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Social capital in the creation of cultural capital: Family structure, neighborhood cohesion, and extracurricular participation
Abstract
Past research has found that participation in extracurricular activities helps develop children's cultural capital that is crucial to both education and career successes. Previous studies have examined various determinants of extracurricular participation, but mostly focused on social class, demographics, and school characteristics. In this paper we renew the Coleman tradition by putting social capital (as measured by family structure and neighborhood cohesion) in the spotlight and studying the effect of social capital on youth participation in organized extracurricular activities. By using longitudinal data from the 2004 panel of the Survey of Income and Program Participation of representative households in the U.S. and conducting various robust statistical analyses, we provide updated results on the subject. We find that a two-parent household (especially in relative to households with cohabiting parents) and neighborhood cohesion (i.e., a set of cohesive relationships among parents in the neighborhood) both have a positive and significant association with extracurricular participation. We also find such associations vary somewhat by child's sex, age, race, and the type of extracurricular activity. We conclude that to equalize children's participation in extracurricular activities future social policies should consider interventions that target low-income families and families with single-parent or cohabiting parents, that can improve neighborhood cohesion, and that are tailored by the type of extracurricular activity.
... This need is heightened given that low-income school-age children are less likely to participate in extracurricular activities (Lauver, Little, & Weiss, 2004;Meier, Hartmann, & Larson, 2018) even if it is targeted to them. Previous research has also indicated that children and youth are more likely to participate in out-of-school activities if their parents reported greater neighborhood cohesion (An & Western, 2019), or were more engaged in community volunteering and perceived their neighborhoods as safer (Coulton & Irwin, 2009). As with variations in perceptions of neighborhood influences, racial and gender differences also emerge in participation in out-of-school activities (An & Western, 2019;Meier et al., 2018;Wimer et al., 2006), as well as perceptions of school quality and satisfaction (Lopez, 2003;Nelson et al., 2015;Noguera, 2009). ...
... Previous research has also indicated that children and youth are more likely to participate in out-of-school activities if their parents reported greater neighborhood cohesion (An & Western, 2019), or were more engaged in community volunteering and perceived their neighborhoods as safer (Coulton & Irwin, 2009). As with variations in perceptions of neighborhood influences, racial and gender differences also emerge in participation in out-of-school activities (An & Western, 2019;Meier et al., 2018;Wimer et al., 2006), as well as perceptions of school quality and satisfaction (Lopez, 2003;Nelson et al., 2015;Noguera, 2009). ...
... As earlier work has focused on how neighborhood concentrated characteristics are related to collective efficacy (Collins, Neal, & Neal, 2016;Sampson et al., 1997;Sampson, 2006), we do not offer specific hypotheses for how parent and household characteristics are related with collective efficacy. However, based on research indicating the ways perceptions of neighborhood characteristics influence child development (e.g., An & Western, 2019;Leventhal et al., 2015; Nieuwenuis & Hooimeijer, 2016; Warner & Settersten, 2017), we hypothesized that increased collective efficacy would be associated with higher extracurricular activity participation rates and greater school satisfaction. While previous research indicates that inclusion of demographic variables is critical for explaining variance in the relationship between neighborhood-level variables and child outcomes (Nieuwenuis & Hooimeijer, 2016), we do not have specific hypotheses regarding how demographics (age, gender, and race) may moderate the relationship between collective efficacy and extracurricular activity participation and school satisfaction. ...
Economic disadvantage profoundly impacts children and families. Yet, limited work examines the multileveled processes by which low-income parents’ neighborhood perceptions intersect with their children’s opportunities. Using the Making Connections (MC) longitudinal dataset, a multi-city random-sampled strengths-based study of predominately low-income households, we examine how parents’ perceptions of neighborhood collective efficacy (social cohesion and informal social control) shape their school-age children and adolescents’ (M age = 10.8, range = 7-17 years; 46.6% = female) participation in extracurricular activities and perceived school satisfaction. The study sample is racially diverse (Black, Latino/a, White, API, and Multiracial) and low-income. Findings indicated that higher collective efficacy predicted increased school satisfaction. However, collective efficacy only positively predicted participation in extracurricular activities for higher income households. This study offers insight into how parents’ perceptions of their neighborhoods, and their degree of economic advantage, may jointly shape their children’s well-being.
... During the past several decades, leisure has been globalized and become more similar in different countries, while socioeconomic background (socio-economic status, SES) had a greater influence on leisure choices (Sauerwein & Rees, 2020). For example, participation in recreational activities may vary according to educational levels (Petersen et al., 2021), and low income families cannot afford certain activities, partly due to inadequate financial resources but also due to the lack of social capital (An & Western, 2019). ...
... This subjective evaluation of the family's affluence was negatively correlated with substance use and positively with indicators of psychological health as well as with most leisure activities, except for playing and gaming. Although leisure is highly globalized in this century (Sauerwein & Rees, 2020), there may be financial or intellectual barriers to certain hobbies or cultural events (An & Western, 2019;Petersen et al., 2021). In addition, as it seems, belonging to higher social classes may be a determining source of life satisfaction for adolescents (Chen et al., 2016;Holstein et al., 2020). ...
... Department for Digital, Culture, Media & Sport, 2018 for the United Kingdom; Salamon, Sokolowski and Haddock, 2018 for Australia, Austria, Canada, Hungary, Japan, Poland, and Portugal; Statistics Netherlands, 2018 for the Netherlands; Vogel, et al., 2017a for Germany). 1 Moreover, previous quantitative and qualitative research provided evidence for 31 European Sociological Review, 2023, Vol. 39, No. 1 pronounced socioeconomic differences in participation in voluntary organizations or school-based extra-curricular activities at different time points during childhood and adolescence (Lareau, 2011;Bennett, Lutz and Jayaram, 2012;Snellman et al., 2015;Weininger, Lareau and Conley, 2015;An and Western, 2019). While previous research established these empirical regularities, we have no definite answer as to why participation declines when adolescents grow older and whether socioeconomic disparities persist, increase, or decrease during this life phase. ...
... Less is known about the extent to which participation in voluntary associations changes at earlier life stages. Longitudinal studies involving children and adolescents have mainly focused on how individual and contextual features affect membership in voluntary associations or participation in a range of leisure activities at specific time points (Mahatmya and Lohman, 2012;Johnson et al., 2014;An and Western, 2019). Only rarely have studies mapped changes in membership over a longer period of time (Egerton, 2002). ...
The extent to which people are active in voluntary associations varies with age. While previous research provides clear evidence for an inverse u-shaped pattern across an adult’s life, much less is known about the formative period of adolescence and young adulthood. In this article, we examine changes in voluntary participation starting at age 14 and assess the impact of adolescents’ educational transitions and their socioeconomic status. Our analyses rely on longitudinal survey data following a representative sample of adolescents in Germany (N = 5,013) over 6 years. Using fixed effects regression and moderated mediation analyses, we examine how adolescents’ educational transitions and their socioeconomic status drive changes in participation. Results indicate a substantive decline in participation as individuals grow older. Transitions into higher tertiary education partly account for this decline. Finally, we find that adolescents from higher socioeconomic status are especially likely to reduce their participation, in part because they are more likely to undergo transitions into higher tertiary education. These findings suggest that the socioeconomic gap in participation decreases as adolescents grow older.
... The connection between family background and educational outcomes has become a central theme in the study of educational inequality (Husen, 1975). A growing body of empirical research (An & Western, 2019;Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977;Forster & van de Werfhorst, 2020) supports the view that families with higher social, cultural, economic, and political capital provide their children with superior educational opportunities. Children's academic achievements are closely linked to their family's socioeconomic status, which in turn shapes their learning behaviors and creates distinct educational environments (The National Center for Education Statistics, 2018). ...
In 2021, China introduced the “double reduction” policy, imposing strict regulations on shadow education and mandating the widespread implementation of after-school programs (ASPs). Against this backdrop, this study examines the role of ASPs in China’s compulsory education system from an equity perspective. By integrating school resources and family background, the study establishes a theoretical framework for understanding the factors influencing educational equity. Building upon this framework, it compares ASPs with shadow education and constructs a conceptual roadmap illustrating the impact mechanisms of ASPs on educational equity. To empirically test this framework, the study employs a Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) approach, analyzing questionnaire data from 1,458 primary and secondary school students in Shenzhen, China. The findings reveal that ASPs partially mediate the relationship between family cultural capital and students’ educational outcomes. Additionally, school resources play a significant role in enhancing student participation in ASPs. Notably, the educational outcomes of students engaged in ASPs are more strongly influenced by school-related factors. Compared to shadow education, school-organized and publicly funded ASPs have demonstrated greater effectiveness in promoting social equity. This study provides empirical evidence supporting the role of ASPs in replacing shadow education as a means to enhance educational equity. By verifying their effectiveness and specific impact pathways, the research offers valuable insights into the development of ASPs in China. Furthermore, it presents practical recommendations for global policymakers and educators committed to fostering educational equity.
... Economic resources allow for the acquisition of cultural capital through quality education and activities, while social networks facilitate access and opportunities that may amplify both cultural and economic advantages. However, families from lower social classes often lack these resources, limiting their children's participation in enrichment activities, further exacerbating socioeconomic inequalities (An & Western, 2019;Lareau, 2011;Vincent & Maxwell, 2015). ...
... Family cultural capital, by giving access to rich cultural resources, can help create a safe environment for students, increase their sense of security and promote their extracurricular engagement. Students with higher family cultural capital are more likely to succeed academically and in their future careers (59). Family cultural capital is positively correlated with sense of security (60,61). ...
Background
The critical role of social support in college students’ academic development cannot be ignored. This study aims to analyze the interrelationships and potential mechanisms between social support, sense of security, family cultural capital and academic self-efficacy.
Methods
A multivariate moderated mediation model was constructed by surveying 1,119 college students using the Social Support Scale, the Sense of Security Scale, the Academic Self-efficacy Scale, and the Family Cultural Capital Scale.
Results
(1) social support significantly increases sense of security; (2) sense of security significantly enhances academic self-efficacy; (3) social support directly contributes to academic self-efficacy; and (4) sense of security partially mediates the relationship between social support and academic self-efficacy; (5) family cultural capital plays a moderating role in the effects of social support on academic self-efficacy, especially in the first half of the direct and indirect effects.
Conclusion
These findings could provide an important theoretical basis and practical guidance for further understanding and enhancing academic self-efficacy among college students.
... Only children from affluent families exhibited stronger motivation to engage in scientific creativity than those from average or less affluent families. While all students can receive regular educational activities at their schools, some students from affluent families can participate in more and better-quality extracurricular activities (An & Western, 2019;M. Tan et al., 2021), which can stimulate students' willingness to express their creativity (Castillo-Vergara et al., 2018). ...
... Subsequent research increasingly emphasized the nurturing role of the factors acquired by parents. Numerous empirical studies have confirmed that families with higher social, cultural, economic, and political capital can provide superior educational opportunities for their children [50,51]. Additionally, family investments in education resources, parental education, expectations, cultural participation, support, and school engagement significantly enhance students' academic performance across all educational stages [52]. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the integration of online learning into primary and secondary education. However, gaps persist in academic research, particularly in understanding its impact on educational equity within the third-type digital divide. This study conducted an equity-focused review to assess online learning’s impact on primary and secondary education within this context. It developed a theoretical framework integrating elements from schooling and home environments to explore equity implications in online learning. Building on this, the study proposed and validated a conceptual model using structural equation modeling (SEM), analyzing data from 1236 students in Shenzhen, China. The study found that both school investment and family involvement indirectly influence students’ online learning outcomes through complete mediating effects on students’ online learning engagement. Family investment slightly outweighs school education in its influence on outcomes. Consequently, online education within the environmental divide potentially hinders educational equity, necessitating caution with large-scale online education initiatives. This study fills research gaps on the digital divide in the third environment, leveraging China’s pandemic experience with online education. It also integrates school education and family input to examine the impact of large-scale online learning and its associated strategies on educational equity, providing insights into the promotion of educational equity.
... The cognitive dimension can be seen as the shared value and narratives in a particular society. It is normally reflected in the social cohesion of the society (An and Western, 2019;Wang et al., 2021a). Sampson and Raudenbush (1999) suggested that friendship and social cohesion are at two different levels in urban neighborhoods. ...
... In Chinese history, the rulers of various dynasties emphasized 'governing the country with etiquette' and used the method of etiquette to adjust social relations, thereby maintaining social structure (An and Western, 2019). When wearing Hanfu, the human body becomes the focus of self-examination. ...
This study intends to investigate the authenticity well-being of Hanfu-wearing Chinese tourists. The study integrates mixed qualitative methodologies, such as netnography and focus groups, integrates third space theory and PERMA (positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment) in positive psychology , and utilizes thematic analysis. Findings show that the first space is constructed by the tourist destination and Hanfu entity, while the second space is produced by the tourists' vision of ancient style and comprehension of the Hanfu symbols. The third space occurs when the first and second spaces engage synergistically. In the framework of the liminal three spaces, all five dimensions of PERMA are represented by the tourists and can be divided into individual and collective levels. This study makes its theoretical and practical contributions to leverage the huge potential of the interaction between attire, physical body identification, and the surrounding tourism spaces.
... The narrative allows us to get to the intersectional need and strengths of AA people generated as "cultural capital." Cultural capital, operationally defined as the social, emotional support and strength generated by mutually relevant lived experiences, gives credence to how Black folks talk about, sing about, write about, and pass on hope to the next generation (An and Western 2019). ...
... At the neighborhood level, greater neighborhood cohesion encourages children to participate in more out-of-school activities, which can foster their overall health and well-being. (An & Western, 2019;Bedell et al., 2013). However, migrant children often live apart from local residents. ...
It is well-documented that child quality of life is associated with family socio-economic status (SES). However, few studies have examined the potential mediating effects of different types of parenting practices between the two variables. The current study aims to examine the influences of SES and parenting practices on child quality of life and the mediating effects of parenting practices on the relationship between SES and child quality of life in the context of China. A total of 1,401 children aged 8–14 and 1,401 parents were involved in a cross-sectional survey in Shanghai, China. Pediatric Quality of Life Generic Core Scales and Alabama parenting questionnaire were used to measure child quality of life and parenting practices. Family SES was assessed by self-reported family monthly income and parental education level. Multivariate regression analysis was conducted to examine the associations among SES, parenting practices and child quality of life. The direct and indirect relationship between SES and quality of life were examined as well. The results have shown that a higher level of SES and positive involvement are associated with better child quality of life while deficient monitoring is negatively associated. Besides, parents’ positive involvement acts as a full mediator between SES and child quality of life, while deficient monitoring acts as a partial mediator. These findings have given implications for future studies, interventions, and policy making. For social workers, education of positive parenting strategies should be provided to parents with low SES. For policy makers, programs should be designed to improve parenting skills in current China.
... Parental concern for children, parental supervision, extended family communication and support are also forms of family social capital. Studies have shown that the higher the level of family social capital, the better adolescents' academic performance (Carolan and Wasserman, 2015;Kalil, 2015;Ren et al., 2021), and the longer years of education (An and Western, 2019). ...
Subjective well-being (SWB) is an important part of positive psychology research. Compared with other countries and regions, Chinese adolescents’ well-being level is relatively lower. Under the guidance of ecological systems theory, this study is based on the survey data of PISA 2018, with 10,805 middle school students from four provinces and cities in China (Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang) as the research samples, and examines the theoretical model of the influence of family capital on adolescents’ subjective well-being by means of structural equation modeling, in which the effects of family capital, school climate and academic achievement on adolescents’ subjective well-being are discussed. The empirical results show that family capital directly and indirectly negatively influences adolescents’ subjective well-being through academic achievements, and indirectly positively influences adolescents’ subjective well-being through school climate. School climate directly positively affects adolescents’ subjective well-being and indirectly negatively influences adolescents’ subjective well-being through their academic achievement. Academic achievement negatively affects adolescents’ subjective well-being. The research results strongly support the correctness of the theoretical framework, indicating the complexity of the formation of adolescents’ subjective well-being.
... En cuanto a las características sociales del alumnado, frecuentemente se han estudiado aquellas que se relacionan con el ingreso económico o con los niveles de escolaridad de sus familiares (An y Western, 2019;Erola et al., 2016). Pese a lo anterior, aún son escasos los trabajos que integran a profundidad una perspectiva cultural en la interpretación de estas condiciones materiales o sociales, mismos que descuidan repetidamente sus implicaciones en el desempeño escolar. ...
Este artículo expone parte de los resultados de una investigación más amplia desarrollada desde una perspectiva cualitativa fundamentada en los conceptos de habitus y capital cultural sobre el desempeño académico de estudiantes de secundaria en la Ciudad de México. Se encuentra que aquellos alumnos con mejores resultados académicos han interiorizado un habitus académico que prescinde del apoyo familiar, pero reconocen y aprovechan las condiciones materiales de sus familias. Por el contrario, los alumnos con condiciones más desfavorables y un habitus no orientado a las exigencias escolares, carecen tanto de atención familiar suficiente como de condiciones materiales idóneas. Las perspectivas vocacionales-laborales de aquellos con mejor desempeño se orientan a trabajos de nivel profesional, mientras que aquellos con un desempeño menor conciben el acceso a la vida laboral de forma inmediata.
... Additionally, some studies have found that better economic status, more social support, and better health in China are the main reasons why the urban older people have a lower prevalence of depression than the rural older adults (5,6). Apart from personal variables such as gender, age, occupation, marital status, and education level, factors such as behaviors, lifestyle, and self-care skills influence depression in the urban older people (7)(8)(9). Meanwhile, differences in retirement age have different effects on health in older adults of different gender. ...
In China, it is critical to help older adults cope with depression due to the emerging impacts of factors such as increased life expectancy and the “one-child” family planning policy. Meanwhile, differences in retirement age have different effects on health in older adults of different gender. The relationship of gender differences in social capital and depression across the elderly population was unclear. Focusing on this demographic, this study conducted a telephone survey to explore the relationship between social capital and depression. Referring to electronic medical records, we randomly selected 1,042 elderly respondents (426 men, 616 women) from four areas in Hangzhou. We used social capital measurements and the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15) to assess social capital and depression, respectively, then employed a multivariate logistic regression and structural equation modeling to examine the associations between factors, along with a consideration of gender. This study was discovered that differences in both income and morbidity contributed to differences in social capital and depression. In our sample of elderly respondents, we also found gender-based differences in cognitive and structural social capital. Compared to men, women were more likely to attain higher social capital and less likely to develop depression. At the same time, social networking and social engagement had negative impacts on depression in women, which was not the case for men. We found that lower reciprocity (men and women), social work (men), and trust (women) indicated higher risks of depression. Reciprocity and social networks were significantly and negatively correlated with depression among male respondents; in the male model, factors of trust, reciprocity, and social participation had positive effects on reducing the risk of depression, while social networks had a negative effect. For elderly persons, these findings suggest that mental health is affected by differences in social capital caused by policy differences and cultural differences caused by gender differences.
... Evidence regarding the buffering potential of social capital is limited, though to the extent social capital registers integration within supportive social networks, and reliable access to informational, emotional and instrumental support, social capital should operate similarly to other social support variables. Trust and social cohesion are two indicators of access to social network resources, and often utilized as measures of cognitive social capital (Glanville & Story, 2018;An & Western, 2020). ...
Hundreds of millions of people suffer anxiety disorders globally, demonstrating need for scalable and effective interventions. Adverse childhood experiences contribute to this mental health burden. The stress-buffering hypothesis, which posits social factors moderate prior adversity and subsequent mental health outcomes, provides one theoretical avenue to consider observations that group-based microfinance programs improve social capital.
We investigate associations between adverse childhood experiences, generalized anxiety among adults and social capital associated with participation in a group-based microfinance program in rural Kenya. Adult participants (n=400 women) responded to standardized measures of childhood adversity in June 2018, group-affiliated social capital and generalized anxiety in June 2019. Cumulative adverse childhood experiences predicted higher anxiety, which was statistically moderated by the presence of group-affiliated interpersonal trust. This study is the first to find social capital associated with participation in a group-based microfinance program statistically moderates expected associations between adverse childhood experiences and adult generalized anxiety. Future study should be conducted using a cluster-randomized control design to further assess the potential of this intervention method to ameliorate associations between past adversity and current mental health.
... Although DiMaggio (1982) documents a weak link between family SES and cultural capital, a large number of subsequent studies show a persistent and positive connection between family origin (e.g., parents' educational attainment, occupational prestige, and family income) and cultural capital possession. 2 This stratification of cultural capital can be attributed to many factors, including but not limited to parenting style (Roksa and Potter 2011), academic climate at home (Nagel and Verboord 2012), and neighborhood cohesion (An and Western 2019). Moreover, the link between family SES and cultural capital is also affirmed by studies on the intergenerational transmission of cultural capital per se (e.g., Jaeger 2009). ...
... The narrative allows us to get to the intersectional need and strengths of AA people generated as "cultural capital." Cultural capital, operationally defined as the social, emotional support and strength generated by mutually relevant lived experiences, gives credence to how Black folks talk about, sing about, write about, and pass on hope to the next generation (An and Western 2019). ...
... The unequal distribution of economic, social, and cultural capital between advantaged and disadvantaged families also manifests in children's unequal extracurricular participation, since socioeconomically advantaged parents are typically more involved in their children's out-of-school time and have better access to resources that facilitate enrollment (Lareau, 2011;Weininger et al., 2015). As a result, extracurricular participation is typically higher among students from advantaged backgrounds (An & Western, 2019;Covay & Carbonaro, 2010;Farb & Matjasko, 2012). ...
This article is based on a survey carried out among 2,428 ninth-graders from 64 high-performing schools in St. Petersburg, Russia. In the study, we examine the relationships between socioeconomic background, extracurricular participation, and educational outcomes. The findings demonstrate high levels of participation in out-of-school, compared to school-based, extracurricular activities. Extracurricular participation was also shown to be associated with better grades and, to some extent, with higher levels of university aspirations. The relatively small estimate sizes indicate, however, that extracurricular participation is not a major factor in differences in educational outcomes. Nevertheless, since participation was higher among socioeconomically more advantaged students, and grades and/or levels of university aspirations were higher among those who participated, we argue that extracurricular participation should be understood as part of social reproduction in Russia.
... Although DiMaggio (1982) documents a weak link between family SES and cultural capital, a large number of subsequent studies show a persistent and positive connection between family origin (e.g., parents' educational attainment, occupational prestige, and family income) and cultural capital possession. 2 This stratification of cultural capital can be attributed to many factors, including but not limited to parenting style (Roksa and Potter 2011), academic climate at home (Nagel and Verboord 2012), and neighborhood cohesion (An and Western 2019). Moreover, the link between family SES and cultural capital is also affirmed by studies on the intergenerational transmission of cultural capital per se (e.g., Jaeger 2009). ...
This article investigates the association between cultural capital and the likelihood of attending an elite university within the Chinese socio-educational context. Drawing on data from the Beijing College Students Panel Survey, we show that (1) objectified cultural capital is negatively correlated with the likelihood of attending an elite university whereas embodied cultural capital shows a positive effect; (2) both types of cultural capital enhance the proficiencies of extracurricular activities, which, however, are negatively associated with different quantiles of the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) score; (3) learning capabilities can be strengthened by both types of cultural capital, but they cannot guarantee the attendance of an elite university since they only raise the middle and lower quantiles of the NCEE score; (4) only embodied cultural capital helps one attend an elite university by virtue of the channel of the NCEE exemption.
... For An and Western (2019) neighborhood cohesion emphasizes the role played by both family and neighborhood environment on children's education. It is a set of relationships that exist among parents in the community, including helping each other in an emergency, watching the neighbours' children, counting on neighborhood residents, trusting each other and having safe places for their children in the neighborhood (An & Western 2019). Similar approach has been presented by Zhu et al. (2014) who measured neighbourhood cohesion using a 5-point Likert scale by asking the respondents how much he/she agreed or disagreed with relevant statements, such as ''neighbors can be counted to help in case of need'' (Zhu et al., 2014). ...
Neighbourhood cohesion is a concept describing the residents' sense of community, engagement in acts of neighbouring, and attractiveness of living in the neighbourhood. Since 2000's the term 'cohesion' has also been used in geography and in spatial policy to represent the distribution of functions and opportunities in space. The two approaches seem be complementary, but they lack consistency and appropriate conceptual framework. This paper aims at developing an integrated methodological framework which will include both social and spatial aspects of cohesion at the local level. Its empirical content refers to studies conducted in 2017-2019 in five locations in Poland. Three methods of spatial analysis are presented depicting various aspects of territorial cohesion of a neighbourhood: functional balance, accessibility of facilities and match between supply and demand. Such approach enables effective measurement and comparison of neighbourhoods representing various settlement types. The results show that the highest levels of cohesion were obtained for large cities where the density of amenities is the highest, and the lowest levels were noted in suburban settlements which confirms their malfunctioning character. The paper concludes with a critical revision of the concept of neighbourhood cohesion which can serve as a guideline for local urban policy.
... In support of this idea, neighborhood cohesion appears to buffer the effect of race-related stress among Black families (e.g., Riina et al., 2013), and involvement in community organizations is associated with a range of positive outcomes across Black PTSD, NEIGHBORHOOD COHESION, PARENT FUNCTIONING S5 adults and children (Cutrona et al., 2000;Hunter et al., 2019). Single parents who may have fewer social resources at their disposal might also benefit more from access to neighborhood social networks compared to those who already have greater access to social support (An & Western, 2019). ...
Objective: Caregivers with a history of trauma exposure may struggle to parent effectively, particularly when symptoms of PTSD are prominent. Consequently, identifying factors that buffer associations between PTSD and poor parental functioning is critical to help trauma-exposed families thrive. One important source of resilience may spring from being part of a socially cohesive neighborhood that offers positive social connections and resources. The purpose of this study was to examine whether greater neighborhood cohesion buffers associations between PTSD and perceived parental functioning. Method: A diverse national sample of 563 Black and White veterans raising children in single or dual parent households completed questionnaires assessing PTSD symptoms and neighborhood cohesion at baseline, as well as parental functioning four months later. Results: Multigroup moderation analyses that controlled for crime index, income, and sex revealed that among single Black veterans, but not other groups, the relationship between higher PTSD and poorer parental functioning was weakened for veterans who reported higher neighborhood cohesion. Conclusions: Findings suggest that PTSD symptoms and neighborhood cohesion affect parenting differently across racial and family makeup configurations, and that higher neighborhood cohesion might be particularly useful in buffering the association between PTSD and parenting among single Black veterans.
... Also, the same author makes connections between various socio-demographic and psychological variants as well as mobility, social and cultural capital, values, life satisfaction, feeling of continuity, etc., in order to prove the role of cultural capital in diff erent dimensions of peopleplace bonding (Lewicka, 2013). Reconsidering the Coleman tradition by putting social capital (as measured by family structure and neighbourhood cohesion) in the spotlight and studying the eff ect of social capital on youth participation in organized extracurricular activities, An and Western (2019) show us how social capital can underlie cultural capital. Starting from cultural competence of service providers, Garrido, Garcia-Ramirez, and Balcazar (2019) introduce the community psychology approach and explore the concept of community cultural competence (defi ned as a multilevel and multidimensional process of personal development that implies the acquisition of critical awareness, responsiveness to diversity, capacity to act within the organization, and capacity to act within the community) as a way of including the community context in cultural competence frameworks. ...
In this paper we propose to reconsider the concept of cultural capital, as presented by Bourdieu and as it is understood today, and to present the results of a study on how social identity is being built, a study conducted on the ground in an ethnic, confessional and cultural community in a period of post-communist transition. The research is a quantitative one. The results highlight the current practical value of the cultural capital concept, internalized and manifested differently by the different social groups belonging to the same communities. Equally, cultural capital can be a vector of preserving local identity and the community can rely on it to shape its future.
... The key idea running through many publications is recognition of a huge role played by the family environment in development of a child (Lushpaeva, 2019). It has been proposed to use diverse solutions targeting the problem of a child upbringing in the family: utilize the potential of educational institutions in bolstering the involvement of parents in the upbringing of their children (Schemerova and Kirkina, 2018), encourage parents and children to engage in joint extracurricular activities (An and Western, 2019), foster the readiness of children for successful adaptation with due regard for their social context and conditions of living (Barcaeva and Ryabova, 2019), bridge the gap between a strong intent to support the healthy behavior of children and the real provision of such support (Rhodes et al., 2019), address mental health disorders while taking in consideration their experience of being discriminated in the family by their parents (Tran, 2014). ...
El propósito de este artículo es fundamentar los métodos exitosos para desarrollar competencias psicológicas en los padres en el contexto de una pandemia global basada en tecnologías en línea. El método de investigación líder consistió en la integración de los recursos de capacitación en línea, que ha proporcionado una visión integral del diagnóstico en las características personales de los padres de los estudiantes, lo que les impide resolver con éxito los problemas dentro de la familia, complementado con el fomento de las competencias psicológicas de los padres. Este artículo presenta el análisis de materiales recolectados en el curso de diagnósticos en línea de problemas relacionados con la implementación de las competencias psicológicas de los padres. En conclusión, presentó un panorama general del programa de desarrollo “Caleidoscopio familiar”, brindó evidencia de su alto impacto en la adopción del estilo parental productivo. Los hallazgos del artículo pueden ser útiles para los psicólogos educativos que ya ejercen y que se esfuerzan por mejorar las interacciones dentro de las familias de los estudiantes para crear un entorno favorable para la socialización exitosa de los niños.
... Although DiMaggio (1982) documents a weak link between family SES and cultural capital, a large number of subsequent studies show a persistent and positive connection between family origin (e.g., parents' educational attainment, occupational prestige, and family income) and cultural capital possession. 2 This stratification of cultural capital can be attributed to many factors, including but not limited to parenting style (Roksa and Potter 2011), academic climate at home (Nagel and Verboord 2012), and neighborhood cohesion (An and Western 2019). Moreover, the link between family SES and cultural capital is also affirmed by studies on the intergenerational transmission of cultural capital per se (e.g., Jaeger 2009). ...
This study examines the trajectories of hedonic and eudaimonic forms of happiness across college life. Analyzing the Beijing College Student Panel Survey, we find that: (1) Academic performance, extraversion, internship, and health status all have a significant and positive correlation with both types of happiness, while one fatalistic orientation reveals a negative effect; (2) Eudaimonic happiness can be specifically dampened by romantic relationship, and hedonic happiness is specifically weakened by student association participation. Students majoring in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), males, and ethnic minorities have advantages of hedonic happiness. (3) With regard to changes across college life, the strength of correlations between eudaimonic happiness and the variables of health status and academic performance longitudinally decline, but one’s fatalistic orientation and sense of mastery become increasingly relevant. For hedonic happiness, the advantage of the STEM students over the non-STEM ones is gradually narrowed; what are also counteracted are the detrimental effects of the fatalistic orientation and student association participation. The positive role of academic performance for hedonic happiness is longitudinally strengthened, but the disadvantage of female students deteriorates.
... A prominent strand of research within this larger literature addresses how networks shape, and are shaped by, cultural tastes (e.g., An and Western, 2019). This research shows that cultural tastes are positively associated with network quality (i.e., ties' socioeconomic status [SES] and resources; Erickson, 1996;Lizardo, 2013;Meuleman, 2021) and stability (Edelmann and Vaisey, 2014;Selfhout et al., 2009). ...
Previous research has argued that by discussing and demonstrating cultural tastes, people identify shared preferences and group membership. Nevertheless, it remains relatively unclear to what extent cultural tastes are related to the formation of social network relations. The present study therefore examines the relationship between individuals’ highbrow and popular tastes and their socioeconomic network resources (i.e. the network's level and heterogeneity in terms of education and job status). Additionally, it examines to what extent highbrow tastes are more positively related to the network's socioeconomic status level among higher status groups (cultural reproduction) or lower status groups (cultural mobility). Based on Dutch panel data (2009–2013), the analyses yield three main findings. First, cultural tastes are related to the network's socioeconomic status level, but not to its heterogeneity. That is, individuals with more highbrow tastes, have more (non-kin) network members with a higher education/job status and fewer with a lower education/job status – and highbrow tastes are generally more strongly related to the network's socioeconomic status level than popular tastes. However, individuals with more popular tastes do not have a more heterogeneous network in terms of socioeconomic resources, after controlling for network size. Second, the effect of highbrow tastes on the network's socioeconomic status level is stronger than the reverse effect. Third, there are indications that highbrow tastes are more positively related to the network's socioeconomic status level among lower than higher status groups (cultural mobility).
... These are goals that are culturally defined and involve "sentiment and significance." It consists of "aspirational references" [2]. Values are expected to be followed to assess and appraise social interactions, goals, means, ideas, feelings, and expected behaviors. ...
... This implies that health promotion policies should consider interventions implementing youthappealing OLTAs aiming at low-income families, and families with single or cohabiting parents to avoid widening the gap between social classes and minimise socioeconomically determined inequalities in adolescents' well-being. 33 on January 6, 2021 by guest. Protected by copyright. ...
Background
Previous research has linked adolescents’ participation in organised leisure-time activities (OLTAs) to better health and well-being. It remains unclear whether these associations can be observed consistently across social and socioeconomic strata and countries.
Methods
The present study used nine nationally representative samples of adolescents aged 11, 13 and 15 years (total n=55 429) from the 2017/2018 Health Behaviour in School-aged Children survey from Europe and Canada. Regression models with mixed effects to account for nested nature of data were applied to estimate: (1) the associations of social and socioeconomic factors with OLTA participation; (2) strengths of the associations between breadth and pattern of OLTA participation with health and well-being indicators, after adjustment for the social and socioeconomic factors.
Results
Rates of OLTA participation varied by age, sex and country of adolescents. Participants from lower socioeconomic classes and non-nuclear families were less likely to participate in OLTAs across each of the nine countries. Moreover, breadth of OLTA participation was associated with higher well-being independent of socioeconomic status or family structure. All of the participation patterns were associated with higher life satisfaction, but sports (either alone or in combination with a non-sport OLTA) were also associated with fewer psychological complaints and excellent self-rated health.
Conclusion
Adolescents’ engagement in OLTAs was associated with adolescents’ subjective well-being regardless of country, age, sex and variance in social and socioeconomic factors. Policies aimed at increasing adolescents’ subjective well-being and OLTA participation should focus on adolescents from low socioeconomic classes and non-nuclear families.
In the search for novel solutions for neighborhood governance, it is necessary to review the to-date paradigms and concepts first. This section starts with an overview of various manifestos in urban governance, followed by several definitions of neighborhood and different approaches to local policy. It also shows the links between neighborhood planning and urban governance. Then selected aspects of virtualization of urban environment are presented as a challenge that needs to be addressed with relevant governance solutions. The section concludes with a synthesis of the to-date urban policy paradigms and a list of issues demanding to be reviewed among the neighborhood governance priorities.
The book presents various aspects of the current urban development in the context of the recent rapid growth of the ICT sector. It focuses on the local scale, in line with the notion that the neighborhood is the fundamental component of any urban area. Beginning with a critical overview of the urban governance paradigms, through a careful analysis of the multifaceted relationships between the Internet and the urban functions, followed by a description of selected approaches to local urban spatial policy, it concludes with a concept of multi-channel neighborhood governance (MCNG).
The key observation is that the accelerating virtualization of urban life has profound consequences for the spatial, social, and economic structures of cities. At the local level, it is changing the functional profile of neighborhoods, replacing some traditional on-site local services with online ones, reducing (or even eliminating) the need for face-to-face social interaction, rejoining work and home roles, and modifying the spatial behaviors of residents. All of this calls for a prompt response from the neighborhood governance, which should include the nonspatial (online) components of contemporary urban lifestyles.
The book searches for an alternative to conventional planning, capable of addressing the virtualization of different urban functions at the neighborhood level and providing satisfactory solutions for shaping an optimal balance between online and offline environments. The study defines a comprehensive method for the management of essential services in urban neighborhoods, with special attention to the integration of online and offline channels. The MCNG concept includes a list of recommendations for urban policy practitioners on how to deal with digital conversion, how to manage land use, how to stimulate entrepreneurship, and how to improve quality of life.
A family’s socioeconomic status (SES) can be linked to a child’s physical and cognitive health, with children from low-SES families often experiencing poor developmental outcomes. Early positive childhood experiences that include structured and unstructured physical activities (SUPAs) offer a potential avenue to promote positive health and cognitive development during early childhood. However, prior to school entry, it is not well-understood whether SES is related to participation in SUPAs or how SUPAs relate to early health and cognitive indicators such as aerobic fitness and executive function (EF). Children (N = 99) aged 3 to 5 years were recruited from 17 classrooms in seven center-based pre-kindergartens. In fall and spring, children were assessed on EF using the Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders task and aerobic fitness was assessed with the 20-m shuttle run test. Family SES significantly predicted SUPAs and fall and spring fitness, with SUPAs and spring fitness significantly predicting spring EF. Partial support for an indirect relationship between SES and EF through SUPAs was also found. Results suggest that family SES could play a role in predicting participation in SUPAs and aerobic fitness, with SUPAs and aerobic fitness linked to EF during pre-kindergarten.
Study of fathers has gained significant traction over recent decades. However, the experience for men over the transition to parenthood remains focused on high‐socioeconomic and socially advantaged fathers. Researchers have yet to thoroughly investigate how fathers may uniquely experience this transition period with a history of childhood maltreatment, given that childhood abuse is known to impact several components of development and relationship functioning into adulthood. The current study endeavored to fill this gap by evaluating the associations between fathers' childhood experiences of physical and emotional abuse and their relationship functioning over the transition to parenthood in terms of both the couple relationship and social adjustment in relationships with others. Using data from 399 fathers who participated in a randomized control trial during pregnancy, the results from stepwise regressions indicate fathers with a history of emotional abuse experience particular declines in their external relationships (reductions in social support and increases in social stress) from prenatal (Wave 1) to postpartum (Wave 2) reports. However, no significant association emerged between fathers' history of maltreatment and their relationship functioning with their partners. These results underscore the importance of investigating the impact of different types of abuse on men in fatherhood. Moreover, we emphasize the need to study further fathers' social adjustment over the transition to parenthood beyond the couple relationship and broad social support to address the needs of men with a history of maltreatment in their new role as fathers.
Report to fundedrs NCFE of a 4-year longitudinal study of enrichment in post-16 colleges in England and Wales
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengelaborasi dan menganalisis bentuk remitansi sebagai kesalehan sosial orang Minang dan kontribusi perantau terhadap pembangunan Ranah Minang. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif, data dikumpulkan melalui observasi, wawancara, dan dokumentasi. Sumber data adalah pengurus, anggota organisasi Minang Rantau yang aktif, masyarakat yang ada dirantau dan yang ada di Ranah Minang, pengurus masjid dan pemerintahan nagari. Temuan penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat beberapa remitansi sebagai bentuk kesalehan sosial orang Minang rantau dalam membangun Ranah Minang. Pertama, bantuan material, seperti pembagian zakat tijarah, mengirimkan hewan korban, pengumpulan infaq dan sadaqah, serta sumbangan untuk pembangunan fisik. Kedua, perasaan emphati/simphati yang terwujud dalam bentuk paket-paket sembako yang dikirimkan dari rantau, terutama menjelang hari raya. Paket ini disalurkan oleh perantau Minang melalui organisasi Bundo Kanduang. Ketiga, penggunaan power (kekuasaan), remitansi sebagi kesalehan sosial orang Minang rantau juga termanifestasi dalam bentuk pengarahan pembangunan infra struktur untuk ditempatkan di Ranah Minang, seperti didirikannya Sentra Tenun Lintau Buo, Kabupaten Tanah Datar sebagai sebuah sentra tenun terindah dan terbesar di Indonesia. Keempat, sumbangan dalam bentuk totalitas, berupa, sumbangan tenaga, fikiran dan materi seperti pembangunan masjid dan mushalla. Remitansi sebagai kesalehan sosial masyarakat Minang rantau berpengaruh terhadap perkembangan di Ranah Minang, baik pembangunan fisik maupun pembangun non fisik.
This chapter is central to the book as it presents the Curriculum Model for Social Justice developed as part of the project (see Fig. 6.1). The Curriculum Model for Social Justice draws on contemporary research and the arguments presented in the preceding chapter in order to provide a comprehensive framework for pedagogic approaches which can be used both to engage the most marginalised students and to confer meaningful and valuable knowledge (e.g. see Bathmaker, Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 65, 87–107, 2013; Ecclestone, 2011). The Model encompasses four key aspects of the curriculum: vocational studies, English and maths, Careers Education and Guidance, and work experience. Acknowledging the constraints faced by the students, most of whom have lives characterised by poverty and other forms of exclusion, the curriculum is ‘wrapped around’ by a fifth aspect—a comprehensive enrichment programme which offers opportunities to engage in leisure, as well as in learning activities. The chapter describes each aspect of the Curriculum Model, relating it to the theoretical frameworks outlined in earlier chapters, presenting it as a flexible approach with proven benefits, which has the potential to be more widely adopted.
This study examines how social psychology influences leadership behaviors and their impact on school environments. It analyzes the complex dynamics between leaders, followers, and the social context to understand effective leadership in schools. The research uses social psychological theories to explore leadership styles, interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, and social influence. The study emphasizes the importance of social and psychological factors in shaping effective leadership practices, offering practical implications for policymakers, administrators, and practitioners. It provides insights into strategies for creating positive leadership climates, improving teacher-student relationships, and fostering a supportive school culture.
In contemporary developed Western societies, structural discrimination often bars ethnic minorities from entering mainstream entrepreneurship and labor markets. Consequently, minorities engage in microentrepreneurship for economic survival and to retain their social identities. Yet despite the economic value of ethnic minority microbusinesses, little is known about the underlying forces that develop fundamental resources which shape their performance. Based on Bourdieu’s forms of capital and the resource-based view of the firm, our study presents a novel culture-induced entrepreneurship model. This model explains how ethnic minority culture shapes the development of human capital resources and how these resources contribute to business performance in communities which are often characterized as ‘left behind’. Our study challenges the dominant underdog discourse of (cultural) capital deficit among ethnic minority entrepreneurs.
Although research shows that highbrow tastes correlate positively with network quality, we know little about why. We hypothesize that individuals need to manifest their highbrow tastes socially, for example via conversations about, or shared participation in, highbrow culture with network ties, for these tastes to enhance network quality and stability. To address this hypothesis empirically, we collected panel data in the Netherlands with information on individuals' highbrow tastes, social manifestations of these tastes (highbrow talk and shared participation in highbrow activities with ties), and networks. We find that (a) highbrow tastes are positively associated with network quality and stability; (b) highbrow talk (but not shared participation) mediates part of this association; and (c) highbrow tastes and talk are positively associated with the quality of new and continued ties. Our results support the idea that social manifestations of highbrow tastes explain why highbrow tastes enhance network quality and stability.
Despite the ubiquity of “social capital” in sociological research, this measure has broadly been conceptualized as both an individual and collective level measure. We explore the link between these two levels within the United States using recently constructed scales of state- and county-level social capital linked to the geocoded 2000–2018 General Social Survey. Collective social capital is associated with greater individual-level trust and voting. However, heterogeneity analysis reveals substantial differences by race/ethnicity, education, sex, and marital status. Moreover, there is heterogeneity for individual-level confidence in institutions and social interaction frequency, despite no overall relationship between those outcomes and collective social capital. Only some of our results align with existing dimensions of stratification, showing the importance of being clear about the operationalization and level of social capital being studied and highlighting how the “advantages” of collective social capital may not extend broadly to all the members of the collective.
Egocentric networks represent a popular research design for network research. However, to what extent and under what conditions egocentric network centrality can serve as reasonable substitutes for their sociocentric counterparts are important questions to study. The answers to these questions are uncertain simply because of the large variety of networks. Hence, this paper aims to provide exploratory answers to these questions by analyzing both empirical and simulated data. Through analyses of various empirical networks (including some classic albeit small ones), this paper shows that egocentric betweenness approximates sociocentric betweenness quite well (the correlation is high across almost all the networks being examined) while egocentric closeness approximates sociocentric closeness only reasonably well (the correlation is a bit lower on average with a larger variance across networks). Simulations also confirm this finding. Analyses further show that egocentric approximations of betweenness and closeness seem to work well in different types of networks (as featured by network size, density, centralization, reciprocity, transitivity, and geodistance). Lastly, the paper briefly presents three ideas to help improve egocentric approximations of centrality measures.
Objective
: Expanding access to extracurricular activities (EA) may help address the growing mental health needs of children and caregivers. Evidence supports that EA may benefit child mental health, but few studies explore whether this association is influenced by child and EA factors. Further, the impact of EA on caregivers remains unknown.
Methods
: We conducted a secondary analysis of the 2019 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH), a nationally representative sample of children and their caregivers. We used responses from caregivers of children aged 6-17. Weighted logistic regressions tested associations between EA and 1) child anxiety and/or depression diagnosis, 2) caregiver mental health and 3) parental aggravation, controlling for child, family, and neighborhood-level covariates. Interaction terms tested whether associations were moderated by child age, sex, and presence of physical, developmental, or behavioral condition. Sub-analyses explored whether results varied by EA number and type.
Results
: Weighted sample included 21,259 children. There were disparities in which children were engaged in EA. EA participation was associated with lower odds of a 1) child being diagnosed with anxiety and/or depression; 2) caregiver reporting “fair/poor” mental health, and 3) caregiver reporting “usually/always” experiencing parental aggravation. Child age, sex, EA number and type, but not health condition, influenced the relationship between EA and child anxiety and/or depression diagnosis.
Conclusions
: Access to EA is associated with child mental health and family functioning. Further studies should assess causality and specific mechanisms of action.
Looking at museums as informal learning environments, it is clear that detailed information on visitors and especially on nonvisitors is key to preparing adequate offers. However, representative or population-based audience studies are scarce, and even less information is available on nonvisitors. Based on a representatively drawn German adult cohort (analytic sample: n = 6,837), we look at characteristics of museum audiences and use partial proportional odds models to describe factors that characterize both visitors and nonvisitors. Results show strong evidence for relevant factors outside the realm of demographic and socioeconomic variables, and that it is especially cultural capital and cultural participation that explain museum visits. We conclude by arguing in favor of developing broader models to conceptualize museum attendance and especially nonattendance.
Social impact analysis urgently needs attention in various sectors due to the critical roles in enhancing sustainability benefits. Properly assessing social impacts requires a consistent set of guidelines and requirements to reduce the practitioners' bias. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a widely recognized method that can be utilized to quantitatively assess three dimensions of sustainable development in an integrated manner. This study proposes an open-source tool for social impact analysis, that particularly evaluates work environment health impacts, following the LCA-defined principles, framework, requirements, and guidelines for sustainability assessment. The proposed tool in this study can quantify the social impacts and determine the categories that are being affected either negatively or positively. In addition, this study provides an overview of the existing social impact assessment approaches, identifies the critical challenges of the current techniques, and highlights opportunities for continued research to achieve more effective solutions. As of yet, a reliable and open-source tool has not been achieved to help decision-makers in both academia and industry. Thus, we developed a web-based tool for assessing social impacts in eight domains by allowing the use of multiple metrics and comparing two processes.
Active participation of citizens in the sustainable energy transition—particularly in energy communities—is explicitly desired by the European Union and considered vital for a successful transformation of Europe’s energy system. Currently, energy communities, i.e., citizen-led groups generating energy from renewable sources can be found across Europe, though current numbers are small. However, it is expected that the majority of EU households will be active in some form in the generation of energy by 2050. In order to understand how such a development could come about, and if desired, how it could be ensured, we developed and applied a quasi-dynamic model using the Cross-Impact Balance (CIB) approach and with it analyzed and assessed such a transition in detail. Data for the CIB model was derived from case studies, interviews, three surveys including two discrete choice experiments, expert workshops, and complementary secondary data. A central consideration of the model is a differentiated representation of the heterogeneity of actors in society and their interactions. Main results obtained from the application of the model are possible transformation pathways of citizen participation in the energy transition of Germany. A key finding was that if current trends continue, a citizen-driven energy transition based on energy communities will unlikely be successful. We conclude that several framework conditions must change simultaneously from the status quo so that different social groups in society can be active in the generation of energy. These include changes such as the abolition of hindering regulations and the expansion of financial support schemes with a focus on lower socioeconomic groups. Furthermore, only in a combination of conducive social factors such as neighborhood cohesion and conducive social influence, as well as favorable economic conditions, can energy communities become an important player in Germany’s future energy system.
The larger study that has influenced this article was designed to explore what influenced rural men's capabilities to actively participate in children's early social development and its impact on transition to adulthood among their university-going children. Studies have established an increase in the level at which fathers in South Africa have been found wanting in terms of supporting their children's development at early stages in their lives. It has been reported that this unacceptable behaviour can be transmitted or carried over from one generation to the next. There is the belief that the majority of the young male children who experienced non-supportive fathers will grow up repeating this behaviour with their children. This calls for a study on the perceptions of young people about what fatherhood is all about, hence this study. This study used a descriptive survey with a sample size of 300 students studying education in one university in the Eastern Cape Province. A 25-item questionnaire titled Perception of Fatherhood by University Students (α = 0.75) was used to collect data that were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The participants perceived that the experience and level of education influence men's perception of fatherhood positively. Extra-curricular programmes for proper fatherhood transition of young boys are recommended, commencing from Grade 1 through to Grade 12, to expose them to the kinds of dispositions that will enable them to be responsible fathers. There is also a need for compulsory empowerment programmes such as for designers, artists and sportsmen and other semiskilled professions for male children who cannot acquire higher education to strengthen them socioeconomically to provide education for their children.
This paper analyses the forms of, and the reasons for developing extracurricular activities by fellow participants in an alternative teacher preparation programme in China. We frame the paper through Bourdieu’s sociology. Our interviews with 16 fellows reveal that fellows manoeuvre their capital portfolio to develop both academic and non-academic forms of extracurricular activities. Reasons for developing extracurricular activities include using available resources through capital conversion, expanding students’ horizon through contemptuous habitus; and taking into account the local needs. Despite fellows’ good intention to compensate local students, we call for reflexivity to transform their contemptuous habitus into one that realises local values.
Potensi yang dimiliki oleh siswa akan menjadi bakat apabila diarahkan dengan tepat. Salah satu cara untuk mengasah bakat tersebut yaitu melalui kegiatan ekstrakurikuler. Pengabdian ini dilakukan MI Muhammadiyah Sabrang Lor, Trucuk, Klaten. Pengabdian dilaksanakan dengan menerapkan observasi partisipasi penuh pada kegiatan ekstrakurikuler. MI Muhammadiyah Sabrang Lor, Trucuk, Klaten mempunyai lima program ekstrakurikuler yang berjalan dengan baik. Tiap ekstrakurikuler didampingi oleh guru pendamping atau instruktur yang profesional. Tujuannya agar bakat dan kreativitas siswa dapat dimunculkan secara optimal. Kegiatan ekstrakurikuler dilaksanakan setiap hari setelah jam belajar sekolah selesai. Siswa terlihat tampak antusias dan bersemangat setiap mengikuti ekstrakurikuler. Hal itu karena, siswa diberikan kebebasan untuk memilih ekstrakurikuler yang diminati. Luaran yang dicapai tidak hanya predikat juara dan partisipasi dalam kompetisi-kompetisi yang diikuti tetapi juga keberhasilan dalam menggali bakat, kreativitas serta membangun mental untuk membentuk pribadi siswa yang baik.
There is increasing awareness that how young people spend their time outside of school has consequences for their development.
As part of this awareness, interest in organized activities—extracurricular activities, after-school programs, and youth organizations—has grown markedly. On balance, the bulk of research on organized activities has shown positive consequences of participation for academic, educational, social, civic, and physical development. This fact, coupled with the safety and supervision provided by organized activities for youth with working parents, has fueled initiatives at the local, state, and Federal levels to expand opportunities for participation.
In seeming opposition to these initiatives, there exists concern that participating in organized activities has become excessive for
youth. This “over-scheduling” is thought to result from pressure from adults (parents, coaches, teachers) to achieve and attain long-term
educational and career goals. These external pressures, along with the activity-related time commitment, are believed to contribute to
poor psychosocial adjustment for youth and to undermine their relationships with parents. Because the implication is that increasing
amounts of organized activity participation will be harmful to youth and family functioning, attention from scientists, practitioners, and
policymakers is warranted.
To evaluate these two somewhat different perspectives, we review two types of evidence: evidence from published studies focused
on regional, historical, or limited samples and evidence from a very recent nationally representative sample of America’s 5- to 18-year-
olds that includes both time use data and information on a wide range of indicators of development. The main fi ndings across studies
are as follows:
(1) The primary motivations for participation in organized activities are intrinsic (e.g., excitement and enjoyment, to build com-
petencies, and to affi liate with peers and activity leaders). Pressures from adults or educational/career goals are seldom given as reasons
for participation;
(2) American youth average about 5 hours/week participating in organized activities. At any given time, roughly 40% of young
people in the US do not participate in organized activities and those who do typically spend less than 10 hours/week participating. Many
alternative leisure activities (e.g., educational activities, playing games, watching television) consume as much or considerably more
time. However, a very small subgroup of youth (between 3 and 6 percent) spends 20 or more hours/week participating;
(3) There is quite consistent and strong evidence of a positive association between participating in organized activities and a va-
riety of indicators of positive development: those youth who participate demonstrate healthier functioning on such indicators ranging from academic achievement, school completion, post secondary educational attainment, psychological adjustment, and lowered rates of smoking and drug use, to the quantity and quality of interactions with their parents. As the amount of participation in organized activities increases, the evidence suggests that the associated benefits of participation are observed either to accrue across the full range of activities or weekly hours of participation considered or to level off at relatively high amounts of participation; and
(4) Concerning the well-being of youth with very high levels of involvement in organized activity participation (e.g., 20 or more
hours/week), indicators of adjustment tended either to be more positive than, or similar to, youth who did not participate. Only a very
few indicators of well-being have been shown to decline to a level significantly lower than youth who did not participate in organized
activities.
In sum, given the very limited empirical support for the over-scheduling hypothesis and the quite consistent support for the positive youth development perspective, we recommend that the recent efforts to expand opportunities for organized activity participation should stay the course. For the vast majority of young people, participation is associated with positive developmental outcomes. Of greater concern than the over-scheduling of youth in organized activities is the fact that many youth do not participate at all. The well-being of youth who do not participate in organized activities is reliably less positive compared to youth who do participate.
Previous work shows that social capital matters for careers of creative workers, leading to jobs and bolstered income. We focus here on factors that may facilitate various types of social capital possessed by jazz musicians and on how the options of building connections may differ for peripheral versus dominant musicians. Among other things, we find that both general education and formal music training promote formal social capital but constrain the share of local musicians known; meanwhile, generalism fosters both the share and diversity of local musicians known. Only a few options benefit peripheral musicians, namely union membership and having an agent.
We update theories of teacher expectancy and cultural capital by linking them to discussions of technology. We argue for broadening the span of culturally important forms of capital by including the digital dimension of cultural capital. Based on data from the third-grade and fifth-grade waves of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey–Kindergarten cohort (ECLS-K), results suggest a comprehensive model where teachers play a prominent, mediating role in the effects of computer proficiency on academic achievement. These findings have practical applications within classrooms, which can lead to a reduction in stratification. Our findings modernize and renew theoretical tools for understanding teacher and student interactions and the effects on achievement outcomes
This article treats social capital as a multidimensional phenomenon along which neighborhoods are differentially organized. The authors assess this notion by linking two original surveys carried out in Chicago based on community residents (N = 8,782) and positional leaders (N = 2,822) representing six organizational dimensions. These data are used to examine both the dimensionality and structural predictors of neighborhood social organization. Results show that the social capital of Chicago communities encapsulates four distinct dimensions at the residential level and two at the leadership level. Moreover, dimensions of leadership-based social capital are for the most part inversely related to resident-based social capital and differentially predicted by concentrated disadvantage, residential stability, and racial/ethnic diversity. Based on multidimensional scaling and clustering of the communities, the authors derive a conceptual typology highlighted by four distinct groups—Cosmopolitan Efficacy, Urban Villages, Institutional Alienation, and Conduct Norms. The authors discuss implications and suggest new directions for exploration of community differentiation.
ABSTRACT When culture is invoked to understand the consequences of growing up in disadvantaged neighborhoods, the isolation of ghetto residents from mainstream,institutions and mainstream,culture is often emphasized. This paper attempts to reorient current theorizing about the cultural context of disadvantaged neighborhoods, particularly when it comes to adolescent decision-making and behavior. It argues that rather than being characterized by the dominance of “oppositional” or “ghetto-specific” cultures, disadvantaged neighborhoods,are characterized by cultural heterogeneity: a wide array of competing,and conflicting cultural models. These ideas are applied to sexual behavior and romantic relationships among adolescents using survey data from Addhealth. Analyses show that disadvantaged neighborhoods,exhibit greater heterogeneity in cultural frames and scripts and that, in more heterogeneous neighborhoods, adolescents’ frames and scripts are poorly predictive of their actual behavior. Cultural Context, Sexual Behavior, and Romantic Relationships in Disad3
Using data from the Survey of Adults and Youth, the authors examine the effect of economic status on youths' involvement in both school- and nonschool-related extracurricular activities. Specifically, they assess the association between four alternative measures of economic status—recipiency of food stamps, Aid to Families with Dependent Children/Temporary Assistance to Needy Families, family income, or financial worries—and youth participation in extracurricular activities. The authors use social capital to frame their analyses. Analyses reveal that youths' participation in both school- and nonschool extracurricular activities are constrained by family economic status net of time spent in paid work, watching television, and doing housework. Furthermore, the authors find that participation in extracurricular activities varies by age, sex, race, residence, and family structure. Last, race and sex interactions surface for school-related activities. Asian girls have higher participation rates than White girls and Asian boys. Implications of these results are discussed.
We draw on a survey of jazz musicians to examine their economic success (annual amount of money earned through music) and critical success (national recognition of their talent). In doing so, we bring together literatures that are not normally in dialogue—one addressing generalism and the careers of creative personnel and the other addressing the circulation of capitals (e.g., cultural capital) in fields of cultural production. We find, among other things, that aesthetic generalism (being conversant in a wide range of genres) has a positive impact on both earnings and national recognition—with veteran musicians particularly benefitting from the relationship between aesthetic generalism and critical success. Those musicians with much social capital (e.g., number of local musicians known by name) and much human capital (years of musical experience) enjoy heightened economic, but not critical, success. Technical generalism (playing a wide range of musical instruments) has no bearing on economic success but has a negative impact on critical success—particularly for veteran jazz musicians. We discuss how such findings demonstrate the analytical utility of heeding the resources and “signaled competencies” that creative personnel have for negotiating fields of cultural production.
The effects of neighborhood characteristics on the development of children and adolescents are estimated, using two data sets, each of which contains information gathered about individual children and the families and neighborhoods in which they reside. There are reasonably powerful neighborhood effects-particularly the effects of the presence of affluent neighbors-on childhood IQ, teenage births, and school-leaving, even after the differences in the socioeconomic characteristics of families are adjusted for. The study finds that white teenagers benefit more from the presence of affluent neighbors than do black teenagers.
Granovetter's (1973, 1974) ''strength-of-weak-ties'' argument has led to fruitful research on how individuals are marched to jobs in marker economies. In analyzing the institution for assigning jobs in China, I make distinctions (I) between information and influence that flow through networks during job searches and (2) between direct ties and indirect ties used by job-seekers. I find that in China personal networks are used to influence authorities who in turn assign jobs as favors to their contacts, which is a type of unauthorized activity facilitated by strong ties characterized by trust and obligation. In a 1988 survey in Tianjin, I find that (1) jobs are acquired through strong ties more frequently than through weak ties, (2) both direct and indirect ties are used to obtain help from job-assigning authorities, (3) job-seekers and their ultimate helpers are indirectly connected through intermediaries to whom both are strongly tied, and (4) job-seekers using indirect ties are more likely to obtain better jobs than those using direct ties.
This article reviews the contemporary literature on school-based activity participation, focusing on patterns of participation, academic achievement, substance use, sexual activity, psychological adjustment, delinquency, and young adult outcomes. Also, the authors discuss possible mediators and moderators of extracurricular activity participation in regard to adolescent development. The review indicates that the associations between school-based activity participation and these outcomes are mostly positive but that the picture becomes mixed once moderator variables are included. The authors suggest areas for future research that include using new methods for measuring activities and applying an overarching theoretical framework to investigations of extracurricular activities and adolescent development. Finally, to move toward a causal model of activities and adolescent functioning, future research must consider the mechanisms through which activities exert their influence on development. The authors propose several possible mechanisms of participation in terms of adjustment during adolescence and young adulthood.
a b s t r a c t Updating a previous systematic review of the literature, this review summarizes the literature over the last 5 years on the relationship between school-based extracurricular activity participation and academic achievement, substance use, sexual activity, psychologi-cal adjustment, and delinquency. The review also considers medi-ators and moderators of these relationships. This review also discusses recent advances in activity research including participa-tion measurement (intensity, breadth, and duration), person-cen-tered approaches, and an exploration of the overscheduling hypothesis. The review reveals a mixed picture of the relationship between activity participation and these adolescent developmental outcomes. A call for continued exploration into measurement issues, analysis approaches, outcome measures, and causal models of activities and adolescent functioning is made. Published by Elsevier Inc.
Theory suggests that neighborhood effects depend not only on where individuals live today, but also on where they lived in the past. Previous research, however, usually measured neighborhood context only once and did not account for length of residence, thereby understating the detrimental effects of long-term neighborhood disadvantage. This study investigates the effects of duration of exposure to disadvantaged neighborhoods on high school graduation. It follows 4,154 children in the PSID, measuring neighborhood context once per year from age 1 to 17. The analysis overcomes the problem of dynamic neighborhood selection by adapting novel methods of causal inference for time-varying treatments. In contrast to previous analyses, these methods do not "control away" the effect of neighborhood context operating indirectly through time-varying characteristics of the family, and thus they capture the full impact of a lifetime of neighborhood disadvantage. We find that sustained exposure to disadvantaged neighborhoods has a severe impact on high school graduation that is considerably larger than effects reported in prior research. Growing up in the most (compared to the least) disadvantaged quintile of neighborhoods is estimated to reduce the probability of graduation from 96% to 76% for black children, and from 95% to 87% for nonblack children.
This article investigates the causal effects of neighborhood on high school dropping out and teenage pregnancy within a counterfactual framework. It shows that when two groups of children, identical at age 10 on observed factors, experience different neighborhoods dur-ing adolescence, those in high-poverty neighborhoods are more likely to drop out of high school and have a teenage pregnancy than those in low-poverty neighborhoods. Causal inferences from such asso-ciations have been plagued by the possibility of selection bias. Using a new method for sensitivity analysis, these effects are shown to be robust to selection bias. Unobserved factors would have to be un-reasonably strong to account for the associations between neigh-borhood and the outcomes.
Adolescents growing up in high-poverty neighborhoods are at risk for a range of negative outcomes. Girls face specific threats because of their gen-der—omnipresent harassment, pressure for early sexual initiation, perva-sive intimate partner violence, and high risk of sexual assault. This article uses mixed-methods data from the Three-City Study of Moving to Opportunity (MTO) to explore how moving to lower-poverty neighborhoods may have influenced adolescent girls' life chances. MTO families moved to neighbor-hoods with lower levels of violent crime overall, but MTO girls also experi-enced a substantial reduction in the "female fear," Gordon and Riger's term for the fear of sexual harassment, coercion, and rape. The authors argue that this change is a plausible explanation for the notable improvements in MTO girls' well-being.
We investigate class differences in youth activity participation with interview, survey, and archival data from a diverse sample of parents (n = 51) in two schools. Findings point toward structural rather than cultural explanations. Working- and middle-class parents overlap in parenting logics about participation, though differ in one respect: middle-class parents are concerned with customizing children’s involvement in activities, while working-class parents are concerned with ensuring safety and social mobility for children through participation. Like financial constraints among the working class, social institutions are implicated in class differences. Schools act as an equalizing institution by offering low-cost activities; yet, contribute to class differences by offering different activities to working- and middle-class youth. Opportunities for working-class youth to participate in non-school activities are few due to the scarcity of community organizations in their neighborhood, while middle-class families are heavily involved in out-of-school activities. We explore the implications of our findings for educational stratification.
This study extends previous understanding of the association between adolescent extracurricular activity participation and
adjustment by asking whether participation in school-based extracurricular activities is associated with lower substance use
and depression, higher grades and academic aspirations, and more positive attitude toward school. In addition, it examines
the role of life events stress and time spent in activities as potential moderators of the association. Data come from an
ethnically diverse sample of adolescents from 6 California highschools (N = 3,761). Cross-sectional results suggest participation is associated with more positive adolescent outcomes for all variables
except alcohol use and depression, controlling for gender, ethnicity, and grade. Longitudinal analyses are consistent with
these findings. Cumulative participation over a 3-year period predicts adolescent outcomes controlling for both Time 1 outcomes
and demographic characteristics. In addition, within-person analyses reveal year-to-year covariation of participation and
positive outcomes.
In this article, the authors report on their research on which aspects of parentalcultural resources affect educational attainment and distinguish between parentalbeaux arts participation and parental reading behavior. Using representative data for the Netherlands in 1992 (N = 1,653), they found that parental reading behavior, not parental beaux arts participation, affects children's educational attainment. The authors also examine the validity of two alternative theories on theinteraction of parents' educational background and their cultural capital (distinguishing between parental reading and beaux arts participation): Bourdieu's cultural reproduction theory and DiMaggio's cultural mobility theory. The data provide support for the cultural mobility hypothesis with respect to parental readingbehavior; that is, parental reading is effective in predicting success in school, especially for children whose parents have low levels of education.
Recent research suggests that participation in organized extracurricular activities by children and adolescents can have educational
and occupational payoffs. This research also establishes that participation is strongly associated with social class. However,
debate has ensued—primarily among qualitative researchers—over whether the association between class and activities stems
exclusively from inequalities in objective resources and constraints or whether differing cultural orientations have a role.
We address this debate using a nationally representative sample of children's time diaries, merged with extensive information
on their families, to model participation in, and expenditures on, organized activities. While we cannot directly observe
cultural orientations, we account for a substantially wider array of resources and constraints than previous studies. We find
that, above and beyond these factors, maternal education has a consistently large effect on the outcomes we study. We discuss
the plausibility of a cultural interpretation of this result, as well as alternative interpretations.
The literature on neighborhood effects frequently is evaluated or interpreted in relation to the question, "Do neighborhoods matter?" We argue that this question has had a disproportionate influence on the field and does not align with the complexity of theoretical models of neighborhood effects or empirical findings that have arisen from the literature. In this article, we focus on empirical work that considers how different dimensions of individuals' residential contexts become salient in their lives, how contexts influence individuals' lives over different timeframes, how individuals are affected by social processes operating at different scales, and how residential contexts influence the lives of individuals in heterogeneous ways. In other words, we review research that examines where, when, why, and for whom do residential contexts matter. Using the large literature on neighborhoods and educational and cognitive outcomes as an example, the research we review suggests that any attempt to reduce the literature to a single answer about whether neighborhoods matter is misguided. We call for a more flexible study of context effects in which theory, measurement, and methods are more closely aligned with the specific mechanisms and social processes under study.
This article presents culture as a vehicle of labor market sorting. Providing a case study of hiring in elite professional service firms, I investigate the often suggested but heretofore empirically unexamined hypothesis that cultural similarities between employers and job candidates matter for employers' hiring decisions. Drawing from 120 interviews with employers as well as participant observation of a hiring committee, I argue that hiring is more than just a process of skills sorting; it is also a process of cultural matching between candidates, evaluators, and firms. Employers sought candidates who were not only competent but also culturally similar to themselves in terms of leisure pursuits, experiences, and self-presentation styles. Concerns about shared culture were highly salient to employers and often outweighed concerns about absolute productivity. I unpack the interpersonal processes through which cultural similarities affected candidate evaluation in elite firms and provide the first empirical demonstration that shared culture-particularly in the form of lifestyle markers-matters for employer hiring. I conclude by discussing the implications for scholarship on culture, inequality, and labor markets.
Data from a national survey of families show that black and white families with children under 18 differ in kin network participation. White families are more likely than black families to receive money from outside relatives; black families are more likely than white families to live with others in an extended family household. Among female-headed families, white families are still more likely than black families to receive money, but the relationship between race and extendedness disappears. The apparent relationship between race and extendedness appears to be due entirely to marital status differences between white and black female family heads. Overall, because black female-headed families are less likely to receive money from other families, black female-headed families appear to benefit less than white female-headed families from a kin network.
Analyses of data from the 1987-88 National Survey of Families and Households demonstrated that parents' gender did not account for family structure variations in parental socialization. Among parents (n = 3,738) of children aged 15 to 18, male and female single parents reported less restrictive rules than did married parents, while stepmothers, stepfathers, and cohabiting male partners reported significantly less frequent activities with and positive responses to children than did original parents. Some evidence was found for the primary alternative explanations for these differences—that two adults are more effective than one, and that stepparents are relative strangers to children.
This paper documents an important web of reciprocal causal interrelationships between family structure and religious institutions and values. Religious beliefs had significant effects on family life in the past and are important factors in family structure and relationships today. Over the last two centuries family and household structure has been modified substantially, and the timing and pace of those family trends were influenced by religion and the changing place of religion in the social structure. At the same time family change has led to substantial modification in the teachings and policies of the churches, and the ways in which the churches responded to family change have had ramifications for the moral authority of the churches.
Policy reforms and rising income inequality transformed educational and economic opportunities for Americans approaching midlife in the 1990s. Rising income inequality may have reduced mobility, as income gaps increased between rich and poor children. Against the effects of rising inequality, Civil Rights reforms may have increased mobility, as opportunities expanded across cohorts of black students and workers. We compare educational and income mobility for two cohorts of black and white men, the older born in the late 1940s and the younger born in the early 1960s. We find that educational mobility increased for black men, but income mobility declined for both races. Economic mobility declined despite unchanged or improved educational mobility because of increased returns to schooling and increased intergenerational income correlations, independent of schooling.
In response to health problems, individuals may strategically activate their social network ties to help manage crisis and uncertainty. While it is well-established that social relationships provide a crucial safety net, little is known about who is chosen to help during an episode of illness. Guided by the Network Episode Model, two aspects of consulting others in the face of mental illness are considered. First, we ask who activates ties, and what kinds of ties and networks they attempt to leverage for discussing health matters. Second, we ask about the utility of activating health-focused network ties. Specifically, we examine the consequences of network activation at time of entry into treatment for individuals' quality of life, social satisfaction, ability to perform social roles, and mental health functioning nearly one year later. Using interview data from the longitudinal Indianapolis Network Mental Health Study (INMHS, N = 171), we focus on a sample of new patients with serious mental illness and a group with less severe disorders who are experiencing their first contact with the mental health treatment system. Three findings stand out. First, our results reveal the nature of agency in illness response. Whether under a rational choice or habitus logic, individuals appear to evaluate support needs, identifying the best possible matches among a larger group of potential health discussants. These include members of the core network and those with prior mental health experiences. Second, selective activation processes have implications for recovery. Those who secure adequate network resources report better outcomes than those who injudiciously activate network ties. Individuals who activate weaker relationships and those who are unsupportive of medical care experience poorer functioning, limited success in fulfilling social roles, and lower social satisfaction and quality of life later on. Third, the evidence suggests that social networks matter above and beyond the influence of any particular individual or relationship. People whose networks can be characterized as having a pro-medical culture report better recovery outcomes.
The literature on father absence is frequently criticized for its use of cross-sectional data and methods that fail to take account of possible omitted variable bias and reverse causality. We review studies that have responded to this critique by employing a variety of innovative research designs to identify the causal effect of father absence, including studies using lagged dependent variable models, growth curve models, individual fixed effects models, sibling fixed effects models, natural experiments, and propensity score matching models. Our assessment is that studies using more rigorous designs continue to find negative effects of father absence on offspring well-being, although the magnitude of these effects is smaller than what is found using traditional cross-sectional designs. The evidence is strongest and most consistent for outcomes such as high school graduation, children's social-emotional adjustment, and adult mental health.
From 1975 to 2005, the variance in incomes of American families with children increased by two-thirds. In attempting to explain this trend, labor market studies emphasize the rising pay of college graduates, while demographers typically highlight the implications of family structural changes across time. In this article, we join these lines of research by conceiving of income inequality as the joint product of the distribution of earnings in the labor market and the pooling of incomes in families. We develop this framework with a decomposition of family income inequality using annual data from the March Current Population Survey. Our analysis shows that disparities in education and single parenthood contributed to income inequality, but rising educational attainment and women's employment offset these effects. Most of the increase in family income inequality was due to increasing within-group inequality, which was widely shared across family types and levels of schooling.
Studies suggest that students who participate in extracurricular activities benefit in a number of ways. However, schools provide different opportunities to participate in these activities. Using information from high school yearbooks and administrative data on students and schools in North Carolina, we examine whether school characteristics influence the numbers and types of extracurricular activities available, whether schools providing more and diverse activities have higher participation rates, and whether these schools have better academic outcomes. We find that school size and poverty levels significantly influence the number and types of activities available, with larger schools and those schools with more affluent student bodies offering more activities. In addition, schools with more activities available tend to have higher participation rates. Opportunities to participate are associated with positive academic outcomes for the school, even when controlling for school resources. For some—but not all—activities, student participation rates mediate the relationship between activity availability and the school’s academic profile. For benefits to be present, schools must provide these resources, and students must invest in them.
American families changed dramatically during the last third of the twentieth century. From 1900 until the late 1960s, roughly three-quarters of all American sixteen-yearolds had lived with both of their biological parents. By 2000 only about half of all sixteenyear- olds were living with both biological parents. During the first half of the twentieth century, moreover, most parents who were not living with their children had no choice about the matter: They were dead. By the end of the twentieth century, most of the parents who were not living with their children were alive but living elsewhere (see figure 1.1). The focus of this chapter, however, is not simply the fact that family structures changed, but the fact that they changed very differently depending on parents' education and race. All groups are postponing marriage, but not all are postponing parenthood. As a result, the rise in single-parent families is concentrated among blacks and among the less educated. It hardly occurred at all among women with college degrees. Children's families have changed in broadly similar ways throughout the developed world, but no other nation has changed as much as the United States. The best evidence on this comes from the Fertility and Family Surveys (FFS), which provide data on the stability of both marriages and cohabiting unions in Europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Gunnar Andersson (2002) used these data to estimate the fraction of fifteen-year-olds who would live with both of their biological parents if parents continued to split up at the same rate as that found at the time of the FFS.1 Figure 1.2 shows his projections for the United States and six countries in western Europe. If nothing changed, roughly seven-eighths of southern European fifteen-year-olds and two-thirds of northern European fifteen-year-olds would live with both of their biological parents at age fifteen, compared to only half of all American fifteen-year-olds. The transformation of the American family since 1960 has been both an intellectual challenge and a recurrent source of frustration for social scientists. Some of the nation's best-known social theorists, including Gary Becker and William Julius Wilson, have sought to explain the change. Yet no consensus has emerged about why American families changed or why the amount of change varied by race and education. The most widely cited empirical papers seem to be those that disprove a popular explanation, not those that support one. Indeed, it is only a slight exaggeration to say that the main contribution of empirical social science to our understanding of family change has been to show that nothing caused it. Yet despite the absence of an identifiable culprit or a smoking gun, families did change. This report is divided into five sections. The first section discusses which changes in family structure should worry us. We argue that: • Those whose primary goal is to reduce child poverty should mainly worry about the increased proportion of children living with only one adult, especially adults with relatively low potential earnings. • Those whose primary goal is to improve children's overall well-being should also worry about the fact that even children in two-adult households are less likely to be living with both of their biological parents and more likely to be living with a stepparent or their mother's live-in boyfriend. • Those whose primary goal is to bring American behavior into line with traditional moral rules should worry about the rising age of marriage (which has led to a large increase in premarital sex), the decline of shotgun weddings (which has led to a large increase in nonmarital births), and the high rate of divorce. The next section describes the most important changes affecting children's living arrangements over the past generation. • Single-parent families have become more common in all demographic groups, but the increases have been greatest among less-educated women and African Americans. • Women in all demographic groups are marrying later than they did a generation ago. But while highly educated women have postponed both marriage and parenthood, less-educated women have postponed marriage more than parenthood. As a result, nonmarital births have risen dramatically among less-educated women but more modestly among the highly educated. • Compared to white women, African American women have also postponed marriage more than childbearing, so nonmarital births have risen faster among African Americans than among whites. • White women with a college degree seldom have children out of wedlock. Most of those who become single mothers marry before their child is born but then divorce. Divorce rates among the highly educated have not risen since the early 1980s, so the fraction of highly educated mothers raising children on their own has not changed much since 1980. • The increase in nonmarital births, which continued into the 1990s, was confined to the bottom two-thirds of the educational distribution. As a result, the association between a woman's educational attainment and her chances of being a single mother rose after 1980. • Cohabiting couples now account for nearly half of all nonmarital births in the United States. Among whites, cohabiting couples account for almost all of the increase in nonmarital births since 1980. But unlike cohabiting couples in Europe, cohabiting couples in the United States usually split up within a few years of their baby's birth. The fact that "high-risk" couples have been switching from marriage to cohabitation since 1980 probably played a role in stabilizing the divorce rate. It is not clear whether the switch from marriage to cohabitation increased the risk that any given couple would split up. • Attitudes toward premarital sex, gender roles, the value of marriage, and the acceptability of nonmarital childbearing changed rapidly during the late 1960s and 1970s. Such attitudes have changed far less since 1980. Changes in attitudes have not always moved in tandem with changes in behavior. Premarital sex increased sharply in the 1960s and 1970s, when attitudes were becoming more permissive. But premarital sex continued to increase during the 1980s and early 1990s, when attitudes towards premarital sex were not changing much. • The age at which individuals first have sexual intercourse (whether marital or premarital) fell only a little between 1960 and 1990, while the age at which individuals married rose substantially. Taken together, these two facts suggest that premarital sex mainly replaced marital sex, not abstinence. This pattern does not vary much by education. • In the early 1960s, most marriages were closely followed by a first birth. That linkage has now been broken. More women are having their first child well before they marry, and more women are marrying well before they have their first child. The third section discusses the social science literature on the role of wages, welfare benefits, and the sex ratio in explaining family change. The following section discusses the role of non-economic influences, such as changes in women's sense of control and efficacy, changes in attitudes toward nonmarital sex, cohabitation, nonmarital births, and divorce, and improvements in contraception, the legalization of abortion, and no-fault divorce. In the next section, we present some new evidence regarding some of these theories. We then present our conclusions in the final section. We come to several conclusions regarding the existing literature on changes in family composition: • Traditional economic models emphasize the economic advantages that flow from the fact that one partner can specialize in child-rearing while the other specializes in market labor. These models predict that improvements in men's earning power will make marriage more common, while improvements in women's earning power will make marriage less common. These models also predict that lower welfare benefits will make marriage more common, while a lower ratio of men to women will make marriage less common. • The wages available to men, the wages available to women, welfare benefits, and the sex ratio can explain a large fraction of the change in single-parenthood for different racial and educational groups. But the estimated impact of these variables is extremely sensitive to how we specify the statistical model.
Using unique data from a large retail bank, we investigate the theoretical mechanisms by which preexisting social ties affect the hiring process. By focusing on a single, large employer, we are able to identify the recruitment practices and hiring criteria used during screening for entry-level positions. This method allows us to assemble data for the pool of candidates at multiple phases of the hiring process and to conduct empirical tests of the various roles that personal contacts might play at each stage. Because we are able to treat hiring as a process, rather than as an event, we can also consider the possible selection biases introduced by the multistage screening process. More specifically, we study how employee referral (i.e., being recommended by a current bank employee) affects an applicant's success at multiple stages of the recruitment process, and we examine the cumulative effects of referral status on the chance of being offered a job. Results of probit models indicate that, controlling for other factors, referrals have advantages at both the interview and job-offer stages compared to external nonreferral applicants. Consistent with theoretical arguments that referrals are prescreened by current employees, our results show that referral applicants present more appropriate résumés than do nonreferral applicants. Referral applicants also are more likely than nonreferrals to apply when market conditions are more favorable. Nevertheless, résumé quality and application timing cannot explain referrals' advantage at the interview and hire phases. We discuss the theoretical implications of these findings.
■ Abstract This paper assesses and synthesizes the cumulative results of a new "neighborhood-effects" literature that examines social processes related to problem behaviors and health-related outcomes. Our review identified over 40 relevant studies published in peer-reviewed journals from the mid-1990s to 2001, the take-off point for an increasing level of interest in neighborhood effects. Moving beyond traditional char- acteristics such as concentrated poverty, we evaluate the salience of social-interactional and institutional mechanisms hypothesized to account for neighborhood-level varia- tions in a variety of phenomena (e.g., delinquency, violence, depression, high-risk behavior), especially among adolescents. We highlight neighborhood ties, social con- trol, mutual trust, institutional resources, disorder, and routine activity patterns. We also discuss a set of thorny methodological problems that plague the study of neigh- borhood effects, with special attention to selection bias. We conclude with promising strategies and directions for future research, including experimental designs, taking spatial and temporal dynamics seriously, systematic observational approaches, and benchmark data on neighborhood social processes.
In this study, time diary data are used to assess trends in mothers' and fathers' child care time from the mid-1960s to the late 1990s. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the results indicate that both mothers and fathers report spending greater amounts of time in child care activities in the late 1990s than in the "family-oriented" 1960s. For mothers, there was a 1965-75 decline in routine child care time and then a 1975-98 rebound along with a steady increase in time doing more developmental activities. For 1998 fathers report increased participation in routine child care as well as in more "fun" activities. The ratio of married mothers' to married fathers' time in child care declined in all primary child care activities. These results suggest that parents have undergone a behavioral change that has more than countered family change that might otherwise have reduced time with children.
Do the voluntary activities of youth increase political engagement in adulthood? Political participation is typically characterized by inertia: reproduced within families, highly correlated with social class, and largely stable after the onset of adulthood. This research illustrates an element of political socialization that occurs just before the transition into full citizenship, that mimics adult civic life, and that can be available regardless of family advantage. The authors use two longitudinal national datasets to identify the kinds of voluntary associations that encourage members to be more politically active later in life. They find that general involvement in extracurricular activities is important, but that in particular, involvement in youth voluntary associations concerning community service, representation, speaking in public forums, and generating a communal identity most encourage future political participation. The authors find these effects net of self-selection and causal factors traditionally characterized in political socialization research. The influence of youth voluntary associations on future political activity is nontrivial and has implications for both democratic education and election outcomes. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Much existing research documents the benefits gained by students when they participate in high school extracurricular activities (Camp, 1990; Eidsmore, 1964; Haensly, Lupkowski, & Edlind, 1986; Holland & Andre, 1987; McNeal, 1995; Yarworth & Gauthier, 1978). However, we know little about the patterns of participation (i.e., who is more likely to participate in which activities?). A finding in this research was that extracurricular activities are not equitably participated in by various subgroups of the high school population. To some degree, members of various racial and ethnic minority groups have greater likelihood(s) of participating in all types of extracurricular activities studied (athletics, cheerleading, fine arts, academic organizations, newspaper/yearbook, student government/service organizations, and vocational activities). Girls have an increased likelihood of participating in all the activities except athletics, which are dominated by boys. Finally, evidence also supports the hypothesis that the high school extracurriculum is one arena in which students of higher socioeconomic standing and greater academic ability have a distinct advantage. Given the differential rates of participation, and specifically the increased rates by various minorities, restricting access to or eliminating specific activities may make student access, and the resulting benefits from participation (e.g., network, prestige, cultural capital), less equitably distributed among the student population.
Using data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 and the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002, I analyze the association that students' extracurricular activities have with two academic outcomes: mathematics achievement test scores and college expectations. I consider changes between cohorts and gender differences within each cohort. While prior achievement and expectations have the strongest associations with the dependent variables, relationships do appear between extracurricular participation and the dependent variables. There is only one cohort difference in the association between activities and math achievement test scores; computer use was positively associated with students' scores in the 1990s, but had no association with students' scores in the 2000s. School-sponsored activities were associated with higher scores for all students, while television-watching and hanging out with friends were negatively associated with them. School activities were positively associated with the college expectations of students in both cohorts, while spending time hanging out with friends was negatively associated with expectations, especially for students in the later cohort. There were a few gender differences in the association between activities and math scores, but no gender differences in the association between activities and college expectations. The findings indicate that many of the same activities are relevant for math achievement and college expectations in the two time periods.
Relying on extensions of routine activities and social disorganization theories, we examine whether 1) neighborhood social characteristics shape opportunities for the development of unstructured socializing with peers among adolescents, 2) whether unstructured socializing leads to an increase in violent behavior within urban communities, and 3) whether neighborhood collective efficacy modifies the impact of unstructured socializing on violence. The study outlined in this article uses three waves of data from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods Community Survey and Longitudinal Cohort Study. Results from multilevel linear models suggest that neighborhood collective efficacy supports the development of unstructured socializing with peers. Multilevel Rasch models of violent behavior indicate that, consistent with previous research, unstructured socializing is a powerful predictor of violence. Collective efficacy exerts an independent influence on violent behavior and attenuates the effect of unstructured socializing on this outcome.
In what follows we critically assess a selection of the works on urban poverty that followed the publication of WJ Wilson's The Truly Disadvantaged (1987), with a particular focus on the family, the neighborhood, and culture. We frame our discussion by assessing the broad explanations of the increased concentration of poverty in urban neighborhoods characteristic of the 1970s and 1980s. Then, in the section on the family, we address the rising out-of-wedlock and disproportionately high teenage birthrates of poor urban women. Next, we critique the literature on neighborhood effects. Finally, in the discussion of culture, we examine critically the new efforts at complementing structural explanations with cultural accounts. We conclude by calling for more comparative, cross-regional, and historical studies, broader conceptions of urban poverty, and a greater focus on Latinos and other ethnic groups.
Research has shown that living away from one's biological father is associated with a greater risk of adverse child and adolescent outcomes; yet, the role of the father-child relationship in understanding this association has not been directly investigated. This study uses data on biological fathers’ relationships with their children from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N = 2,733) to assess whether father involvement mediates the relationship between family structure (i.e., father absence) and four measures of adolescent behavior. Differences in father involvement are shown to account for a sizeable fraction of the variance in outcomes by family structure. Father involvement does not affect boys and girls differently but is more beneficial when the father lives with the adolescent.
Utilizing the 2003 and 2004 American Time Use Survey (ATUS), this study examines the relationship between family structure and maternal time with children among 4,309 married mothers and 1,821 single mothers with children less than 13 years of age. Single mothers spend less time with their children than married mothers, though the differences are not large. Marital status and living arrangement differences in time with children largely disappear or single mothers engage in more child care than married mothers after controls for socioeconomic status and other characteristics are introduced. Thus, less maternal time with children appears to be mainly attributable to the disadvantaged social structural location of single mothers rather than different proclivities toward mothering between married and single mothers.
Using in-depth interviews, we explored civic engagement that included volunteering through religious organizations, neighboring, involvement in children's activities, and contributing. The sample consisted of 84 low-income, low-wealth families. Findings indicate that although people of limited resources may be engaged, they face substantial challenges to active engagement. Data are suggestive of a modified life cycle theory, a resource or “stakeholding” theory, and institutional theories regarding challenges to engagement. In the context of the study's limitations, implications are discussed for measurement, research, and interventions.
The purpose of this article is to examine how American children under age 13 spend their time, sources of variation in time use, and associations with achievement and behavior. Data come from the 1997 Child Development Supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. The results suggest that parents' characteristics and decisions regarding marriage, family size, and employment affect the time children spend in educational, structured, and family activities, which may affect their school achievement. Learning activities such as reading for pleasure are associated with higher achievement, as is structured time spent playing sports and in social activities. Family time spent at meals and time spent sleeping are linked to fewer behavior problems, as measured by the child's score on the Behavior Problems Index. The results support common language and myth about the optimal use of time for child development.
In this article, we summarize: (a) the arguments linking participation in structured leisure activities to positive youth development, (b) our findings on the association of extracurricular activity involvement with both educational and risky behavior outcomes during adolescence and young adulthood, and (c) our findings regarding possible mediating mechanisms of these associations. Participants in most extracurricular activities achieved better educational outcomes than non-participants even after controlling for social class, gender, and intellectual aptitude. Participation in service and religious activities predicted lower rates of drinking and drug use. Participation on school sports teams predicted both better educational outcomes and higher rates of drinking. The mediating mechanisms we discuss relate to identity formation, peer group membership, and attachment to non-familial adults.
The popularity of the concept of social capital has been accompanied by increasing controversy about its actual meaning and effects. I consider here the alternative applications of the concept as an attribute of individuals vs. collectivities and discuss the extent to which causal propositions formulated at each level are logically sound. I present some empirical evidence illustrating the possibility that, despite the current popularity of the concept, much of its alleged benefits may be spurious after controlling for other factors. Implications of this analysis and results for theory and policy are discussed.
Using data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS), this study examines the unique and collective impact of cognitive skills and noncognitive behaviors in high school on educational attainment and earnings for a tenth grade cohort, 10 years later in 2000. The results indicate that students with better social skills, work habits, and who participated in extracurricular activities in high school had higher educational attainment and earnings, even after controlling for cognitive skills. Skills and behaviors in high school also explain a substantial portion of the socioecononomic, sex, and racial and ethnic gaps in educational attainment and earnings.
Ethnographers and other students of interaction have documented the impact of status factors on students' success in school. Yet survey research data consistently show the absence of family background measure effects on high school grades. It is argued that conventional measures of family background fail to capture those cultural elements of status that make a difference in school interactions. Drawing on Weber's work on status groups and status cultures, and on Bourdieu's work on cultural capital, this paper reports the findings of an effort to assess the impact of one component of status culture participation--cultural capital--on one aspect of life chances--students' high school grades. A composite measure of cultural capital has a significant impact on grades, controlling for family background and measured ability. The pattern of relationships, however, differs strikingly by gender.