
Renaissance movements, XVIII. century enlightenment movement and finally the
industrial revolution triggered the development in the scientific and
technological field. In these periods the importance given to thinking and the
freedom of thought has been the main factor of the progress in the scientific
field. The European nations, which went beyond their religion-based bigotry and
prioritized the free and secular understanding, have become superior to other
nations of the world. However, it is not quite possible to say that in the same
periods the Ottoman Empire was able to adapt with the same speed to such
accelerations of change and development that placed in Europe. One of the main
reasons for this situation and perhaps most importantly is that the educational
concept in the Ottoman Empire remained within a static structure in the last
centuries. In particular, the matters such as the madrasa being away from
productivity, the limitation of the understanding of the science only with
religious sciences, has led to the problem of inability to adapt to the rapid
transformation that in Europe. The first steps towards eliminating this
weakness noticed by the state executives over time has been taken through the
improvement and transformation of the Ottoman educational institutions. It is
possible to say that the first attempts as to these restructures of education,
which is also called as Westernization or modernization by the educational
historians, has begun in the period of Sultan III. Selim. In the context of the
Nizam-ı Cedid movement, a number of
positive initiatives in education, such as the improvement of madrasas, the
opening of military schools and translation activities, constitute the core of
the changes that will take place in later periods. Immediately afterwards, in
the period of II. Mahmut, making the reading and writing education compulsory,
opening of Western-style junior high school, establishing medical and
vocational schools that provide education at higher education level are
considered as positive innovations of the period. The time interval from the
proclamation of the Tanzimat edict
until the First Constitutional monarchy is the period in which the
institutionalization and structuring towards education in the Ottoman Empire is
at the highest level. Besides many educational institutions in this process
where the ministry responsible for education and training is established and
the regulation containing the arrangements regarding this field is put into
force, one of the most important initiatives made is laying the foundations of
the Dâr al-Fünûn (Ottoman University)
which is considered as the first university in this land. The fact that many
educational institutions established in this period that are the roots of
today's educational institutions is important in terms of demonstrating the
accuracy of the initiatives within the mentioned period. In Meşrutiyet (the First Constitutional
Monarchy) and the subsequent period of Mutlakiyet
(Autocracy), contributions were provided on previous positive structuring.
However, the social and economic problems experienced in the country since the
second half of II. Meşrutiyet (the 2nd
Constitutional Monarchy) have been effective in the inability of continuing
innovations towards education.
In this
study, the educational institutions established in the Ottoman Empire before
and after the Tanzimat period were
discussed. The aim is not just to reveal what these schools are. It was also
aimed to emphasize which areas in which schools are required to be based on
which needs, which obstacles are encountered during the change of mentality in
education, regulatory activities foreseen to overcome obstacles and to what
extent they have been successful. In this regard, the signals of change as to
the structure of educational institutions, which could be the source of most of
the republic period, started from the beginning of 1700s and continued until
World War II period. During this period of more than a hundred years, the
political periods related to the structure and functioning of the state have
also been influential in the structuring of educational institutions. In fact,
the Reorganization (Tanzimat) period,
which is known as ‘reform’ in the mentioned process, is considered as the stage
where the change and transformation concerning education is the most. It is
seen that the process of westernization still continues even though it is not
with the same acceleration in the Constitutional Monarchy and Autocracy periods
after the Reorganization period. When looking at the facility of educational
institutions in chronological order, it is determined that there is a dominated
understanding that prioritizes to train military staff in the military field
and to have a competent army with the technological possibilities of the time,
in other words, to create a strong defence system against the foreign powers of
the country. Indeed, for the first time in order to give technical information
about modern military, Hendesehane
opened and started to operate in İstanbul in 1734 by Mahmut I; Mühendishâne-i Bahrî-i Hümâyûn, the
school of the first military maritime was opened in 1775 in order to provide
modern education; Mühendishâne-i Berrî-i
Hümâyun was founded in 1795 in Istanbul, in order to train artillery and
military officer (military engineer); Mekteb-i
Harbiye, which was opened in 1835 to train officers, and Menşe-i Küttab-ı Askeri, which was
established to train military scribes, contributed to the contemporary construction
of the army. In the mentioned period, the most important change outside the
military area was in the health area. In this sense, in order to meet the
medical doctor needs of the army, Tıbhâne-i
Amire was established in 1827. In 1867, the first civilian medical school, Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Mülkiye, started
education and training. Another important innovation movement for education was
in the field of law. In this context, the School Law was established in 1880.
In order to train competent staff in administrative staff, the schools of the Mekteb-i Mülkiye, the schools of
teacher, the schools that enable women to do education, the improvement of
schools that train the clergy and the regulations based on this take attention
as educational activities carried out in the mentioned period.
Medical education with native tongue is a privilige. This is not possible for many countries because of shortcomings and limiting factors of the status of national educative system. Only after a highly devolepped and sofisticated native tongue of science is suitable for medical education. At the same time with the Pyotr the Great of Russia and the Sultan Mahmud of the Ottomans, erected modern medical schools in their countries. Foundation of medical turkish and its use in the education of the medical students needed a time span but this was succeeded despite enormous difficulties.
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