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Regulations on lead ammunition adopted in Europe and evidence of compliance
Abstract
The transition to non-lead ammunition has been enforced by regulations on use and possession of lead shot and rifle bullets. Here we review the scientific and technical literature about this regulatory process in Europe and give some notes of its effectiveness to reduce this source of lead contamination in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Presently, lead shot use has been legally restricted in 23 European countries. Two, Denmark and The Netherlands, have a total ban of lead gunshot use in all types of habitats, 16 countries have a total ban in wetlands and/or for waterbird hunting, and 5 have a partial ban implemented only in some wetlands. The legal regulation of lead bullets is limited to some German regions. This review also highlights the need to know the level of compliance with the ban on lead ammunition and the subsequent benefits for the susceptible species and for game meat safety.
... An example of a partial ban is that in England, where the use of lead gunshot is prohibited for hunting waterfowl, or over certain wetlands (HMSO 1999), but lead is allowed for hunting terrestrial gamebirds. An example of a total ban is that in Denmark, where the sale, use, and possession of lead gunshot have been prohibited for all purposes since 1996 (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). ...
... While the total ban on lead gunshot in Denmark was associated with a substantial reduction in lead concentrations in muscle tissue of small game animals, this does not appear to have been the case for partial (wetland or waterfowl) regulations, or voluntary bans. Excluding Denmark, many countries across Europe have partial bans on the use of lead ammunition for the shooting of waterfowl or over wetlands (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). While some countries had partial bans in place when mean muscle tissue lead concentrations were reported, they were not lower than those from countries with no ban (Fig. 4). ...
... Various restrictions on the use of lead gunshot have been introduced in European countries over the past four decades, initially to protect waterfowl health and more recently to protect the health of scavenging and predatory animals and humans (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). With respect to our second objective, we found no evidence that partial restrictions, such as those over wetlands or for waterfowl shooting, nor calls for voluntary restraint, had resulted in a measurable reduction in lead concentrations in game meat. ...
Small game animals are generally hunted with lead gunshot which often fragments causing elevated lead concentrations in meat and presenting health risks to frequent consumers and vulnerable groups. We reviewed three decades of European data on lead concentrations in the meat of gamebirds, rabbits and hares across countries with various restrictions on lead gunshot use. Mean meat lead concentrations decreased to a low level in Denmark, the only country in the study with a total ban on lead gunshot use. In contrast, elsewhere in Europe meat lead concentrations increased over time, an unexplained and previously undescribed finding. The only regulatory restriction associated with a decrease in meat lead concentrations was the Danish total ban on lead gunshot use. We calculated an arithmetic mean lead concentration in small game meat of 5.205 ppm w.w. (2011–2021) from across Europe. EU and UK regulators are considering banning lead ammunition for all hunting to protect human and wildlife health. The mean value we found for small game meat (2011–2021) was fourteen times higher than that used in a recent EU-wide risk assessment.
... Within our study region and study period, the use of lead shotgun ammunition for all hunting has been banned only in Denmark (from 1996) and the Netherlands (from 1993). In Europe there was partial regulation by 2018 of lead shotgun ammunition in 18 of the other EU27 countries and also in Norway, Switzerland and the UK (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). This regulation usually applied only to certain quarry species, especially waterfowl, and/or to wetland habitats, and compliance with these partial regulations has mostly been incomplete or has not been measured (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019;Green et al., 2021). ...
... In Europe there was partial regulation by 2018 of lead shotgun ammunition in 18 of the other EU27 countries and also in Norway, Switzerland and the UK (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). This regulation usually applied only to certain quarry species, especially waterfowl, and/or to wetland habitats, and compliance with these partial regulations has mostly been incomplete or has not been measured (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019;Green et al., 2021). In any case, most quarry killed using lead shotgun ammunition are of species not covered by the partial regulations or which are shot in other habitats. ...
... We fitted logistic regression models to a dataset which included the results from Denmark of Clausen and Wolstrup (1979) and all other countries, but not those from . This set of results is uniform in that it comes from countries where the use of lead shotgun ammunition for hunting is allowed by law (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019) and where the majority of such ammunition used is composed of lead (Kanstrup and Thomas, 2019). We then used the logistic regression model fitted to this dataset to calculate the numbers of raptors with clinical levels of lead in the liver in the samples of Kanstrup et al., 2019 obtained after lead shotgun ammunition was banned in Denmark which would have been expected there if the ban had not occurred. ...
Poisoning caused by ingestion of spent lead (Pb) ammunition in food items is a common cause of death of raptors. However, there has been no previous attempt to assess the impact of lead poisoning on populations of raptors throughout Europe or examine how this relates to the prevalence of hunting. We used measurements of lead concentration in the liver from over 3000 raptors of 22 species found dead or dying in the wild in 13 countries and a lead poisoning threshold of 20 ppm (dry weight) to assess the proportion of these in which lead poisoning caused or contributed to death. The prevalence of lead poisoning as a cause of death of raptors varied substantially among European countries and was positively correlated across countries with the reported number of hunters per unit area. Ten species had a non-zero proportion of individuals with concentrations exceeding the lead poisoning threshold ranging between 0.3% and 16.5%. The estimated annual conditional death rate from lead poisoning for these ten species averaged 0.44% (range 0.06–0.85%). Scavenging species feeding regularly on carcasses of game animals,tended to have a high annual probability of death from lead poisoning. So too did some predators which only sometimes scavenge, but prey on frequently hunted birds, such as gamebirds, waterfowl and pigeons, which may contain ingested or embedded lead shot. Small-bodied predators had a low annual probability of death from lead poisoning. Modelling indicated that European populations of adult raptors of the ten focal species averaged 6.0% smaller (range 0.2–14.4%) than they would be without the effects of lead poisoning. A given rate of lead poisoning mortality resulted in greater expected population reductions for species with high annual survival rate and late age at first breeding.
... Subsequently, various International Agreements, Resolutions and Guidelines were adopted by the European Union (EU) and associated countries such as Norway and Switzerland. These led Member States to develop and implement their own regulations on the use of lead in rifle and shotgun ammunition (reviewed in Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019) and there is no harmonised legislation across the EU (ECHA, 2018; Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). As a result, the European Chemicals Agency called for the need for EU-wide action to address the environmental risk of lead across all Member States, the aim of which would be to protect not only wildlife but also human health (ECHA, 2017). ...
... Subsequently, various International Agreements, Resolutions and Guidelines were adopted by the European Union (EU) and associated countries such as Norway and Switzerland. These led Member States to develop and implement their own regulations on the use of lead in rifle and shotgun ammunition (reviewed in Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019) and there is no harmonised legislation across the EU (ECHA, 2018; Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). As a result, the European Chemicals Agency called for the need for EU-wide action to address the environmental risk of lead across all Member States, the aim of which would be to protect not only wildlife but also human health (ECHA, 2017). ...
... The use of lead-based ammunition for hunting has been regulated in 23 European countries, with some countries adopting total (e.g., The Netherlands and Denmark) and others partial (see Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019) bans. However, the effectiveness of such mitigations on reducing lead contamination in raptors has not been widely examined. ...
Lead contamination is a widely recognised conservation problem for raptors worldwide. There are a number of studies in individual raptor species but those data have not been systematically evaluated to understand raptor-wide lead exposure and effects at a pan-European scale. To critically assess the extent of this problem, we performed a systematic review compiling all published data on lead in raptors (1983–2019) and, through a meta-analysis, determined if there was evidence for differences in exposure across feeding traits, geographical regions, between hunting and non-hunting periods, and changes over time. We also reviewed the impact of lead on raptors and the likely main source of exposure. We examined 114 studies that were unevenly distributed in terms of time of publication and the countries in which studies were performed. Peer-reviewed articles reported data for 39 raptor species but very few species were widely monitored across Europe. Obligate (vultures) and facultative scavengers (golden eagle, common buzzard and white-tailed sea eagle) accumulated the highest lead concentrations in tissues and generally were the species most at risk of lead poisoning. We found no evidence of a spatial or decadal trend in lead residues, but we demonstrated that high lead blood levels relate to hunting season. Exposure at levels associated with both subclinical and lethal effects is common and lead from rifle bullets and shot is often the likely source of exposure. Overall, our review illustrates the high incidence and ubiquity of lead contamination in raptors in Europe. However, we did not find studies that related exposure to quantitative impacts on European raptor populations nor detailed studies on the impact of mitigation measures. Such information is urgently needed and requires a more harmonised approach to quantifying lead contamination and effects in raptors across Europe.
... Discharge of spent lead hunting ammunition now constitutes the largest unregulated release of lead to environments [7]. Despite the long-term recognition of this toxic risk to wildlife in particular, and the availability of lead-free non-toxic substitutes for shotgun and rifle ammunition, a regulated transition to the use of these substitutes is slow, and until now almost exclusively for wetland hunting [8]. ...
... While Denmark and The Netherlands have made most progress in restricting lead shotgun ammunition use, Poland, Ireland and Greece have enacted no restriction. Only Germany requires the use of lead-free rifle ammunition in some jurisdictions [8]. The decision of the UK Waitrose supermarket chain to sell only game meat killed with lead-free ammunition [9] indicates a preparedness of the marketplace to intervene on the issue of lead ammunition use, mainly out of concern about risks to human health from ingested lead and liability. ...
... Although some governments partly regulated some lead ammunition use, there is only poor documentation of the enforcement and compliance with such regulations. The general picture is poor progress, especially since several European countries have taken no initiative to limit this source of contamination [8]. ...
Background
Hunting throughout the European Union (EU) has left an accumulating legacy of spent lead ammunition that has deleterious toxic effects upon the environment, wildlife, and humans who consume hunted game meat. Non-toxic lead substitutes for both rifle and shotgun ammunition have been developed and are required in some EU jurisdictions. Within the EU, at least 28 companies make or distribute non-lead shotgun ammunition, and a further 14 companies distribute non-lead rifle ammunition. However, a broad transition to the use of these products has been resisted by the hunting and ammunition-making communities.
Results and conclusions
It is in the self-interest of these communities to recognize the consequences of externalizing the effects of spent lead ammunition to society, and to make hunting more sustainable and socially acceptable. The paper endorses the ongoing process under the European Commission (EC) to introduce wide and fundamental restrictions on the use, trade and possession of lead ammunition for all types of hunting within 3 years, and within 5 years for clay target shooting. This would align EC regulations on lead from ammunition with lead from other anthropogenic sources, and EC regulations that protect the natural environment, especially the conservation of wild birds. Simultaneous EC regulation of lead in marketed game meats would provide extra health protection and assure a safe source of game meat products for consumers.
... Nevertheless, poisoning of avian species through unintentional ingestion of Pb from fishing tackle and ammunition pellets is a persistent problem world-wide and within the Baltic Sea (Helander et al., 2009;Martinez-Haro et al., 2011;Legagneux et al., 2014;Berny et al., 2015;Madry et al., 2015;Pain et al., 2019b). Although total and partial bans of lead ammunition have been implemented in 23 countries across the European Union (EU), certain countries bordering the Baltic Sea, such as Poland and Lithuania, currently have no regulations (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). Continued usage of Pb ammunition is estimated to cost the EU €383-€960 million euros, which includes not only wildlife impact expenses but also human hospitalizations and IQ reduction in children (Pain et al., 2019a). ...
... However, Pb blood concentrations increased by 361% from 2017 to 2018 and 470% as compared to eiders sampled in the northern Baltic Sea seven years prior (Fenstad et al., 2017). As eiders feed from the benthic food web they are exposed to shallowly buried lead ammunition and fishing tackle (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). Additionally, mussels and sediments sampled close to Christiansø and in neighboring areas in the Baltic Sea have reported high Pb concentrations indicating possible year-round exposure (HELCOM, 2019). ...
... The United States and Canada have both implanted total bans on lead ammunition in waterfowl hunting leading to a 64% decline in annual Pb poisoning in Mallards (Anderson et al., 2000). Even with a total ban, lead ammunition can remain buried in the sediment for years (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019) or degrade and enter the food web in smaller particles (Right et al., 1997). Pb has not shown to bioaccumulate in the Baltic Sea biota (Szefer, 1991) meaning that limiting ingestion would substantially lower concentrations found in wildlife (Helander et al., 2009). ...
The Christiansø colony of common eiders (Somateria mollissima) in the central Baltic Sea were exposed to high levels of Pb during the 2018 breeding season that were not present in 2017. Due to these high Pb blood levels, the present study investigated possible Pb sources and Pb dynamics within this vulnerable colony. We analyzed body mass and lead isotopic ratios (Pb-IRs) in blood taken from the same incubating eiders at the early (day 4) and late (day 24) stages of incubation during the 2018 breeding season (n = 23). Pb-IRs 208/207, 208/206, 206/207, and 207/206 were analyzed using high resolution inductively coupled mass spectrometry. We found largely similar Pb-IRs from the different stages of incubation indicating a predominantly constant endogenous source of Pb exposure. We suggest the increasing Pb levels come from pre-nesting and nesting foraging and from medullary bone release. The similar Pb-IRs also indicate continued metabolization of the medullary bone to meet the nutritional and energy demands of incubation. Comparisons to Pb-IR reports from the Baltic Sea showed multiple sources of pollution distinguished by a difference between Pb-IRs in individuals with Pb blood concentrations >500 μg/kg ww and <500 μg/kg ww. The most highly contaminated individuals in the present study had Pb-IRs similar to those of Pb ammunition indicating shot pellet uptake. This study further emphasizes the need for continued biomonitoring of the Christiansø colony, including fecal sampling and environmental field sampling to identify the origin and extent of dietary Pb exposure on Christiansø. As a representative unit of the Baltic Flyway population; the Christiansø colony provides an important opportunity for continued investigation into Pb contamination, population dynamics, and declines.
... There is a large and growing awareness of the effects of ammunition-derived dietary lead on human health and well-being and their associated societal impacts and costs (Delahay and Spray 2015;Pain et al. 2019a). Non-lead substitutes for lead shotgun and rifle ammunition have been developed and are available to European hunters (Thomas 2015;Thomas et al. 2016), but no European-wide regulation exists to require their use for game hunting (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). ...
... The transition to non-toxic shot in Europe is occurring slowly and has been driven largely by concerns about lead exposure to wetland bird species which ingest spent lead shot. Lead shot use is restricted legally in 23 European countries, not all of which are EU Member States (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). The extent of the restriction varies. ...
... Many nations, including those banning lead shot use over wetlands, still allow lead shot to be used for nonwetland game hunting. Legislation requiring the use of non-lead rifle bullets has not been passed at the national level in any European country, and only Germany requires such ammunition to be used in several regions (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). Regulations also restrict the use of lead ammunition in at least an additional 10 countries beyond Europe (Stroud 2015;Mateo and Kanstrup 2019), including the USA and Canada, and the use of all types of lead ammunition for hunting has been banned throughout California State (AB 711 2013). ...
Each year, hunters from 12 of the 27 European Union (EU) countries and the UK shoot over 6 million large game mammals, 12 million rabbits and hares and over 80 million birds. They support an international game meat market worth over 1.1 thousand million Euros. Animals shot with lead ammunition frequently contain lead fragments in the carcass which contaminate meals made from game meat with concentrations of lead substantially above the maximum allowable level (ML) set by European Commission Regulation EC1881/2006 for meat from domesticated animals. This poses a health risk to frequent consumers of wild-shot game meat, with children and pregnant women being particularly vulnerable. Total replacement of lead rifle and shotgun ammunition with available non-toxic alternatives is needed for all hunting in EU nations to prevent exposure of humans and wildlife to ammunition-derived lead and to allow the depletion of the long-term environmental legacy of lead from spent ammunition. We propose that EC1881/2006 is amended to incorporate an ML for game meats as a supplementary measure to the replacement of lead ammunition. This would harmonise food safety standards for lead in meats traded across and imported into the EU.
... The USA and Norway enacted laws requiring the use of lead-free shot over wetlands in 1991. Since then, an increasing number of countries have enacted similar restrictions to the same conservation end [24]. California required the use of gunshot for all hunting from 2019 onward [25]. ...
... California required the use of gunshot for all hunting from 2019 onward [25]. The national approaches to regulating hunters' lead shot in Europe are as follows: the Netherlands (since 1993) and Denmark (since 1996) have a total ban of lead gunshot use in all types of habitats; 16 members states have a total ban in wetlands and/or for waterbird hunting; and 5 have a partial ban implemented only in some wetlands [24,26] (Table 2). ...
... California is currently the only country which has banned lead in rifle bullets used for hunting [24], while Mauritania prohibits all forms of lead ammunition since 1975 for large game and sport hunting [26]. In Europe the use of lead-based rifle bullets is regulated only in some regions, sites or National Parks in Germany, Italy and Spain in order to avoid contamination of game meat and/or to protect raptors from lead poisoning [24]. ...
Background
Despite extensive evidence that exposure to lead from ingested ammunition harms humans and wildlife, and in contravention of European states’ commitments under multilateral environmental agreements to minimize lead emissions, lead in hunting ammunition is still poorly regulated in Europe. The proposed restriction on lead gunshot under the REACH regulation is currently discussed for adoption to protect birds in wetlands from lead poisoning. Based on a subsequent investigation report concluding that additional measures are warranted to control the use of lead ammunition in terrestrial environments, ECHA is preparing a new restriction until October 2020. To help inform this process, we describe REACH management instruments and evaluate the effectiveness and enforceability of different legislative alternatives as well as socio-economic aspects of restricting lead shot in comparison to a total ban. We further discuss how the risks and environmental emissions of lead in rifle bullets can be most effectively controlled by legislative provisions in the future.
Results
Among different management tools, restriction was shown to be most effective and appropriate, since imports of lead ammunition would be covered. The partial restriction of lead gunshot limited to wetlands covers only a minor proportion of all lead used in hunting ammunition in the European Union, leaving multiple wildlife species at risk of being poisoned. Moreover, lead shot will be still purchasable throughout the EU. Within Europe, the costs associated with impacts on wildlife, humans and the environment would be considerably lower when switching to alternative gunshot and rifle bullets.
Conclusion
We argue that there is sufficient evidence to justify more effective, economic, and practical legislative provisions under REACH, i.e., restricting the use and placing on the market of lead in hunting ammunition. The enforcement would be significantly facilitated and hunters could easier comply. A crucial step is to define a realistic phasing-out period and chemical composition standards for non-lead substitutes while engaging all stakeholders to improve acceptance and allow adaptation. Until the total restriction enters into force, Member States could consider imposing more stringent national measures. A total restriction would reduce wildlife poisoning, harmonize provisions of national and European laws, and foster any efforts to decelerate loss of biodiversity.
... To reduce the impact of future lead poisoning on wild populations, various restrictions have been put in place. This includes legislation to control and ban the use and trade of lead in specific habitats/regions, as well as increasing pressure for community-led voluntary transitions to non-lead alternatives (Fisher et al. 2006, Avery & Watson 2009, Mateo & Kanstrup 2019. In the UK, the use of lead shot was banned over the foreshore and specified wetland SSSIs (Sites of Special Scientific Interest) for hunting wildfowl (swans, geese and ducks), Coot Fulica atra and Moorhen Gallinula chloropus in England in 1999and Wales in 2002(HMSO 1999, 2002a, 2002b. ...
... In Scotland and Ireland (bans introduced in 2004 and 2009, respectively), the ban refers to lead in specified wetlands (as defined by the Ramsar Convention) and does not refer to specific species (HMSO 2004(HMSO , 2009. Although these restrictions can prevent further lead contamination of protected areas, they fail to cover all habitats used by waterfowl, compliance is often low, with little enforcement (Mateo & Kanstrup 2019, 2022, Widemo 2021 and historically deposited lead persists in the environment, meaning that many species are still at risk of lead ingestion, long after bans have been introduced (O'Connell et al. 2008, Newth et al. 2012, Haig et al. 2014, Binkowski 2017. ...
Lead is a toxic heavy metal that when ingested can cause death or sub‐lethal fitness effects. Despite its toxicity, it is still widely used in recreational and management shooting globally. To reduce the impacts of lead on wildfowl, recent European Union legislation has banned the use of lead shot in and around wetlands from 2023. Understanding the effectiveness of such mitigation is vital to inform future policy. On Islay, Scotland, the licensed shooting of Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis to reduce agricultural damage has adhered to the ban on use of lead shot over Ramsar‐designated wetlands legislated in Scotland in 2004. On average 2380 lead cartridges were fired annually between 2005 and 2020 outside designated wetlands, where Barnacle Geese and other wildfowl forage. From faecal samples, it is possible to infer whether birds have ingested lead and are therefore potentially suffering from lead poisoning. After sampling faeces from Barnacle Geese ( n = 193) and Greenland White‐fronted Geese Anser albifrons flavirostris ( n = 150) we found only four (1.2%) faecal samples with elevated lead levels that may be indicative of lead shot ingestion. Further post‐mortem examinations ( n = 102 Barnacle Geese only) and X‐ray of live birds ( n = 293) revealed similarly low levels of shot ingestion in both species (post‐mortem < 4%, and X‐ray < 2%), corroborating findings from faecal sample analysis. When subsequently accounting for limited shot retention time within individuals, the proportion of each population ingesting a single lead shot over a winter was estimated at a maximum of 9.4% (Barnacle Geese) and 16.8% (White‐fronted Geese). We propose that high compliance with the ban on using lead shot over wetlands because of carefully controlled shooting management on Islay has led to relatively low instantaneous ingestion rates, probably resulting in minimal lead poisoning mortality. However, ingestion was not eliminated and the potential fitness effect of chronic lead poisoning in both goose populations therefore persists, although use of lead shot in organized shooting has subsequently been discontinued. Recent European Union bans on lead shot use over wetlands may reduce lead ingestion in waterfowl if compliance rates are high, but as foraging often occurs outside wetlands (as in this study), further restrictions including use on other key foraging sites may help to further mitigate the risk of lead poisoning in waterfowl.
... Sci. 2022, 12, 8095 3 of 13 and these metals could contribute to the contamination of the game or wild animal [33]. Pellets are generally used in shotgun cartridges when hunting small game and birds or wild animals for meat production but are also used in commercial harvesting or mass culling processes that form part of farm game management plans for sustainable usage of farmland and protein salvaging [32,34]. ...
... Lead bullets are generally selected as the lets are readily available to hunters and tend to expand upon contact with the a body, thus maximizing the damage and increasing the probability of a kill [20,39 could subsequently introduce toxic metals into carcasses. In the South African/Na context, the two most common methods used to kill game are: (1) through rifle sh during hunting or killing; and (2) aerial (helicopter) shotgun shooting from the hel during harvesting or mass culling of game as part of game farm management number of studies have identified toxic metals such as Pb in ammunition used for hunting, and these metals could contribute to the contamination of the game or wild animal [33]. Pellets are generally used in shotgun cartridges when hunting small game and birds or wild animals for meat production but are also used in commercial harvesting or mass culling processes that form part of farm game management plans for sustainable usage of farmland and protein salvaging [32,34]. ...
Processes of killing wild game meat animals could introduce toxic metals into the animal’s meat, which subsequently may pose a risk of consumer exposure to toxins during ingestion. In most cases, toxic metals occur naturally in the environment and may be found in traces in different parts of a game meat animal. However, some of these metals are also introduced to meat animals by bullets used during the hunting and killing of game meat animals. These bullets are generally made from metals such as lead, arsenic, and copper, all of which have strictly regulated limits in food products including meat. Samples of helicopter-killed impala in the area around the bullet/pellets’ wound (n = 9) and from animals killed by a single projectile (n = 9) were analysed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The type of bullet used influenced the mean concentration of some of these toxic metals (mg/Kg) in meat samples; helicopter killing resulted in the following levels of As (0.665, SD = 1.95); Cd (0.000, SD = 0.000); Pb (620.18, SD = 1247.6); and Hg (0.017 SD= 0.033) compared to single projectile killing that resulted in the following levels: As (0.123, SD = 0.221); Cd (0.008, SD = 0.021); Pb (1610.79, SD = 1384.5); and Hg (0.028, SD = 0.085). The number of samples per metal with levels above the EU products’ limits were Pb = 18/18 samples from both killing methods, As = 2/18 samples from helicopter killing, Cd-= 1/18 from rifle killing and Hg = 0/18. To minimise the risks of toxic metals posed by bullets, the use of lead (Pb) free bullets should be encouraged, and the control of meat animal killing methods must always be performed, especially for meat contamination prevention.
... Twenty years later, a complete ban on shooting lead shot over wetlands, or taking waterbirds using lead shot, has been implemented in less than one third of the surface area of Europe (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). Furthermore, compliance with the regulations in countries with a ban varies between good Skovbjerg Balsby, 2019a,2019b) and relatively poor (Cromie et al., 2010;Newth et al., 2013;Cromie et al., 2015), where this has been investigated. ...
... Furthermore, compliance with the regulations in countries with a ban varies between good Skovbjerg Balsby, 2019a,2019b) and relatively poor (Cromie et al., 2010;Newth et al., 2013;Cromie et al., 2015), where this has been investigated. However, data on compliance is largely lacking (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). Recent evidence point to lead poisoning from ammunition being responsible for 8 % of winter mortality in ducks in Europe and 21 % of the winter population has been suggested to be affected negatively, mainly due to low implementation and low compliance. ...
Achieving sustainability often requires fostering changes in norms and behaviours through a combination of restrictions and aware-raising activities. The phasing out of lead in ammunition to reduce lead poisoning in waterfowl provides a case in point. Twenty years after the Parties to the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) committed to phase out lead shot in wetlands, such bans have been implemented in a third of Europe only. Furthermore, while evidence is scant, compliance varies widely where bans have been introduced. As a result, waterfowl are still suffering from lead poisoning.
Here, I survey the use of different types of shot while practicing and when taking game in different habitats in Sweden, one of the Parties to AEWA. Furthermore, I test the hypotheses that mandatory shooter education, or stakeholder communication, influence compliance with existing restrictions in Sweden, as well as the voluntary phasing out of lead shot where its use still is permitted.
More than half of the shooters practiced using lead and a third used lead shot over what they considered as wetlands, in both cases in violation of the current legislation. Furthermore, what constitutes a wetland appears to have been unclear to many shooters, especially in alpine areas. Both mandatory education and stakeholder communication were positively related to compliance.
Only 12–15 % used lead free alternatives in shooting over habitats where the use of lead shot is permitted. There was a weak positive relationship between stakeholder communication and the voluntary phasing out of lead shot, but no effect from education.
I suggest that the planned and ongoing phasing out of lead in ammunition should rest on a combination of legislation, enforcement, education and stakeholder communication in order to be successful. The findings add to our general understanding of how to turn environmental policy into sustainable management actions in practice.
... There is a high degree of non-compliance with this restriction in England however , and it appears that the existing regulations are not yet addressing their principal objective in reducing the use of lead in wetland habitats for wildfowl (Lead Ammunition Group 2015). In Europe, only Denmark and the Netherlands already have a total ban on lead gunshot in all habitat types, while 21 other countries have only implemented partial bans in wetlands and/or for waterbird hunting (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). Compliance is again variable, and regulation does not secure the protection of birds from lead poisoning unless there is strict law enforcement and continuous monitoring to confirm that lead poisoning is no longer an issue (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). ...
... In Europe, only Denmark and the Netherlands already have a total ban on lead gunshot in all habitat types, while 21 other countries have only implemented partial bans in wetlands and/or for waterbird hunting (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). Compliance is again variable, and regulation does not secure the protection of birds from lead poisoning unless there is strict law enforcement and continuous monitoring to confirm that lead poisoning is no longer an issue (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). The European Commission has therefore made proposals to introduce legislation which would further restrict the use of lead ammunition around wetlands (Kanstrup and Thomas 2020) 18 . ...
... Despite this evidence, Pb-based ammunition is still being used in Spain, where only partial bans have been implemented. Pb gunshot pellets were banned for hunting in protected wetlands in 2001 and the use of Pb riffle bullets has been recently subject to partial regulation in some mountain areas in order to protect bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) populations (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). ...
... Here we have confirmed a seasonal variation in liver and blood Pb levels as a delayed effect of the hunting season. The change towards non-leaded ammunition in Spain has been limited to the ban of Pb shot pellets for hunting in protected wetlands since 2001 and some other initiatives to promote the voluntary use of non-leaded bullets (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). Non-leaded ammunition, mainly cartridges with steel pellets and copper bullets, is available in the Spanish market and the extension of its use to all forms of hunting would prevent deaths and sublethal adverse effects caused by Pb intoxication in birds of prey. ...
The ingestion of lead (Pb) ammunition is the most important exposure pathway to this metal in birds and involve negative consequences to their health. We have performed a passive monitoring of Pb poisoning in birds of prey by measuring liver (n = 727) and blood (n = 32) Pb levels in individuals of 16 species found dead or sick in Spain between 2004 and 2020. We also performed an active monitoring by measuring blood Pb levels and biomarkers of haem biosynthesis, phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca) metabolism, oxidative stress and immune function in individuals (n = 194) of 9 species trapped alive in the field between 2016 and 2017. Passive monitoring results revealed some species with liver Pb levels associated with severe clinical poisoning (>30 μg/g d.w. of Pb): Eurasian griffon vulture (27/257, 10.5%), red kite (1/132, 0.8%), golden eagle (4/38, 10.5%), and Northern goshawk (1/8, 12.5%). The active monitoring results showed that individuals of bearded vulture (1/3, 33.3%), Eurasian griffon vulture (87/118, 73.7%), Spanish imperial eagle (1/6, 16.7%) and red kite (1/18, 5.6%) had abnormal blood Pb levels (>20 μg/dL). Blood Pb levels increased with age, and both monitoring methods showed seasonality in Pb exposure associated with a delayed effect of the hunting season. In Eurasian griffon, blood Pb concentration was associated with lower δ-ALAD activity in blood and P levels in plasma, and with higher blood lipid peroxida-tion and plasma carotenoid levels in agreement with other experimental and field studies in Pb-exposed birds. The study reveals that Pb poisoning is a significant cause of death and sublethal effects on haem biosynthesis, P metabolism and oxidative stress in birds of prey in Spain.
... In several ponds that are part of this protected area, waterfowl hunting is permitted during winter. Although the use of lead shot in Ramsar sites and other protected wetlands has been banned in Spain since 2001 (Mateo & Kanstrup 2019), verifications of compliance with this regulation have been limited to only a few wetlands (Mateo et al. 2014, Valverde et al. 2019. ...
... Similar blood lead concentrations have been associated with adverse health effects or reduced reproductive capacity of birds (Pain et al. 2019, Vallverdú-Coll et al. 2019. The use of lead shot in Spanish Ramsar and other protected wetlands was banned in 2001 (Mateo & Kanstrup 2019). We suggest three hypotheses that may explain the source of the lead ammunition consumed by the eagles despite the ban. ...
Capsule: Diet analysis revealed high lead exposure for Greater Spotted Eagles Clanga clanga wintering in southeast Spain.
Aims: To describe the diet composition of the endangered Greater Spotted Eagle in a wintering area located in southeast Spain, and determine lead ammunition exposure through analysis of regurgitated pellets and prey remains.
Methods: Between 2008 and 2018, a total of 26 pellets, 29 prey remains and 10 direct predation observations were collected in El Hondo Natural Park, Spain. All the pellets and 10 prey remains were analysed with X-ray in order to detect metal from ammunition.
Results: Greater Spotted Eagles fed mainly on birds, with 18 different species accounting for 73.1% of prey items and 66.1% of biomass consumed. The most frequent species identified were Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus (23.1%), rats Rattus spp. (15.4%) and Common Teal Anas crecca (8.9%). Ammunition was detected in 42.3% of regurgitated pellets and in 40.0% of prey remains analysed. Of those containing ammunition, lead shot was found in 63.9% of pellets and 25.0% of prey remains.
Conclusion: High lead shot presence in pellets and prey remains of wintering Greater Spotted Eagles in southeast Spain warns of a high risk of lead poisoning. Factors such as feeding behaviour, the large space-time overlap between the raptor presence and the waterbird hunting season and non-compliance with the ban on the use of lead ammunition are likely contributing to high lead exposure.
... Certain uses (such as in gasoline) have already been regulated or banned. However, Pb is still frequently used in hunting ammunition and fishing weights (Stroud, 2015), although the use of Pb shot and ammunition for hunting varies between EU Member States depending on their national/regional legislation (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). It is the dietary ingestion of Pb shot and ammunition fragments that poses the most serious threat for predators (Krone, 2018;Nadjafzadeh et al., 2015;Pain et al., 2019). ...
... Of those, species that undertake partial migration were deemed less suitable for monitoring. This was because ability to examine spatial variation in exposure is likely to be important for Pb as regulations on hunting and use of Pb shot varies between countries and regions within Europe (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). Hence, the use of partial migrants as well as species feeding on migratory prey was considered limiting due to the uncertainty as to whether accumulated residues reflected local or pre-migration exposure. ...
Biomonitoring in raptors can be used to study long-term and large-scale changes in environmental pollution. In Europe, such monitoring is needed to assess environmental risk and outcomes of chemicals regulation, which is harmonised across the European Union. To be effective, the most appropriate sentinels need to be monitored. Our aim was to identify which European raptor species are the likely most appropriate biomonitors when pollutant quantification is based on analysing tissues. Our current study was restricted to terrestrial exposure pathways and considered four priority pollutant groups: toxic metals (lead and mercury), anticoagulant rodenticides, pesticides and medicinal products. We evaluated information on the distribution and key ecological traits (food web, foraging trait, diet, preferred habitat, and migratory behaviour) of European raptors to identify the most appropriate sentinel species. Common buzzard (Buteo buteo) and/or tawny owl (Strix aluco) proved the most suitable candidates for many of the pollutants considered. Moreover, they are abundant in Europe, enhancing the likelihood that samples can be collected. However, other species may be better sentinels for certain pollutants, such as the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) for lead, the northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) for mercury across areas including Northern Europe, and vultures (where they occur in Europe) are likely best suited for monitoring non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Overall, however, we argue the selection of candidate species for widescale monitoring of a range of pollutants can be reduced to very few raptor species. We recommend that the common buzzard and tawny owl should be the initial focus of any pan-European raptor monitoring. The lack of previous widespread monitoring using these species suggests that their utility as sentinels for environmnetal pollution has not been widely recognised. Finally, although the current study focussed on Europe, our trait-based approach for identifying raptor biomonitors can be applied to other continents and contaminants.
... Globally, progress in the efforts to phase-out lead in ammunition in sports shooting will benefit swan populations by reducing lead poisoning. In addition to restrictions in parts of North America, a recent review by Mateo & Kanstrup (2019) found that lead shot use has now been legally restricted (at least partially) in 23 European countries, and further progress towards the complete phasing out of lead ammunition and angling weights is expected in the next few years . ...
... Given the widespread problem of lead poisoning (Blus 1994), further restrictions on the use of lead would benefit swan populations globally. This requires the effective implementation of multiple international nature protection agreements, which during the 1990s and 2000s each called for the phasing out of lead shot, but to date the implementation by many of the signatories to these agreements has been slow and partial (see review by Mateo & Kanstrup 2019). ...
Given their popularity with researchers and public alike, together with their well-documented importance in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, fundamental and applied research on swans continues to develop in the 21st century. The 6th International Swan Symposium (6th ISS), was held at the Estonian University of Life Sciences in Tartu, Estonia, in October 2018. The symposium brought together 101 delegates from 17 countries, with presentations on a range of topics on Cygnus and Coscoroba species, including monitoring, habitat and resource use, demography, movements and migration, and threats and conservation. The proceedings of the 6th ISS in this special issue of Wildfowl include select papers on swan research presented at the 6th ISS, covering a wide range of species, systems and issues. This paper presents a synthesis of the 6th ISS and an overview of current trends and future directions in swan research. Despite progress on many topics, southern hemisphere swan species continue to receive less attention than their northern hemisphere counterparts, whilst facing many of the same pressures. It is clear that, given the challenges facing swan researchers in the twenty-first century, international cooperation will continue to be vital. Swans are highly mobile animals and many populations undertake migrations spanning thousands of kilometres, and crucially do not recognise human geographic and political borders. Such international collaborations will be particularly important in coordinating future monitoring and conservation activities. The IUCN-SSC/Wetlands International Swan Specialist Group (SSG) will continue to facilitate international collaborations and communication among the global network of swan researchers, through its activities, website and annual newsletter. Given the substantial challenges and knowledge gaps documented here, there is no doubt that swan researchers will continue to benefit from regular symposia to share information and develop collaborations towards understanding and addressing emerging conservation issues. As such, we recommend holding International Swan Symposia every 4–5 years.
... The progress in Europe towards the complete phase-out of all lead ammunition (for shotguns and rifles) has been subject to several contemporary reviews and so we do not cover this in great detail (Mateo 2009, Stroud 2015, Mateo and Kanstrup 2019. Currently, Denmark and The Netherlands have total bans on the use of lead shotgun ammunition. ...
The human health impacts of lead have been known for millennia but the environmental impacts of lead ammunition have only received attention during the past 100 years. To a large extent the United States provided leadership in identifying and researching these effects and then spearheading campaigns to transition away from lead shotgun ammunition for waterfowl hunting. However, the appetite for further federal transition has largely stalled in the U.S. except for apparently limited action linked to individual states, charismatic species, and specific sites. Europe, on the other hand, though generally rather late to the table with regard to lead shotgun ammunition and waterfowl hunting, is now pushing ahead with several initiatives that are likely to see substantial partial, if not total, restrictions on the use of all lead ammunition (for shotguns and rifles) within 5 to 10 years. We discuss the policy drivers behind these moves, summarize the key attitudes and perceived constraints to transition, and provide (cautious) timetables and limited recommendations for future changes. Our discussion will include comparisons between efforts in the U.S. and those in Europe.
... Kanstrup et al. (2018) concluded that 'Hunting with lead ammunition cannot be justified under established principles of public/international policy and is not sustainable.' However, although CMS in 2014 urged its Parties to 'Phase-out the use of lead ammunition across all habitats (wetland and terrestrial) with non-toxic alternatives within the next three years' (Resolution 11.15), progress to that end has been very slow (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). Nevertheless, the CMS Resolution supported the EU's policy via REACH chemicals Regulations 7 to prohibit the use or possession of lead gunshot within and near wetlands from 15 February 2023. ...
European ecosystems and species remain under pressure from intensive agriculture and forestry, fishing, pollution, urban sprawl, invasive species and climate change. This book provides a detailed description and critical analysis of nature conservation responses, achievements and failures, motivated by the concerning state of nature and missed biodiversity targets. It summarises Europe's nature and the impact of human activities, and then gives an overview of relevant international biodiversity treaties and the EU nature conservation policy and legislative framework. The core of the book comprises chapters written by national experts, which cover the UK and twenty-five EU Member States, providing comparative case studies from which valuable lessons are drawn. Covering wide-ranging topics such as biodiversity pressures, legislation and governance, biodiversity strategies, species protection, protected areas, habitat management, and funding, this book is of interest to a wide audience, including academics and professionals involved in nature conservation and related environmental fields.
... These include the USA (1991), and Canada (1999), where it is illegal to shoot migratory wildfowl while in possession of lead gunshot 22 , and also the Netherlands and Denmark where use of lead gunshot was banned for all types of shooting and in all habitats in 1993 and 1996, respectively 23 . However, seven EU nations, Greece, Ireland, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, and Slovenia, had no restrictions on lead ammunition 24 . ...
The direct regulation of lead ammunition in North America and Europe has been mainly for hunting in wetlands. Little support among hunters and the ammunition makers exists for further regulation despite suitable lead substitutes and much education about the known risks to wildlife and human health from ingested lead. In the absence of personnel to detect use of lead ammunition and enforce regulations, hunter compliance is low. Identification of non-lead ammunition using existing electronic technology and an international protocol on the identification of non-lead rifle bullets is proposed to aid enforcement. An explicit definition of the chemical composition of lead substitutes is required in European Union legislation together with a more enforceable distinction between 'possession during hunting' and 'ownership' of lead ammunition. A more transdisciplinary regulatory approach to transitioning to non-lead ammunition is advised. It comprises widespread public health advisories, setting a maximum allowable lead level in commercial game meats in EU legislation, and public communication that emphasizes the benefits of non-lead ammunition use to all categories of wildlife and the public perception of hunting, whether in North America or Europe.
... This result differs from the systematic review by Monclús et al. (2020), which found a marginally significant decrease (p-value = 0.06) in hepatic Pb concentrations between the periods 2000-2009 and 2010-2019 across Europe. In the UK, Pb shot was banned over wetlands but is legal for most terrestrial shooting (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019;Stroud, 2015). Plus, a recent study revealed that the proportion of ducks Table 2 Comparison of the performance of the best model for each element in the liver of buzzards in the UK. ...
Trace elements are chemical contaminants spread in the environment by anthropogenic activities and threaten wildlife and human health. Many studies have investigated this contamination in apex raptors as sentinel birds. However, there is limited data for long-term biomonitoring of multiple trace elements in raptors. In the present study, we measured the concentrations of 14 essential and non-essential trace elements in the livers of the common buzzard (Buteo buteo) collected in the United Kingdom from 2001 to 2019 and investigated whether concentrations have changed during this period. In addition, we estimated the importance of selected variables for modelling element accumulations in tissues. Except for cadmium, hepatic concentrations of harmful elements in most buzzards were lower than the biological significance level of each element. Hepatic concentrations of certain elements, including lead, cadmium, and arsenic, varied markedly seasonally within years. Their peak was in late winter and trough in late summer, except copper which showed an opposite seasonal pattern. In addition, lead in the liver consistently increased over time, whereas strontium showed a decreasing trend. Hepatic concentrations of cadmium, mercury, and chromium increased with age, whereas selenium and chromium were influenced by sex. Hepatic concentrations of arsenic and chromium also differed between different regions. Overall, our samples showed a low risk of harmful effects of most elements compared to the thresholds reported in the literature. Seasonal fluctuation was an important descriptor of exposure, which might be related to the diet of the buzzard, the ecology of their prey, and human activities such as the use of lead shot for hunting. However, the reason for these observed trends needs further examination, and biomonitoring studies exploring the effects of variables such as age, sex, and seasonality are required.
... Since lead shot use has been partially or totally banned in 23 European countries, interested users switch to non-lead ammunition (mostly steel) (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). However, the environmental monitoring of areas with current or prior shooting activities only includes the total lead content, lead mobility and bioavailability (SAAMI, 1996;Lin, 1996;Rooney et al., 1999;Cao et al., 2003;Dermatas et al., 2006;Rauckyte et al., 2009;Hartikainen, H. and Kerko, E., 2009;Lewis et al., 2011;Mera et al., 2015;Okkenhaug et al., 2016;Kelebemang et al., 2017;Lisin et al., 2020), without assessing the same parameters for iron. ...
This study is follow-up of the steel shot transformation under the influence of environmental factors research (Lisin et al., 2022) and is the initial stage of investigating the iron behavior in soils during steel shot corrosion under a number of factors: the metallic lead in soils, atmospheric precipitation, excess organic matter. The results obtained show that corrosion of steel ammunition is a continuous process, including the formation of a poorly soluble rust crust on the surface of the steel and the mineralization of the metal until it is destroyed. As a result, the metal transformed into rust form, is a constant source of iron ions and dispersed rust particles migrating in soil waters and accumulating in soils. In addition, the aggregation of corrosion products of steel ammunition is the cause of a change in physical and mechanical properties of soils, which leads to a violation of the air and water migration regime of soils and an increase in surface runoff from the territories of shooting activity. The highest environmental risks are observed when steel ammunition is used on shooting areas where metallic lead intensifies steel shot corrosion rate, while the deposited steel shot activates the deterioration of previously encapsulated metal and — if steel and lead ammunition are used at the same time — slows down the encapsulation of newly deposited metallic lead, which catalyses the accumulation and migration of lead in environmental components.
... Birds of prey feed on animals that have been shot or feed on gut piles left after hunting by man. In many countries, there have been numerous limitations regarding the usage of Pb ammunition in hunting waterfowl in order to reduce the amount of Pb introduced to the environment [1][2][3]. Such regulations may contribute to decreasing amount of ways birds can become intoxicated with lead [4]. ...
Abstract: Mineral bone composition (dry matter, bones ash, P, Ca, Zn, Mn, Mg, and Cu) and Pb levels of tibiotarsi of seven White-Tailed Sea Eagles were assessed. Lead intoxication in different bird species including waterfowl and raptors is being studied worldwide. The bones were analyzed for Pb by mass spectrometry with excitation in inductively coupled plasma (ICP-MS Elan DRC II) and for bone composition by Atomic Emission Spectrometer (Agilent 4100 Microwave Plasma). Pb levels ranging from 3.54 μg/g to 74.6 μg/g DM suggest that some of the investigated birds might have been intoxicated by Pb. Results of this analysis were divided into two groups of bones, with bone Pblevels higher and lower than Pb toxicity levels, and mineral bone compositions of both groups were compared. The present study shows the differentiation of bone mineral composition among seven examined White-Tailed Sea Eagles, considered a specific species in raptors. Pb intoxication may not have a major influence on mineral bone composition in raptors. It also suggests that assessing bone composition of raptor bones may help finding the possible cause of their deaths.
... This positive correlation has presented two main justifications: the first is related to the use of lead-containing ammunition during animal hunting. Pb particles are distributed in the animal tissues, contaminating consequently transferring it into human milk after meat consumes by breastfeeding mothers (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). The second is related to Pb accumulation in plants, which allows the introduction of metal into the herbivores' and carnivores' food chain (Schnyder et al. 2018). ...
Mothers' food and water consumption appear to be determining factors for infants' potentially toxic elements exposure through human milk. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to assess correlations between As, Cd, Hg, Pb and/or Sn concentration in human milk and breastfeeding mothers' food consumption, with later infants' health risk assessment. Estimated Daily Intakes of such elements by infants were also calculated and compared with reference values (RfD or BMDL01). Among 5.663 identified studies, 23 papers remained for analysis. Potentially toxic elements concentration in human milk presented positive correlation with seafood (As, Hg), fresh vegetables (Hg, Cd), cereals (Hg, Cd), cheese, rice, potatoes, private and well-water supply (Pb), wild meat (Pb, Cd) and milk, dairy products, dried fruits and oilseeds (Cd) mothers' consumption. Red meat, caffeinated drinks, and dairy products consume presented negative correlations (Pb). No correlations were found for Sn. Infants from three studies presented high Hg exposition through human milk (> 0. 1 μg/kg PC-1 day-1), as well as observed for Pb in one study (> 0. 5 μg/kg PC-1 day-1). Potentially toxic elements can damage infants' health when they are present in mothers' diet due to the infants' high vulnerability. Therefore, these results raise important issues for public health.Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2056869 .
... There is no existing UK-wide legal regulation to require the use of non-lead shotgun ammunition for all game hunting (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019), despite the documentation of significant negative effects of poisoning by spent lead ammunition from hunting for both wildlife and public health . UK shooting and rural organisations and the UK government have opposed the introduction of regulations to achieve a change from lead to non-lead ammunition for hunting, except in the case of wetlands (e.g. ...
In 2020, nine major UK shooting and rural organisations proposed a voluntary transition from the use for hunting of lead shotgun ammunition to non-lead alternatives. The major food retailer Waitrose & Partners has announced its intention to move to not supplying game meat products from animals killed using any kind of lead ammunition and the National Game Dealers Association announced a plan for a similar policy to be implemented in 2022. The SHOT-SWITCH research project, which is intended to monitor the progress of these voluntary initiatives, began in the 2020/2021 shooting season. The project monitors changes in the proportions of wild-shot common pheasants Phasianus colchicus available to consumers in Great Britain that had been killed using lead and non-lead shotgun ammunition, as assessed by using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry to identify the composition of shotgun pellets recovered from carcasses. In 2020/2021, 99.4% of the pheasants sampled had been killed using lead ammunition. We report here further results from this study for the 2021/2022 season. We found that 99.5% of the 215 pheasants from which shotgun pellets were recovered had been killed using lead ammunition. We conclude that the shooting and rural organisations’ joint statement and two years of their considerable efforts in education, awareness-raising and promotion, have not yet had a detectable effect on the ammunition types used by hunters who supply pheasants to the British game meat market.
... Although, by the efforts of several conservation organizations the replacement of the hunting by birdwatching was successfully negotiated with Armash fish-farm (one of the private owners), however, the surrounding fish-farms owned by other entrepreneurs, still serve as hunting zone. Beside direct persecution, which is influencing the threatened species of Ducks and Waders, the hunting here potentially causes lead pollution from bullets, which is a known threat for wetlands and waterbirds [8,9]. ...
The Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs) of Armenia have been recognized in 2000-2013, however, since that, changes took place in IUCN Red List and in IBAs' criteria. The current paper is aimed at revision of 18 IBAs of Armenia, describing their bird diversity, current and potential threats, existing and proposed conservation measures. The revision reveals that: (1) 14 IBAs fit criteria of global importance and four IBAs fit criteria of regional significance; (2) 12% of the area of IBAs overlap with the public hunting lands; (3) 55% of all IBAs overlap with the working lands; (4) 45% of IBAs are covered by Nature Reserves, National Parks, and State Sanctuaries; (5) 69% of IBAs are covered by candidate Emerald Sites; (6) IBAs are almost entirely covered by Key Biodiversity Areas. Also, the revision shows, that the current network of IBAs doesn't secure protection of a number of trigger species. To improve IBAs network, it is necessary to expand the borders of some of the existing IBAs and to develop some new ones. For better protection of birds and their habitats, it is important to realize a complex strategy of integrated management of the IBAs, which is detailed in the article.
International Journal of Zoology and Animal Biology, 5(1): 1-27
... Since lead shot use has been partially or totally banned in 23 European countries (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019), interested users switch to non-lead ammunition (mostly steel). As a result, in the soil of active shooting areas (hunting lands, shooting ranges, and shooting complexes where metallic lead in the soils) are obtained accumulation of steel shot and its fragments, and supposed to a significant concentration of steel shot in such soils. ...
This paper presents the results of an experimental study of the patterns of steel and lead shot transformation under the impact of environmental factors (two types of shot exposed alone and in combination with each other). The analyzed environmental factors include atmospheric precipitation of various acidity and soil solutions with a higher content of organic acids. This research demonstrated that steel shot is characterized by a high transformation rate that is an order of magnitude higher on average than the transformation rate of lead under the same conditions. The prevalence of the suspended iron form (excluding the interaction with organic acids) presents risks for such environmental components as soils and sediments and may be hazardous to the ambient air and natural waters in case of wind erosion and surface runoff from the catchment area. Furthermore, the joint presence of steel and lead shot mutually accelerates the corrosion of both metals, thus increasing the environmental risks.
... Researchers Taylor et al. [5], Doabi et al. [18] and Kamunda et al. [20] noted that toxic metals in bullets can contaminate carcasses, especially around the bullet entry and exit points on the carcasses, thus increasing the meat safety risks of game meat. This then leads to unavoidable contamination of game meat animals during killing processes, especially when bullets made from lead (Pb) are used [31]. In many developing countries, the selection of bullets is left to the hunter; thus, in most cases, lead-made bullets are generally used as they are cheaper [26,32]. ...
The presence of toxic metals in harvested game meat is a cause for concern for public health and meat safety in general. Authorities and food safety agencies continue to develop guidelines and limits of the maximum allowable levels of toxic metals in food products. However, the situation is different for game meat products in developing countries, where a number of shortcomings have been identified. This includes a lack of game meat animal slaughter regulations, specific species’ product limits that have not yet been established and the continued use of hunting or game meat animals’ harvesting plans that could introduce the same toxic metals of concern. This review was conducted from English literature published between 2011 and 2021; it highlights the possible health effects and the shortcomings in the implementation of game meat safety production strategies for toxic metals (Arsenic, Lead, Cadmium and Mercury) in game meat animal production. Lead (Pb) remains the most significant threat for toxic metals contamination in game meat animals and the slaughter processes. In most developing countries, including in South Africa, the monitoring and control of these heavy metals in the game meat value chain has not yet been implemented.
... The blood Pb reference value of 5 µg/dL, which was once thought to be safe, is now known to represent a significant risk to the health especially of children (Budtz-Jørgensen et al. 2013;COEH 2016) and also of adults (Lanphear et al. 2018). In this context, frequent consumers of meat from animals shot with Pb ammunition are at a significant health risk and regulatory frameworks that limit the use of Pb ammunition have been adopted by some countries or jurisdictions worldwide (Avery and Watson 2009;Mateo and Kanstrup 2019;Thomas 2019;Uhart et al. 2019). In regions where there are no regulatory provisions to limit the use of Pb ammunition in wild game hunting, the European Food Safety Organizations recommends that the precautionary principle be applied and the quantity and frequency of meat consumption from animals shot with Pb ammunition should be limited (BfR 2011;FSA 2017;SNFA 2012). ...
Consumption of meat from animals hunted with Pb ammunition can cause toxic accumulation with consequent health risks, even if relatively small amounts are consumed in each exposure. In El Palmar National Park, Argentina, invasive alien mammals, wild boar (Sus scrofa) and axis deer (Axis axis), are culled with Pb ammunition and their meat is consumed. In this study, we evaluated blood Pb concentrations in 58 consumers of culled game and examined Pb exposure risk according to their demographics, duty, and consumption habits. Likewise, the likelihood of exposure was evaluated by quantifying Pb concentrations in meat samples of seven culled axis deer. Twenty-seven participants (46%) had detectable blood Pb levels (limit of detection = 3.3 μg/dL), with an average 4.75 ± 1.35 μg/dL (geometric mean ± geometric S.D.); the average for all participants was 3.25 ± 1.51 μg/dL. Blood Pb concentrations were significantly higher in hunters, in participants who reported consuming game meat more than 5 times per week, and in participants who reported frequently consuming cured game meat (compared to cooked or pickled). Pb concentration varied significantly along the trajectory of the bullet in deer muscle, being highest at mid-point but with detectable Pb levels even in distant tissue samples (control), suggesting potential for dietary intake by consumers. These findings provide evidence of Pb exposure risk in consumers and emphasize the relevance of replacing Pb ammunition with non-toxic alternatives. This change would reduce dietary exposure in frequent consumers and allow the use of game meat as safe food for people whilst eliminating collateral risks to wild animals and the environment.
... In 2019, California introduced a ban on all lead hunting ammunition, just as some federal states in Germany (e.g., Schleswig Holstein, Baden-Württemberg and Saarland) have regulated the use of lead rifle ammunition. In other European countries, regulation is only sporadic and targets specific areas, such as national parks and wildlife management areas [16]. There is a significant resistance to change promoted mainly by the international ammunition industry and hunting community although the denial of problems and unwillingness to discuss solutions has not been universal [17]. ...
Background
Lead particles from hunting rifle ammunition become embedded in the tissue of shot animals and pose a health risk to predators and scavengers that eat discarded offal or parts of non-retrieved carcasses of shot game animals, as well as to humans who consume game. Copper and copper–zinc alloys are the most widely used alternatives to leaded ammunition. In Denmark, there has been a growing awareness of the toxic environmental effects of lead ammunition and the Danish government, supported by the Danish Hunters’ Association, announced in November 2020 a forthcoming ban on the use of lead-based bullets for hunting purposes intended to take effect in 2023. The question that remains to be addressed is how the Danish hunting community perceives lead ammunition as a problem and non-lead alternatives as a solution, and whether the willingness to change demonstrated by the hunters’ representatives reflects the attitude of the individual hunters. We studied this in a survey targeting 6000 randomly selected Danish rifle hunters, mapping their knowledge and concerns regarding lead rifle ammunition as well as their use of lead and non-lead ammunition.
Results
We found that approximately one-fifth of the use of rifle ammunition for hunting in Denmark in 2019 was non-lead. Hunters’ knowledge of and concern for the adverse impacts of lead ammunition and the opportunities to switch to non-lead alternatives were generally limited. However, some showed an open-minded attitude and we found that such knowledge and concern increased the likelihood of hunters deciding to use non-lead ammunition. Hunters mainly got their information from hunting organizations and colleagues and expressed a distinct lack of information and guidance on the topic from ministerial authorities responsible for hunting administration.
Conclusions
Some hunters have already changed to use non-lead rifle ammunition completely or in part, and others show an open attitude to discussing the issue and receiving more information particularly from hunting authorities. Some hunters demonstrated a critical or negative attitude towards a change. Communication of the adverse impacts of leaded ammunition in terms of the risk of lead poisoning to wildlife and humans and the opportunities of switching to the existing efficient and safe alternatives is essential regardless of the formal approach and will be crucial for the effectiveness of the regulation announced by the Danish government.
... Given the relevant impact of lead on human health and the environment, specific guidelines and regulations have been issued by several institutions following advances in the understanding of its toxicity (Pohl et al., 2017). Currently, in developed countries most relevant sources of lead pollution have been removed or regulated over the past 50 years (Stroud, 2015), but the use of lead in hunting ammunition is still largely permitted (Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019). According to the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA, 2018), some 21,000 t of lead gunshot are dispersed each year in the European Union, making hunting the most significant unregulated source of lead deliberately emitted into the environment (Group of Scientists, 2014). ...
Lead poisoning from spent ammunition is known to affect many avian species. Birds of prey ingest lead when feeding on game shot with lead gunshot or bullets. Raptors with scavenging habits are particularly vulnerable to ingesting lead in areas with intensive hunting and are good indicators of the risk of poisoning from lead ammunition. To assess how much facultative and obligate avian scavengers suffer lead contamination in south-central Europe, between 2005 and 2019 we collected and analysed 595 tissue samples from 252 carcasses of 4 species (golden eagle, bearded vulture, griffon vulture, cinereous vulture). Lead concentrations in organs showed a similar pattern across species with long and small bones revealing the highest median values (5.56 and 6.8 mg/kg w.w., respectively), the brain the lowest (0.12), and the liver and kidney the intermediate (0.47 and 0.284). Overall, 111 individuals (44.0%) had lead concentrations above background thresholds in at least one tissue (i.e. >2 mg/kg w.w. in soft tissues, >8.33 in bone) and 66 (26.2%) had values indicating clinical poisoning (>6 mg/kg w.w. in liver, >4 in kidney, >16.6 in bone). Tissue lead concentrations and incidence of clinical and sub-clinical poisoning were higher in golden eagles and griffon vultures than in bearded and cinereous vultures, likely due to different feeding habits. In all species we found a rapid increase in lead values with age, but differences between age classes were significant only in the golden eagle. Birds with lead fragments in their digestive tract, as detected by X-rays, had higher median lead concentrations, suggesting that hunting ammunition is the main source of lead poisoning. Our results imply that lead impacts the demography of these long-lived species with delayed sexual maturity and low reproduction rate. A rapid transition towards lead-free bullets and gunshot is therefore required across Europe.
... South Africa has a regulation prohibiting the use of lead shot for waterfowl hunting (Avery and Watson 2009). The European countries of Denmark, Sweden, and the Netherlands have passed some of the most stringent laws, resulting in countrywide bans on the use of lead ammunition (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). France, Sweden, and Germany have banned the use of lead ammunition in wetlands and for waterfowl hunting. ...
Lead poisoning of raptors is an ongoing and pervasive global conservation concern with potentially significant impacts for some species and populations. This Conservation Letter provides a scientific review of raptor lead poisoning globally and concludes by highlighting lessons learned and potential solutions. This letter is not intended as an exhaustive literature review. Rather, the intent of the Raptor Research Foundation (RRF) is to provide readers with enough evidence-based examples that they can appreciate the scope and prevalence of lead poisoning, understand the potential effects on raptor species and populations, and gain a basic understanding of the challenges associated with addressing lead poisoning of raptors across regions.
Lead is a nonessential metal that has a variety of uses in modern society including ammunition, fuel additives, and storage batteries. The same properties that make lead useful for anthropogenic applications worldwide—resistance to corrosion and low mobility—cause lead to remain in host environments for millennia (Jørgensen and Willems 1987, Davies et al. 1990). The mining, manufacturing, combustion, recycling, and disposal of lead and lead products has resulted in lead concentrations in the atmosphere, soil, and water that are several orders of magnitude higher than naturally occurring concentrations (Franson and Pain 2011). Emissions of lead into the air and water enable lead to be inhaled or ingested, the two most common pathways of exposure to terrestrial vertebrates (Franson and Pain 2011).
Exposure to lead, a highly poisonous neurotoxin, has been documented among raptor species worldwide (e.g., Haig et al. 2014, Krone 2018). The primary route of exposure is ingestion, typically through consumption of prey items containing lead fragments (Katzner et al. 2018, Krone 2018). Although lead does not generally appear to bioaccumulate through the food chain, secondary poisoning has been documented in raptors (e.g., Feierabend and Myers 1984). Lead poisoning can also be a secondary effect of shooting (persecution) when the shooting event itself is nonlethal, but lead remains lodged in the body (Berny et al. 2017). For more information on persecution, see the Conservation Letter: Raptor Persecution (Madden et al. 2019).
Effects of Lead Poisoning on Raptors. The lethal and sublethal effects of lead on raptors have been well documented (e.g., Watson et al. 2009, Krone 2018). Lead enters the bloodstream after being broken down by stomach acids following ingestion or is absorbed through the lungs after inhalation. After entering the bloodstream, lead is transported to soft tissues such as the kidney and liver and eventually to the skeletal system where lead replaces vital nutrients such as calcium in the bone matrix (Scheuhammer 1987, Gangoso et al. 2009). Blood lead concentrations can be reflective of both recent and past exposure events, as lead can be released from skeletal repositories back into the bloodstream; feathers, kidney, and liver reflect lead exposure over a moderate term, and bones reflect long-term or even life-time exposure (Franson and Pain 2011). Lead in the blood causes anemia even at low levels of exposure, and acute lead poisoning can result in kidney failure, liver lesions and swelling, enlarged gall bladder, brain lesions, and fibrin exudations under the pericardium (as reviewed in Krone 2018). What constitutes lethal concentrations of lead varies by species, with Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura) and several hawk species being fairly tolerant of repeated lead exposure (Friend 1999, Carpenter et al. 2003) whereas California Condors (Gymnogyps californianus) and Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus) suffer high mortality rates from lead poisoning (Pattee et al. 2006, Finkelstein et al. 2010).
Sublethal lead exposure can result in lower fecundity (Pain et al. 2009) as well as indirect mortality. Elevated concentrations of lead can cause increased bone fragility, decreased vision via ocular lesions, and higher susceptibility to infections (as reviewed in Krone 2018), all of which can compromise the ability of a lead-poisoned individual to forage effectively or maneuver in flight (Burger 1995, Ecke et al. 2017). For example, research on Steller's Sea-Eagles (Haliaeetus pelagicus) and White-tailed Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Japan by Saito (2009) found that victims of vehicle collisions and electrocutions often had high concentrations of lead, and some individuals previously thought to have died of starvation had evidence of lead poisoning. Measuring the concentrations of lead in injured or dead raptors is not routinely performed for most species; thus, the proportion of indirect mortality caused by lead poisoning is likely underestimated (e.g., Wayland et al. 2003).
Sources of Lead Poisoning. There is a worldwide consensus that the most important source of lead poisoning in raptors comes from the ingestion of lead pellets and fragments from ammunition, with lead fishing tackle being of next greatest concern (Fisher et al. 2006). A review by Schulz et al. (2002) demonstrated that some areas in Missouri, USA, may have as much as one million lead shot pellets/ha. A recent review of lead poisoning in the northern Peruvian Amazon River basin by Cartró-Sabaté et al. (2019) found significant concentrations of lead in many non-raptor species, due primarily to subsistence hunting, which is permitted only for indigenous communities. Increasing awareness of this issue has led many countries to impose regulations regarding the use of lead ammunition and fishing tackle (e.g., USA, Argentina, see below); however, lead ammunition remains unregulated in many regions of the world (Avery and Watson 2009, Plaza et al. 2018).
The amount of lead entering the environment from fishing tackle varies by location. One study estimated that in Poland, 1000–1500 metric tons of lead sinkers were lost annually (Hansen et al. 2004). Areas with exceptionally high fishing pressure may pose an important threat to waterfowl (e.g., Scheuhammer and Norris 1996, Haig et al. 2014). Raptor species that feed on waterfowl (e.g., Bald Eagle [Haliaeetus leucocephalus], White-tailed Eagle) are therefore at risk due to secondary ingestion of lead fishing tackle (Rattner et al. 2008, Ishii et al. 2017). Improvements are still needed to quantify the amount of lead entering aquatic ecosystems (Rattner et al. 2008).
Other sources of lead exposure exist but are rarely documented in raptors. Researchers evaluating the effect on Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) of lead exposure from mining found no significant effects of lead from this source (Henny et al. 1991, Langner et al. 2012). However, if there is chronic exposure to low concentrations of lead, the effects could be subtle but significant. Unfortunately, investigating the effects of chronic exposure is challenging due in part to costly postmortem examinations. Microtrash is a known source of lead exposure for raptors, specifically scavengers like condors. However, the degree of lead poisoning risk from ingestion of microtrash and other debris is still unknown (Finkelstein et al. 2015). This research topic needs greater study, especially for raptor species that forage near urban areas and have greater exposure to e-waste. Regardless of the relative contribution of different sources of lead to poisoning in raptors, exposure sources likely act cumulatively, increasing the severity of exposure.
Implications to Global Raptor Populations. Worldwide, lead exposure has been documented in at least 42 predatory and scavenging bird species (Fisher et al. 2006, Pain et al. 2019). Feeding ecology is the primary predictor of lead exposure among raptor species, with exposure directly correlated to the extent a species scavenges (Slabe et al. 2020). New and Old World vultures and condors are susceptible year-round due to their ecological role as obligate scavengers. Conversely, facultative scavengers such as Aquila and Haliaeetus eagles are most susceptible during periods when they scavenge rather than periods when they focus on live prey (Slabe et al. 2020). Whereas some obligate scavengers appear to be the most susceptible to population-level impacts from lead, susceptibility varies among both obligate and facultative scavengers.
Vultures and condors are particularly susceptible to lead poisoning yet remain poorly studied worldwide with the exception of a few species (Plaza and Lambertucci 2019). The California Condor, a critically endangered species, is the highest profile avian scavenger affected by lead poisoning (Church et al. 2006). Lead exposure in the California Condor lowers reproductive rates and lead toxicosis is the primary cause of death in wild populations of adult individuals (Cade 2007, Finkelstein et al. 2012, Rideout et al. 2012). Andean Condors (near-threatened) are also known to be susceptible to lead poisoning (Pattee et al. 2006); however, studies on free-living individuals have been limited to a few studies conducted in southern Chile and Argentina. Here, introduction of exotic species for hunting purposes (Lambertucci et al. 2011) has led to an increase in the use of lead ammunition. At the same time, the increasing number of exotic animals has also shifted the Andean Condor's diet to almost exclusively introduced wild and domestic animals (Lambertucci et al. 2009). The change in diet together with the increase in hunting has led to an increase in ingestion of lead ammunition from carcasses, the main source of lead poisoning in Andean Condors (Lambertucci et al. 2011). Although it has been documented that the species is especially susceptible to lead poisoning (Pattee et al. 2006), the impacts on populations are poorly understood (Wiemeyer et al. 2016, Plaza et al. 2018).
A number of vulture species for which the IUCN conservation status is endangered or critically endangered are susceptible to lead poisoning. For example, lead poisoning is thought to be a major threat to Egyptian Vultures (Neophron percnopterus; endangered), which have elevated lead concentrations in multiple European countries (Gangoso et al. 2009, Plaza and Lambertucci 2019). In Africa, Cape Vultures (Gyps coprotheres; endangered), Lappet-faced Vultures (Torgos tracheliotos; endangered), and White-backed Vultures (Gyps africanus; critically endangered) have high lead concentrations in areas of trophy hunting, an important source of tourism income (Naidoo et al. 2012, Garbett et al. 2018, Plaza and Lambertucci 2019). In Asia, Long-billed Vultures (also known as Indian Vultures; Gyps indicus; critically endangered) and White-rumped Vultures (Gyps bengalensis; critically endangered) also have documented lead poisoning (Plaza and Lambertucci 2019). More studies are needed in Africa and Asia, areas experiencing rapid declines in vulture populations, to understand the overall impacts of lead poisoning to vulture species.
Multiple species of raptors that are facultative scavengers are also susceptible to lead poisoning, with global studies of lead exposure overwhelmingly focused on Aquila and Haliaeetus eagles. In Europe, researchers found that breeding success in Bonelli's Eagles (Aquila fasciata; endangered) was negatively affected by the ingestion of lead pellets present in small-game prey items (Gil-Sánchez et al. 2018). Lead exposure in Australian raptors is poorly studied; nonetheless, one study revealed that 27% of Wedge-tailed Eagles (Aquila audax; least concern) had elevated lead concentrations (Lohr et al. 2020). Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos; least concern), a circumpolar apex predator, have documented lead exposure in the European Alps (Madry et al. 2015), the United Kingdom (Pain et al. 1995), and North America (Langner et al. 2015). Lead poisoning is estimated to cause between 2.1% and 4.8% of Golden Eagle mortality in the USA (Russell and Franson 2014, US Fish and Wildlife Service 2016) but may be underestimated as a result of reporting bias (e.g., Crandall et al. 2019).
Lead exposure in Haliaeetus eagles increases when carcasses and gut piles containing lead fragments from ammunition are used as a food source (Nadjafzadeh et al. 2013, Slabe et al. 2020). In Japan, the discovery of lead poisoning in Steller's Sea Eagle (vulnerable) and White-tailed Eagles resulted in ammunition restrictions for hunting (see below). Studies in Germany, Poland, and Japan revealed lead concentrations consistent with poisoning in the vital organs of White-tailed Eagles (Helander et al. 2009, Krone et al. 2009, Kitowski et al. 2017). Lead poisoning is the most significant source of anthropogenic mortality of this species in Finland (Isomursu et al. 2018). In the USA, lead poisoning accounted for 16.3% of 2980 Bald Eagle (least concern) deaths between 1975 and 2013 (Russell and Franson 2014).
Lead Remediation Efforts. Multiple legislative actions have been enacted worldwide to reduce the use of lead ammunition. In total, 33 countries have implemented some level of restriction on lead ammunition, with the majority of these restrictions enacted for the protection of waterfowl and wetlands (Stroud 2015). Australia has a number of hunting regulations, and along with New Zealand imposes restrictions on certain types or uses of lead shot (Avery and Watson 2009). Several African countries also have hunting regulations, with Mauritania setting the example in 1975 by prohibiting the use of lead ammunition for large game and sport hunting (Avery and Watson 2009). South Africa has a regulation prohibiting the use of lead shot for waterfowl hunting (Avery and Watson 2009). The European countries of Denmark, Sweden, and the Netherlands have passed some of the most stringent laws, resulting in countrywide bans on the use of lead ammunition (Mateo and Kanstrup 2019). France, Sweden, and Germany have banned the use of lead ammunition in wetlands and for waterfowl hunting. Countries in South America are increasingly concerned about the use of lead ammunition. For example, two provinces in Argentina have taken pioneering actions to prohibit the use of lead ammunition in wetland ecosystems. In addition, Argentina, Chile, Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru have signed the Convention on Migratory Species, committing to gradually eliminate the use of lead ammunition (Plaza et al. 2018). However, to date, many of these countries have not implemented restrictions. In the USA, California recently enacted a statewide ban on lead ammunition primarily as a result of continued population-level effects of lead on the California Condor. Three other laws have been enacted as a result of concern for a single raptor species: (1) a lead ammunition ban for waterfowl hunting in the USA was passed to protect Bald Eagles, (2) a ban in Germany on lead ammunition was passed due to concern for White-tailed Eagles (Thomas et al. 2019) and, (3) a lead ammunition ban in Hokkaido, Japan was enacted to protect Haliaeetus eagles (Saito 2009, but see voluntary program below).
Multiple lead remediation efforts in the USA have utilized on-the-ground communication and education efforts to encourage the voluntary use of non-lead ammunition. Voluntary programs are particularly important because on-the-ground actions can result in immediate behavior changes within the hunting community without the political and cultural divisiveness often associated with legislation. A successful non-lead ammunition outreach and distribution program in northwest Wyoming resulted in >50% voluntary participation in hunters employing non-lead ammunition for elk hunting (Bedrosian et al. 2012). An ongoing multi-year outreach and non-lead ammunition distribution program in the Arizona range of the California Condor by the Arizona Game and Fish Department and The Peregrine Fund has maintained an average annual rate of 87% hunter participation (Sieg et al. 2009; C. Parish, The Peregrine Fund, pers. comm.). A pilot effort by the Oregon Zoo's Non-lead Hunting Education Program, in coordination with The Nature Conservancy, Oregon Hunters Association, and Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, increased non-lead ammunition use to 77% of cow elk hunters on the Zumwalt Prairie Preserve over a 4 yr period and is now being adopted statewide (L. Brown, Oregon Zoo, pers. comm.). As of July 2020, the Arizona Game and Fish Department, the Utah Department of Natural Resources, the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, and 25 hunting and conservation organizations, had signed a resolution to partner with the North American Non-lead Partnership (NANP, www.nonleadpartnership.org). Through this partnership, these state agencies and organizations promote the voluntary use of non-lead ammunition to licensed hunters as a form of conservation and stewardship action for scavenging wildlife (Spurling et al. 2018). The NANP promotes the use of non-lead ammunition through communication, education, and incentives, with a focus on both wildlife conservation and hunting heritage within the framework of the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation.
The ban of lead ammunition in Hokkaido, Japan, is one example where on-the-ground voluntary efforts effected a regulatory change. A civic group led by veterinarians was established in July 1998 (Saito 2009). They organized activities to prevent lead poisoning of Haliaeetus eagles including bringing in debilitated or dead eagles, patrolling hunting areas, disposing of deer carcasses and offal (as much as 1 ton/d), purchasing nontoxic ammunition for the local hunting association, and creating and publishing educational materials about lead poisoning in raptors. Two years later, regulations were passed to require use of nontoxic ammunition for deer hunting (including copper-jacketed lead bullets with low fragmentation rates), and were expanded in 2004 to cover all big-game hunting.
As a leading professional society for raptor researchers and raptor conservationists, the RRF is dedicated to the accumulation and dissemination of scientific information about raptors, and to resolving raptor conservation concerns (RRF 2020). Lead poisoning of raptors remains an ongoing conservation concern and presents a global threat to raptor populations, many of which have little to no direct regulatory protection. Based on the science summarized here, reducing the sources and scale of lead poisoning will allow long-term co-occurrence of raptor populations with human populations.
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... In the United States, hunting and shooting firearms yield the greatest discharges of unregulated lead into the environment [121]. To date, several European countries including Denmark, the Netherlands, and Sweden have instituted complete bans on the use of lead ammunition [122]. Support remains a challenge for nation-wide bans in North America [123]. ...
Emerging foodborne pathogens present a threat to public health. It is now recognized that several foodborne pathogens originate from wildlife as demonstrated by recent global disease outbreaks. Zoonotic spillover events are closely related to the ubiquity of parasitic, bacterial, and viral pathogens present within human and animal populations and their surrounding environment. Foodborne diseases have economic and international trade impacts, incentivizing effective wildlife disease management. In North America, there are no food safety standards for handling and consumption of free-ranging game meat. Game meat consumption continues to rise in North America; however, this growing practice could place recreational hunters and game meat consumers at increased risk of foodborne diseases. Recreational hunters should follow effective game meat food hygiene practices from harvest to storage and consumption. Here, we provide a synthesis review that evaluates the ecological and epidemiological drivers of foodborne disease risk in North American hunter populations that are associated with the harvest and consumption of terrestrial mammal game meat. We anticipate this work could serve as a foundation of preventive measures that mitigate foodborne disease transmission between free-ranging mammalian and human populations.
... This is especially relevant for large body-sized scavenging species, which can fly long distances daily crossing administrative boundaries that expose them to different, and sometimes contradictory, legislation (Arrondo et al., 2018). Therefore, the decision to ban lead ammunition partially or at the local scale (Avery & Watson, 2009;Mateo & Kanstrup, 2019) may be insufficient. It is obvious that a change in legislation regarding the replacement of lead with other materials requires European regulations to develop integral conservation strategies (Lambertucci et al., 2014;Arrondo et al., 2018). ...
Lead intoxication is an important threat to human health and a large number of wildlife species. Animals are exposed to several sources of lead highlighting hunting ammunition and lead that is bioavailable in topsoil. Disentangling the role of each in lead exposure is an important conservation issue, particularly for species potentially affected by lead poisoning, such as vultures. The identification of lead sources in vultures and other species has been classically addressed by means of stable-isotope comparisons, but the extremely varied isotope signatures found in ammunition hinders this identification when it overlaps with topsoil signatures. In addition, assumptions related to the exposure of individual vultures to lead sources have been made without knowledge of the actual feeding grounds exploited by the birds. Here, we combine lead concentration analysis in blood, novel stable isotope approaches to assign the origin of the lead and GPS tracking data to investigate the main foraging grounds of two Iberian griffon vulture populations (N = 58) whose foraging ranges differ in terms of topsoil lead concentration and intensity of big game hunting activity. We found that the lead signature in vultures was closer to topsoil than to ammunition, but this similarity decreased significantly in the area with higher big game hunting activity. In addition, attending to the individual home ranges of the tracked birds, models accounting for the intensity of hunting activity better explained the higher blood lead concentration in vultures than topsoil exposure. In spite of that, our finding also show that lead exposure from topsoil is more important than previously thought.
... In Denmark, although the use of lead shot in hunting ammunition has been made illegal since 1996, accumulations of pellets remain shallowly buried in sediments, which are still accessible to ducks sifting through such material, especially in heavily hunted localities. Other countries surrounding the Baltic Sea still allow the use of lead shot and bullets, which together with historical lead pellets could be the source of lead in the blood of these birds (Kanstrup et al., 2016;Mateo and Kanstrup, 2019;Sonne et al., 2019). ...
Here we investigate if lead may be a contributing factor to the observed population decline in a Baltic colony of incubating eiders (Somateria mollissima). Body mass and blood samples were obtained from 50 incubating female eiders at the Baltic breeding colony on Christiansø during spring 2017 (n = 27) and 2018 (n = 23). All the females were sampled twice during early (day 4) and late (day 24) incubation. The full blood was analysed for lead to investigate if the concentrations exceeded toxic thresholds or changed over the incubation period due to remobilisation from bones and liver tissue. Body mass, hatch date and number of chicks were also analysed with respect to lead concentrations. The body mass (mean ± SD g) increased significantly in the order: day 24 in 2018 (1561 ± 154 g)
... Because of mortality of scavenging species after ingesting lead (Pb)-contaminated quarry [14,19,30] and the poisoning of waterfowl as a result of the ingestion of Pb shot instead of natural grit and food [27,34], a general ban on Pb in game ammunition in the European Union (EU) has been recommended by the European Chemicals Agency [6]. Furthermore, many states worldwide and in particular in Europe (23 countries) already have regulated the use of lead shot [28]. For decades, the effects of lead poisoning in waterfowl, raptors, scavengers and terrestrial birds are highly documented [34]. ...
Background: Owing to the high environmental risk of lead-based gunshot, especially as the main source of acute lead poisoning in waterfowl, restrictions on its use in European wetlands are being put into place. In order to assess potential risks of alternative gunshot pellets to aquatic systems, we validated a recently published study that compared the leaching behavior of different game shot materials in an artificial solution and their toxicological effects to Daphnia magna. We therefore investigated the altered leaching of shot materials in natural spring waters.
Results: The different water conditions (geology/redox conditions) had a strong influence on the leaching behavior of the examined shot types. Spring water originating from siliceous bedrock showed the highest concentrations of nearly all leached metals under aerobic conditions. The results were similar to the former study, which used an artificial standardized medium for daphnids.
Conclusions: According to the conducted leaching tests, Cu- and Zn-based as well as Zn-coated gunshot should be avoided by reason of the high risks they pose to the aquatic environment. Furthermore, the use of Pb-based and Nialloyed or -coated game shot also should be hampered owing to their impact on birds or other wildlife. Since some of these shot materials are still on the European market, an effective toxicity screening of alternative gunshot materials is necessary. By conducting standardized leaching tests, in addition to chemical compositional standards and toxicity tests regarding birds, the environmental risks of each game shot would entirely be assessed. The method presented in this study provides a further step for initial ecotoxicological risk assessment of gunshot for aquatic systems, since it additionally assesses minor components, like thin coatings, which also can have a high impact to these ecosystems.
... Further details of these are found in Stroud (2015), Cromie et al. (2015), the Appendix of the Open Letter of the European Scientists (European Scientists 2018) and Mateo and Kanstrup (2019). ...
If the multiple negative health impacts associated with lead ammunition are to be mitigated, a transition to the non-toxic alternatives is needed. This paper aims to map out the pathways to such a transition via a modification of Kotter’s eight step theory of change, identifying key stakeholders, exploring options for those of us advocating change and the relationships between policy and persuasion. The focus is primarily on the UK, but it is of direct relevance to the rest of Europe and beyond. The theory of change model involves (1) creating urgency, (2) building coalitions, (3) creating a vision for change, (4) communicating that vision, (5) removing barriers to enable action, (6) creating short-term or geospatial wins, (7) building on the change and (8) embedding change in culture and regulation. The paper reflects on good progress to date in initial steps, but throughout subsequent steps creative engagement and other disciplines which appreciate the human dimensions such as mediation and psychology of behaviour change have been lacking. Although significant barriers remain for Step 5, the paper identifies the central vision of sustainability of hunting as a shared value around which most stakeholders can engage. The paper concludes that, given the growing momentum surrounding this issue in recent years, the phasing out of lead ammunition is at a tipping point.
The use of lead-based rifle bullets in hunting poses a risk to human and animal health when bullet fragments remain in the game meat. The objective of this study was to assess, for the first time, the number, size and spatial distribution of bullet fragments in game animals collectively and in three dimensions. Four roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) hunted with lead bullets were radiographed using computed tomography (CT) at each step of meat processing from animal bodies to edible parts. The animal bodies contained 43-199 fragments with a mean volume of 3.71 ± 5.49 mm 3 and a mean distance of 6.5 ± 4.6 cm perpendicular to the wound channel. About 40% of the fragments were in the lower size range of < 1.00 mm 3. Individual fragments were located up to 22.2 cm from the wound channel and were located in the edible parts (ribs, n = 2; haunch, n = 1; shoulder, n = 3) with up to 0.29 g (0.16 ± 0.15 g, mean ± SD) of estimated bullet fragment mass (BFM) deposited in the edible parts of the roe deer. Tissues in a radius of at least 16 cm around the wound channel should have been discarded in order to remove 95% of the BFM from the investigated roe deer. Additionally, around 85.1% of the initial bullet mass corresponding to 9.948 ± 1.040 g BFM were estimated to be introduced into the environment. This study highlights the challenges of ensuring sufficient removal of lead-based rifle bullet fragments in game meat processing for either human consumption purposes or for use as pet food.
Bullets from gunshots made of lead are used to kill and arrest criminals, as they are also used by criminals to intimidate or kill innocents for psychosocial gains. So the increased environmental pollution caused by lead from industries, firearms, gasoline, among others is a source of concern for environmental health specialists, clinical toxicologists, experimental toxicologists, industrial toxicologists and ecotoxicologists. Lead can get into body system accidentally via oral, inhalational, epidermal, dermal, intraperitoneal, and intravenous routes. The toxicokinetic data of lead disposition via various routes of administrations are quite inconsistent. Hence the set blood limit concentration has been considered to be incorrect. In view of this, toxicokinetic data analysis of lead was carried out with intent to determine toxic doses of lead in various organs, and its toxicological consequences. Findings have shown that at lower doses, kinetics of lead is linear (first order), and at higher doses the kinetics becomes non-linear (zero-order). Metabolic processes modulated by lead could be either rate limiting or non–rate-limiting causing induction and inhibition of a myriad of metabolizing enzymes in liver, brain, kidney, intestine and lung. The LD50 of lead bullet in human was 450 mg/kg, which caused death in 9.1 days, and penicillamine (18 mg/kg) can be used for treatment. Mean residence time (MRT) and elimination half-life (T12β) were 25.8 and 18 days, respectively.
Regulation (EU) 2021/57, banning the use of lead gunshot in wetland hunting, and adoption of the proposed European Union (EU) restriction on lead ammunition use by civilians in other types of hunting and target shooting, would complete the transition to non-lead ammunition use in the EU and ensure major compliance among hunters and shooters. The transition is possible since non-lead substitutes for all types of shotgun and rifle ammunition are produced already by leading European manufacturers. To ensure ammunition non-toxicity, EU standards are needed for lead substitutes to accompany both existing and potential future lead ammunition restrictions. Meat from wild game birds and mammals is a large and important commodity in the EU. Setting a maximum lead level in all marketed game meats under Regulation (EC) 1881/2006, aided by mandatory food labelling, would add extra health protection to human consumers. This regulatory step would help ensure that all wild game destined for retail markets were taken with non-lead ammunition, would complement existing and proposed European Commission restrictions on lead hunting ammunition and aid monitoring and enforcement. Increased public awareness of the risks posed by lead from ammunition to the health of humans, wildlife, and the environment, and especially their associated externalized costs to society, would promote and facilitate the passage of regulation to protect human and environmental health from toxic lead ammunition.
There are significant negative effects of exposure to spent lead ammunition on wildlife and human health. A joint statement was issued by nine UK shooting and rural organisations on 24th February 2020 intended to encourage a voluntary transition to non-lead shotgun ammunition within five years “in consideration of wildlife, the environment and to ensure a market for the healthiest game products”. We dissected carcasses of wild-shot common pheasants Phasianus colchicus sold or offered for human consumption in Britain in the shooting season between 1st October 2020 and 1st February 2021 to recover shotgun pellets. The principal metallic element composing one pellet from each bird was identified using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry. The results showed that 99% of the 180 pheasants from which shotgun pellets were recovered had been killed using lead shotgun ammunition, compared with 100% in a much smaller study conducted in the 2008/2009 shooting season. We conclude that the shooting and rural organisations’ joint statement, and their subsequent promotional actions, have not yet had a detectable effect on the ammunition types used by shooters supplying pheasants to the British game market.
There are significant negative effects of exposure to spent lead ammunition on wildlife and human health. A joint statement was issued by nine UK shooting and rural organisations on 24 th February 2020 intended to encourage a voluntary transition to non-lead shotgun ammunition within five years "in consideration of wildlife, the environment and to ensure a market for the healthiest game products". We dissected carcasses of wild-shot common pheasants Phasianus colchicus sold or offered for human consumption in Britain in the shooting season between 1 st October 2020 and 1 st February 2021 to recover shotgun pellets. The principal metallic element composing one pellet from each bird was identified using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry. The results showed that 99% of the 180 pheasants from which shotgun pellets were recovered had been killed using lead shotgun ammunition, compared with 100% in a much smaller study conducted in the 2008/2009 shooting season. We conclude that the shooting and rural organisations' joint statement, and their subsequent promotional actions, have not yet had a detectable effect on the ammunition types used by shooters supplying pheasants to the British game market.
Consumption of Pb-contaminated game meat is a concern for the population, as it poses a potential risk to consumer health. Thus, this study is aimed at determining Pb content in muscle tissue of migratory birds, evaluating the influence of the use of Pb ammunition on the content of this element in migratory upland game bird meat, and estimating the health risk arising from consumption thereof. Breast muscle of common woodpigeon (Columba palumbus) (n=27), European turtle-dove (Streptopelia turtur) (n=21) and song thrush (Turdus philomelos) (n=35) were analyzed. Pb concentrations in breast muscle were 3.4; 0.98 and 0.82 mg/kg ww in common woodpigeon, European turtle-dove and song thrush, respectively. Risk assessment was performed using a benchmark dose, and margin of exposure (MOE) and plug in estimator (PI) were calculated. The estimated mean and 95th percentile Pb-intake for an extreme consumption (90 meals per year) werepar 0.045-0.079 and 0.083-0.14 μg/kg bw per day for adult and child consumers, respectively. Risk assessment showed that consumption of meat from common woodpigeon, European turtle-dove and song thrush hunted using traditional hunting methods for these species in Spain does not pose a significant health risk to adult and child consumers. Nonetheless, a particularly high risk occurs when animals carry excessive Pb concentrations, i.e. when they show a high number of impacts, in which case they would not be suitable for consumption and would need to be discarded. Future research is required to further improve the food safety of game meat in the domestic environment of hunters and their households, who are the primary consumers of this type of meat.
Wildlife and human health are at risk of lead exposure from spent hunting ammunition. Lead exposure persists for bald eagles due to bullet fragments in game animal gut piles and unretrieved carcasses, and is also a human health risk when wild game is procured using lead ammunition. Programs encouraging the voluntary use of nonlead ammunition have become a popular approach mitigating these effects. This study explored attitudes and experiences of United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) staff implementing an outreach program encouraging deer hunters to voluntary use nonlead ammunition on 54 National Wildlife Refuges (NWRs) in the Upper Midwest, U.S. to understand factors affecting program implementation. We conducted 29 semi-structured interviews of USFWS staff along with 60 responses from an open-ended survey question. Twelve themes emerged from the data and were grouped into three broad categories: (1) challenges of dealing with complex issues, (2) importance of messengers and messages, and (3) resistance from staff. Challenges of dealing with complex issues included administrative restraint and uncertainty, scope and scale of program, human health not an agency responsibility, contextual political influences, and public-private collaborations. Importance of messengers and messages included the importance of experience, and salience of human health risk. Finally, resistance from staff included skepticism of the science and motives behind the program, competing priorities for refuge staff, differing perceptions of regulatory and voluntary approaches, cost and availability of nonlead ammunition, and disregard by some about lead ammunition and human health risks. Staff identified numerous challenges implementing the program, many of which were external factors beyond the control of the participants. Understanding the factors affecting program implementation may help guide future efforts encouraging the voluntary use of nonlead ammunition.
Few studies have evaluated immunosuppression due to lead accumulation below the overt toxicity threshold. If low levels of lead accumulation cause immunosuppression in birds, those birds could become more susceptible to pathogens. We aimed to determine if low levels of lead accumulation lead to immunosuppression in Black-headed gulls (Chroicocephalus ridibundus). Gulls were captured in Tokyo-bay and Mikawa-bay from January to April 2019. Their blood samples were analyzed for eight items. The data were analyzed to evaluate the correlation between lead concentrations and the variables from each bay. Lead was positively correlated with the percentage of heterophils and heterophil and lymphocyte ratio and negatively with lymphocytes. Thus, low lead accumulation levels may induce changes in percentage of the heterophils and lymphocyte.
The chemical composition of non-lead, non-toxic, gunshot used for hunting waterfowl is regulated only in Canada and the USA. No nation regulates the composition of non-lead fishing weights, rifle bullets, and gunshot used for upland game hunting. Compositional criteria for these non-lead products are proposed here, based on established experimental toxicity protocols. Because of the demonstrated acute toxicity of ingested zinc shot to birds, fishing weights and gunshot should never be made of this pure metal. Nickel should be avoided as an incidental component of gunshot because of potential carcinogenicity concerns about such embedded shot in birds and other animals. These compositional criteria could be adopted by all nations undertaking the transition to non-lead fishing weights and hunting ammunition. The listed criteria would facilitate production and international trade in non-lead products, and promote easier enforcement and user compliance with non-lead standards.
The white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) suffered a severe population decline due to environmental pollutants in the Baltic Sea area ca. 50 years ago but has since been recovering. The main threats for the white-tailed eagle in Finland are now often related to human activities. We examined the human impact on the white-tailed eagle by determining mortality factors of 123 carcasses collected during 2000-2014. Routine necropsy with chemical analyses for lead and mercury were done on all carcasses. We found human-related factors accounting for 60% of the causes of death. The most important of these was lead poisoning (31% of all cases) followed by human-related accidents (e.g. electric power lines and traffic) (24%). The temporal and regional patterns of occurrence of lead poisonings suggested spent lead ammunition as the source. Lead shot was found in the gizzards of some lead-poisoned birds. Scavenging behaviour exposes the white-tailed eagle to lead from spent ammunition.
Much evidence demonstrates the adverse effects of lead ammunition on wildlife, their habitats and human health, and confirms that the use of such ammunition has no place within sustainable hunting. We identify the provisions that define sustainable hunting according to European law and international treaties, together with their guidance documents. We accept the substantial evidence for lead’s actual and potential effects on wildlife, habitats and health as persuasive and assess how these effects relate to stated provisions for sustainability and hunting. We evaluate how continued use of lead ammunition negatively affects international efforts to halt loss of biodiversity, sustain wildlife populations and conserve their habitats. We highlight the indiscriminate and avoidable health and welfare impacts for large numbers of exposed wild animals as ethically unsustainable. In societal terms, continued use of lead ammunition undermines public perceptions of hunting. Given the existence of acceptable, non-toxic alternatives for lead ammunition, we conclude that hunting with lead ammunition cannot be justified under established principles of public/international policy and is not sustainable. Changing from lead ammunition to non-toxic alternatives will bring significant nature conservation and human health gains, and from the hunter’s perspective will enhance societal acceptance of hunting. Change will create opportunities for improved constructive dialogue between hunting stakeholders and others engaged with enhancing biodiversity and nature conservation objectives.
Background
Non-lead hunting ammunition is an alternative to bullets that contain lead. The use of lead ammunition can result in severe contamination of game meat, thus posing a health risk to consumers. With any kind of ammunition for hunting, the terminal effectiveness of bullets is an animal welfare issue. Doubts about the effectiveness of non-lead bullets for a humane kill of game animals in hunting have been discussed. The length of the escape distance after the shot has been used previously as an indicator for bullet performance.
Objective
The object of this study was to determine how the bullet material (lead or non-lead) influences the observed escape distances.
Methods
1,234 records of the shooting of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and 825 records of the shooting of wild boar (Sus scrofa) were evaluated. As the bullet material cannot be regarded as the sole cause of variability of escape distances, interactions of other potential influencing variables like shot placement, shooting distance, were analyzed using conditional regression trees and two-part hurdle models.
Results
The length of the escape distance is not influenced by the use of lead or non-lead ammunition with either roe deer or wild boar. With roe deer, the length of the escape distance is influenced significantly by the shot placement and the type of hunting. Increasing shooting distances increased the length of the escape distance. With wild boar, shot placement and the age of the animals were found to be a significant influencing factor on the length of the escape distance.
Conclusions
The length of the escape distance can be used as an indicator for adequate bullet effectiveness for humane killings of game animals in hunting.Non-lead bullets already exist which have an equally reliable killing effect as lead bullets.
As a top predator, the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) may serve as a good indicator species, providing information about the bioavailability of contaminants and their transfer within the food chain. In this study, we aimed to determine the common sources of origin of 17 metals and other elements in the liver of white-tailed eagles, and to compare the variations in their hepatic concentrations by age (adults vs immatures) and sex (males vs females) in groups of white-tailed eagles wintering in Eastern Poland. The element concentrations followed the pattern of S > K > Na > Fe > Mg > Ca > Zn > Cu > Mn > Se > Pb > Hg > Cd > Cr > Sr > V > Sc. We found significant age-related differences in the hepatic concentrations of some of the elements. Adults showed higher concentrations of Pb, Cd, Ca, Fe, and Zn and lower concentrations of Cu and Se than immatures. These differences may be explained by age-related differences in wintering strategy (adults are sedentary, and immatures are migratory) and hunting skills (adults are more successful when hunting for agile prey). Our study indicates that ingested Pb ammunition poses a serious threat to the health and lives of white-tailed eagles in Poland (32% of the studied individuals had acute lead poisoning). Our study also indicates a serious need for banning the use of lead hunting ammunition in the parts of Europe (including Poland) where it is still allowed.
Effective mitigation of the risks posed by environmental contaminants for ecosystem integrity and human health requires knowing their sources and spatiotemporal distribution. We analysed the exposure to lead (Pb) in griffon vulture Gyps fulvus—an apex species valuable as biomonitoring sentinel. We determined vultures' lead exposure and its main sources by combining isotope signatures and modelling analyses of 691 bird blood samples collected over 5 years. We made yearlong spatially explicit predictions of the species risk of lead exposure. Our results highlight elevated lead exposure of griffon vultures (i.e. 44.9% of the studied population, approximately 15% of the European, showed lead blood levels more than 200 ng/ml) partly owing to environmental lead (e.g. geological sources). These exposures to environmental lead of geological sources increased in those vultures exposed to point sources (e.g. lead-based ammunition). These spatial models and pollutant risk maps are powerful tools that identify areas of wildlife exposure to potentially harmful sources of lead that could affect ecosystem and human health.
The issue of Denmark regulating use of lead-free rifle ammunition because of potential risks of lead exposure in wildlife and humans was examined from a scientific and objective policy perspective. The consequences of adopting or rejecting such regulation were identified. Denmark is obliged to examine this topic because of its national policy on lead reduction, its being a Party to the UN Bonn Convention on Migratory Species, and its role in protecting White-tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla), a species prone to lead poisoning from lead ingestion. Lead-free bullets suited for deer hunting are available at comparable cost to lead bullets, and have been demonstrated to be as effective. National adoption of lead-free bullets would complete the Danish transition to lead-free ammunition use. It would reduce the risk of lead exposure to scavenging wildlife, and humans who might eat lead-contaminated wild game meat. Opposition from hunting organizations would be expected.
The history of environmental pollution by lead is as long as its history of use by human society. However, although there has been nearly three centuries of regulation related to lead in industrial or domestic settings, use of leaded paint and leaded petrol remains legal in some countries and there are other widespread sources. Population exposure especially in developing countries continues to be significant not least as a consequence of the movement of ‘dirty’, high risk industries to poor countries with less developed regulatory regimes. Accordingly lead is a subject of global public health targets.
International recognition of lead as a source of wildlife mortality or morbidity has developed over recent decades, although implementation of clearly set international objectives is hindered by the ‘invisible’ nature of such poisoning – with poisoned animals seldom being seen by the public. This facilitates denial of the issue since lead impacts are not a ‘spectacular’ cause of wildlife deaths.
The history of initiatives to reduce population exposure to lead through better regulation is one in which vested interests have fought to maintain the status quo - seeing regulation as a threat to their economic interests. Indeed, very similar types of justification have been made by those arguing against better regulation of lead emissions into the environment - whether as a fuel additive, or in relation to ammunition and other sources that poison wildlife. Thus, understanding the difficulties faced by past advocates for better regulation informs contemporary initiatives to reduce harm from lead discharges.
Significant, albeit slow, progress has been made in one arena, with the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement providing an important international driver for national policy change amongst its 75 Contracting Parties. The call by the 120 Parties to the Convention on Migratory Species in 2014 to “Phase-out the use of lead ammunition across all habitats (wetland and terrestrial) with non-toxic alternatives within the next three years…” provided important global recognition of the issue. It will be important to make rapid progress to this end to avoid prolonging unnecessary poisoning of wildlife at risk.
Wildlife may be exposed to lead contamination as a consequence of hunting activities. Water-
-Fowl and grouse may directly assume lead from the ground (primary assumption), while in raptor lead
intoxication may be due to the ingestion of preys with elevated lead concentrations in their tissues (secondary assumption). Recent studies demonstrated that viscera of shot ungulates are quite often directly contaminated with lead due to bullet fragmentation after the shot. If released on the ground' viscera represent a threat for scavenger species. In Europe, saturnism in birds of prey has been quite rarefy described and some reports are available for large raptor.; as griffon vulture Gyps fulves, golden eagle Aquila chrysaectos and bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus. In the Alps this problem affects the abundant population of golden eagle and the recently re-introduced population of bearded vulture that is still considered as vulnerable. For the bearded vulture two cases of dead intoxication have already been described in dispersing juveniles. The most viable nucleus of bearded vultures is distribuited in the central Alps, between Italy and Switzerland and is characterized by the highest reproductive rates. Hunting management of ungulates is here commonly performed with lead ammunition. The practice of leaving on the ground tbc ungulate viscera after the shot is still frequent. Hunting season partially overlaps with the most limiting season, in terms of food availability, for birds. The extraordinary conservation value of this bearded vulture population led the Stelvio National Park and the Sondrio Province to implement a study for monitoring the potential risk of lead intoxication for raptor tied to the practice of ungulate viscera deposition after the shot. The viscera of 153 ungulated shot in the Sondrio Province during hunting season 2009-2010 have been collected and examined to detect and quantify lead presence. Information regarding the bunted animal, the type of ammunition, the condition and the outcome of the shot have been collected as ancillary data. Lead fragment in the samples have been investigated through CAT (computed axial tomography) and digital radiography and subsequently manually collected. Overall, in 62.1 % of samples lead fragments have been detected. Preliminary results refer to a partial sample of 147 viscera of roe deer, red deer, chamois, wild boar and mouflon. Higher frequencies have been recorded in roe deer (777%), chamois (69.6%) while lower in red deer (50%). The highest frequencies of lead in viscera have been detected in ungulate shot in the thorax or in the thigh and hind parts. These first preliminary outcomes confirm the high risk of lead intoxication for large raptor in areas were ungulates are commonly hunted and demonstrate the need of more sustainable hunting practices as the substitution of lead ammunition with non-toxic bullets or concealing under tbc ground the viscera of the shot ungulates.
Failure to distinguish between elemental tungsten and tungsten alloys has caused confusion, especially about their relative toxicity in shotgun ammunition. Controlled experiments indicate that the carcinogenicity of embedded tungsten–nickel–cobalt alloys derives from their nickel and cobalt content, and not the tungsten. The carcinogenicity of metallic nickel and cobalt implants in animal tissues is well-established. Studies in which pure tungsten metal is embedded in animal and human tissues indicate that there is no toxicity or carcinogenicity developed locally or systemically. The exposed tungsten corrodes slowly in the tissue fluids and is excreted from the body. Chronic studies in which pure tungsten-based shot are placed, continuously, in the foregut of ducks over 150 days indicate that there are no adverse physiological effects, nor disruption of ducks’ reproduction and development of their progeny. This type of shot is environmentally safe and non-toxic to animals. Shot containing nickel could pose health problems to animals if embedded in their tissues. The use of known toxic metals in lead-free shot should be subjected to further examination and, if warranted, regulation.
Poisoning by ingestion of lead ammunition in wild birds is known in Spain since the end of the last century. High densities of lead shot in various internationally important wetlands produce pellet ingestion rates close to 70 % in species such as the northern pintail (Anas acuta) and lead poisoning becomes a major cause of mortality of the endangered white-headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala). Lead poisoning has also been described in several species of birds of prey, mainly scavengers. The contamination of game meat has also been studied, because in Spain it is usually cooked with vinegar, increasing the transfer of lead from ammunition to meat. For now, the only action taken to reduce the risk of exposure to lead from ammunition
in birds and humans has been the banning since 2001 of lead shot in protected wetlands. Here, we review the studies carried out in Spain on lead contamination caused by the ammunition and the effect of the measures taken to reduce this risk.
Lead poisoning in birds was described in Europe at the end of the 19 th century, but the first epidemiological studies were not done until the second half of the 20 th century. So far, most work has fo- cused on waterfowl and birds of prey, with very few reports evaluating the impact on upland game birds. The density of lead shot in sediments of wetlands has been studied in several countries, with maximal den- sities observed in southern Europe where up to 399 shot/m 2 in the upper 30 cm of sediment has been re- ported. Similarly, the highest prevalence of lead shot ingestion has been found in waterfowl wintering in the dry Mediterranean region, where birds concentrate in a limited number of wetlands which have also been intensively hunted for decades. If we consider the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) as a bioindicator spe- cies, the prevalence of lead shot ingestion varies from 2-10% in the wetlands of northern Europe, up to 25- 45% in the Mediterranean deltas in southern Europe. The species with the highest prevalence of lead shot ingestion are the Northern Pintail (Anas acuta) and the Common Pochard (Aythya ferina) with values around 60-70%. Lead poisoning has been identified as an important cause of death for the endangered White-headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala) and for swans (Cygnus sp.). The accumulation of lead shot in upland ecosystems was recently studied in intensively hunted areas and estates used for driven shooting of Red-legged Partridge (Alectoris rufa) where densities of 7.4 shot/m 2 in soil prevailed. Prevalence of lead shot ingestion in Red-legged Partridge varies between 1.4% in Britain and 3.9% in Spain. Cases of lead poisoning have also been described in Grey Partridge (Perdix perdix, 1.4% of birds found dead), Common Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), and Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus). Lead poisoning has been described in 17 species of birds of prey in Europe, some of which have been near- threatened (NT) such as the White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), or endangered (EN), specifically, the Spanish Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti). Some studies have been conducted to evaluate the exposure in populations of raptors based on tissue analysis or the presence of lead shot in regurgitated pellets. Signifi- cant rates of lead shot ingestion have been observed in the Spanish Imperial Eagle (11% of pellets with lead shot). Further, 26-40% of Marsh Harriers (Circus aeruginosus) had blood lead >30 µg/dL, 91% of Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) had blood lead >20 µg/dL, and 28% of White-tailed Eagles found dead or moribund had liver lead >5 µg/g (wet weight). The ban on lead shot for hunting in wetlands, and/or for the hunting of waterbirds, was adopted by Den- mark in 1985, and some years later by Norway, the Netherlands, Finland and Sweden. Other European countries agreed to implement bans on the use of lead for shooting over wetlands by the year 2000 following the African Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement (AEWA). However, only Denmark, Norway, and the Netherlands have extended the ban to all hunted species. Received 22 May 2008, accepted 6 September 2008.
EXTENDED ABSTRACT.—As in other regions, vul- tures in Spain are often exposed to spent lead am- munition from carcasses of small and large game. This exposure may have increased after the ban on abandoning carcasses of domestic ruminants in the field due to the bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE) crisis, both because the vultures consume hunting bag residues more frequently and because malnutrition may lead to mobilisation of lead stores (Iñigo and Atienza 2007). Although cases of clini- cal intoxication have been reported in numerous species including Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus)
Olympic shooters discharge, annually, thousands of tons of lead shot which pose toxic risks to animals and may pollute both surface and ground waters. Non-toxic steel shot is an acceptable and effective substitute, but International Shooting Sports Federation (ISSF) rules prevent its adoption. The present policy and rules of the ISSF on lead shot use contravene the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Charter position on environmental protection. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), a formal Olympic partner on environmental protection, has no stated policy on contamination from lead ammunition, despite having declared lead a Priority Area for remedial action, and is pressing to remove lead from the global human environment. The IOC Sport and Environment Commission and UNEP could examine the continued use of lead shot ammunition and advise the IOC Executive Board on appropriate changes in policy and rules that could halt the massive lead shot contamination of shooting range environments world-wide.
Proposals to end the use of lead hunting ammunition because of the established risks of lead exposure to wildlife and humans are impeded by concerns about the availability, price, and effectiveness of substitutes. The product availability and retail prices of different calibers of lead-free bullets and center-fire rifle ammunition were assessed for ammunition sold in the USA and Europe. Lead-free bullets are made in 35 calibers and 51 rifle cartridge designations. Thirty-seven companies distribute internationally ammunition made with lead-free bullets. There is no major difference in the retail price of equivalent lead-free and lead-core ammunition for most popular calibers. Lead-free ammunition has set bench-mark standards for accuracy, lethality, and safety. Given the demonstrated wide product availability, comparable prices, and the effectiveness of high-quality lead-free ammunition, it is possible to phase out the use of lead hunting ammunition world-wide, based on progressive policy and enforceable legislation.
Lead poisoning and organ levels of the non-essential heavy metals lead, cadmium and mercury of seven free-ranging golden eagles
(Aquila chrysaetos) from the European Alps, and of one 23-year-old captive golden eagle are reported. All birds were found dead or moribund
during the years 2000 and 2001 in Austria, Germany and Switzerland. One golden eagle from Switzerland with extraordinarily
high lead residues in its liver and kidney was clearly identified as lethally lead poisoned. Another bird from the same region
was found still alive and died in a wildlife rehabilitation center, showing lead residues in its organs known for acute lead
poisoning with detrimental physiological effects, such as nervous disorders and the inhibition of the hemoglobine synthesis.
Concentrations of cadmium, mercury and lead residues in the organs of the other five free-ranging birds, and in the long-lived
captive golden eagle, were low and represent the natural background levels in birds of prey of the terrestrial food web. This
is the first published report of lead poisoning in golden eagles from Switzerland. Sources for lead poisoning in golden eagles
in the Alpine region are discussed.
Long-lived species are particularly susceptible to bioaccumulation of lead in bone tissues. In this paper we gain insights into the sublethal effects of lead contamination on Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus). Our approach was done on the comparison of two populations (Canary Islands and Iberian Peninsula) differing in exposures to the ingestion of lead ammunition. Blood lead levels were higher in the island population (Canary Islands range: 5.10–1780 μg L−1n = 137; Iberian Peninsula range: 5.60–217.30 μg L−1n = 32) showing clear seasonal trends, peaking during the hunting season. Moreover, males were more susceptible to lead accumulation than females. Bone lead concentration increased with age, reflecting a bioaccumulation effect. The bone composition was significatively altered by this contaminant: the mineralization degree decreased as lead concentration levels increased. These results demonstrate the existence of long-term effects of lead poisoning, which may be of importance in the declines of threatened populations of long-lived species exposed to this contaminant.
In this study we show for the first time that lead poisoning from ammunition is a significant mortality factor for white-tailed sea eagle (WSE) (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Sweden. We analyzed 118 WSEs collected between 1981 and 2004 from which both liver and kidney samples could be taken. A total of 22% of all eagles examined had elevated (> 6 µg/g d.w.) lead concentrations, indicating exposure to leaded ammunition, and 14% of the individuals had either liver or kidney lead concentrations diagnostic of lethal lead poisoning (> 20 µg/g d.w.). Lead concentrations in liver and kidney were significantly correlated. In individuals with lead levels < 6 µg/g, concentrations were significantly higher in kidney than in liver; in individuals with lead levels > 20 µg/g, concentrations were significantly higher in liver. The lead isotope ratios indicate that the source of lead in individuals with lethal concentrations is different from that of individuals exhibiting background concentrations of lead (< 6 µg/g d.w.) There were no significant sex or age differences in lead concentrations. A study from the Baltic reported in principle no biomagnification of lead, but background lead concentrations in WSE liver in this study were still four to > 10 times higher than concentrations reported for Baltic fish from the same time period. In contrast to other biota there was no decrease in lead concentrations in WSE over the study period. The proportion of lead poisoned WSE remained unchanged over the study period, including two years after a partial ban of lead shot was enforced in 2002 for shallow wetlands. The use of lead in ammunition poses a threat to all raptors potentially feeding on shot game or offal. The removal of offal from shot game and alternatives to leaded ammunition needs to be implemented in order to prevent mortality from lead in raptors and scavengers.
Denmark implemented a total ban on the use of lead shot for hunting and clay target shooting in 1996. Compliance was not studied systematically until recently. However, sporadic police checks and individual studies indicated that compliance was far from complete in the early years after regulation. To assess current levels of compliance with Danish regulations, we purchased 730 carcasses of pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) and mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and a further 690 mallard gizzards were obtained from > 14 shooting events distributed across > 10 local authority districts throughout East and West Denmark in the 2016/2017 and 2017/2018 hunting seasons. All carcasses and gizzards were subject to radiography and those that contained shot were examined, pellets removed by dissection and identified to shot type. In all, 3589 pellets (intact or fragmented) were found in 1420 carcasses/gizzards, of which 799 pellets (some fragmented) were identified. Among the sample of pheasants with embedded shot (N = 447), 1.8% (in 2016) and 2.2% (in 2017) were lead shot. Among 148 mallards in 2017 with embedded shot, 3.1% had lead shot. None of the 2017 mallard gizzards had embedded lead shot. We conclude that Danish pheasant and mallard shooters mostly comply with the lead shot regulations. Steel was the most used non-lead alternative. The majority of ingested shot was non-lead, indicating that lead shot is not generally available to pheasant and mallard and suggesting compliance with regulations in recent years/decades. The study showed that the possibility to predict the metal composition of shot pellets from X-ray images alone was highly inaccurate, confirming the necessity of necropsy to determine shot type.
Denmark was the first European country to completely ban lead shot for hunting and target shooting. This paper reviews the process behind this phase-out to document its history, successes, and pitfalls, and to make the Danish experiences accessible for the benefit of other countries, authorities, and stakeholders who face nature management challenges implementing similar change. A review of the content of magazines published by the three hunters’ organizations during the 1978–1992 transition period was carried out, to assess the general discourse and identify the primary concerns and attitudes during the phase-out of lead shot for hunting in Denmark. Hunters were initially negative towards the change. Resistance was driven by concern about the quality, safety issues, and expensive cost of non-toxic alternatives, compounded by lack of organizational leadership and tensions between stakeholders. As a result of the widening appreciation of the environmental effects of dispersed lead shot and the introduction of new generations of alternative shot types, hunter attitudes became positive and constructive. Change need not pose an obstruction to continued hunting opportunity. On the contrary, it is believed that the value from the enhancement of the public image of hunters resulting from the reduction in the environmental dispersal of a recognized contaminant is of paramount importance for the long-term political sustainability of hunting.
Plastic litter in the marine environment is a major global issue. Discarded plastic shotgun ammunition shells and discharged wads are an unwelcome addition and feature among the top ten litter items found on reference beaches in Denmark. To understand this problem, its scale and origins, collections were made by volunteers along Danish coastal shorelines. In all 3669 plastic ammunition items were collected at 68 sites along 44.6 km of shoreline. The collected items were scored for characteristic variables such as gauge and length, shot type, and the legibility of text, the erosion, and the presence of metallic components. Scores for characteristics were related to the site, area, and season and possible influences discussed. The prevalence of collected plastic shotgun litter ranges from zero to 41 items per 100 m with an average of 3.7 items per 100 m. Most ammunition litter on Danish coasts originates from hunting on Danish coastal waterbodies, but a small amount may come from further afield. North Sea coasts are the most distinctive suggesting the possible contribution of long distance drift as well as the likelihood that such litter can persist in marine habitats for decades. The pathway from initial discard to eventual wash-up and collection depends on the physical properties of plastic components, marine tides and currents, coastal topography and shoreline vegetation. Judging from the disintegration of the cartridge and the wear and decomposition of components, we conclude that there is a substantial supply of polluting plastic ammunition materials that has and will accumulate. These plastic items pose a hazard to marine ecosystems and wash up on coasts for many years to come. We recommend that responsible managers, hunters and ammunition manufacturers will take action now to reduce the problem and, thereby, protect ecosystems, wildlife and the sustainability of hunting.
Avian scavengers that typically include game birds and mammals in their diets are at risk of lead poisoning from ingestion of carcasses with fragmented or residual lead ammunition that is used in hunting. Thus, lead may be one of the threats that the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) faces in the Iberian Peninsula and particularly in Portugal, where their conservation status is considered to be near-threatened. This is the first report that details 3 cases of lead poisoning, associated with the ingestion of lead shot, in adult female griffon vultures found in the Iberian Peninsula. The birds were found prostrate and immediately transferred to a wildlife rehabilitation center, where they died within 24 hours after supportive treatment. Necropsy and histopathologic examinations were done in 2 birds and metal analyses were done in all birds to determine the birds' causes of death. In one vulture, 9 uneroded lead pellets were recovered from the stomach, and moderate to severe hemosiderosis was seen histologically in the liver, lungs, and kidneys. Diagnosis of lead poisoning was confirmed by results of metal analyses, which revealed extremely high lead concentrations in blood (969-1384 μg/dL), liver (309-1077 μg/g dry weight), and kidneys (36-100 μg/g dry weight) for all 3 vultures. To prevent lead poisoning in vultures and preserve their populations in the Iberian Peninsula, more resources are needed for diagnosis and treatment of wildlife in rehabilitation centers, new regulations enabling the abandonment of fallen stock in the field must be approved, and lead ammunition must be prohibited in big-game hunting.
The use of lead shot for wildfowling is a severe threat to waterbirds through ingestion of toxic lead pellets. Consequently, lead shot has been banned in many countries since the late 1990s and on Tour du Valat estate since 1994 (Camargue, France). An experimental study was undertaken to check if hunters would habituate to this new type of cartridge and consequently improve their effectiveness (average number of shots per bagged animal), assess the factors influencing effectiveness, and assess the trend of contamination in shot waterbirds and the estate sediment. From 1995 to 2005, we monitored hunting bags, spent cartridges, and the gizzards of shot ducks. Using generalized mixed effect models, we assessed the factors influencing hunter effectiveness. Instances of non-toxic pellets in duck gizzards increased, probably as a result of rapid accumulation in the sediments. We estimated that between 1995 and 2005, the lead shot ban spared 456 kg of lead from entering 403 ha of temporary marshes and avoided the contamination of 8 % of the ducks foraging on Tour du Valat. After 11 years of hunting with non-toxic shot, there was unexpectedly no clear pattern in trends of individual effectiveness among hunters. Hunter effectiveness was instead positively influenced by game abundance and hunter assiduity and negatively influenced by wind and number of shots, suggesting a lassitude effect. Our results suggest crippling loss can be reduced through regular practice, self-limitation of shooting intensity to below 20 shots to avoid lassitude effects, and self-limitation of shooting distance under strong wind conditions.
- J M Arnemo
- O Andersen
- S Stokke
- V G Thomas
- O Krone
- D J Pain
- R Mateo
Arnemo, J.M., O. Andersen, S. Stokke, V.G. Thomas, O. Krone, D.J.
Pain, and R. Mateo. 2016. Health and Environmental Risks from
Lead-based Ammunition: Science Versus Socio-Politics. Eco-Health 13: 618-622.
Lead Poisoning in Waterbirds