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Virtual Agents for Professional Social Skills Training: An Overview of the State-of-the-Art
Abstract
Training of interpersonal communication skills is typically done using role play, by practising relevant scenarios with the help of professional actors. However, as a result of the rapid developments in human-computer interaction, there has been an increasing interest in the use of computers for training of social and communicative skills. This type of training offers opportunities to complement traditional training methods with a novel paradigm that is more scalable and cost-effective. The main idea of such applications is that of a simulated conversation between a human trainee and a virtual agent. By developing the system in such a way that the communicative behaviour of the human has a direct impact on the behaviour of the virtual agent, an interactive learning experience is created. In this article, we review the current state-of-the-art in virtual agents for social skills training. We provide an overview of existing applications, and discuss various properties of these applications.
... Several surveys have explored training systems, including for virtual patients (Battegazzorre, Bottino, and Lamberti 2020) and those utilizing virtual reality (Zahabi and Abdul Razak 2020). The closest to our work is by Bosman, Bosse and Formolo (2018), where they explored 12 agent-based training systems, including those with changing states, and analysed them across six dimensions (e.g. internal reasoning and feedback). ...
... Although our objective was not to conduct a systematic literature review, we defined the architecture and the characteristics by examining a wide range of literature on agent-based training systems and conversational agents in general. To extract recent examples of such systems, we used different sources: (1) by searching for keywords, such as: 'training system', 'social skills', 'agent', and 'virtual agent', on Google Scholar and Google, (2) by looking at systems mentioned in three literature reviews on social skills training that fits within our scope (Battegazzorre, Bottino, and Lamberti 2020;Bosman, Bosse and Formolo 2018;Ding 2020), (3) by extracting relevant papers published in the Interactive Virtual Agents conference (IVA) between 2019-2022, a period chosen to include also the latest research published after these three literature reviews mentioned, and (4) by looking at reverse citations, where literature references were screened when deemed relevant. The included systems also had to fit within the scope of our architecture, i.e. training individuals in social skills through communicating with an agent. ...
... For example, to train student doctors in asking specific appropriate questions and collecting information for diagnosing (Shah et al. 2012). However, such dialogues are experienced as being static and inflexible (Bosman, Bosse and Formolo 2018). Therefore, some proposals have been made to tackle this. ...
Agent-based training systems can enhance people's social skills. The effective development of these systems needs a comprehensive architecture that outlines their components and relationships. Such an architecture can pinpoint improvement areas and future outlooks. This paper presents ARTES: a general architecture illustrating how components of agent-based social training systems work together. We studied existing systems and architectures for training and tutoring to design ARTES and identify its essential components and interaction characteristics. ARTES comprises two core components: the agent simulation of social situations, and educational elements to provide guided learning. We link ARTES's crucial components to four primary learning theories (behaviourism, cognitivism, social cognitive theory, and constructivism) to illustrate the role of agent simulation and tutoring elements in establishing desired learning outcomes. Furthermore, we map ARTES's components against eight architectures, 43 systems and three tools to indicate the components' relevance, completeness, generalisation, and deployment potential across contexts. In addition to ARTES, the paper also contributes by identifying future improvements and research directions, such as the agent's thinking, tutoring methods, knowledge transfer, and ethical implications. We believe ARTES can help bridge the gap between virtual human simulations and impactful educational learning, offering training system developers desirable features like understandability and adaptability.
... Second, to be taken seriously, the development of the activities could require both specialist knowledge and professional actors' involvement. Lastly, roleplaying can also be threatening to the people who do not feel comfortable talking in the presence of others (Van Ments, 1989;Sogunro, 2004;Bosman et al., 2019). In response, the rapid technological advances with virtual agents in computergenerated environments offer an opportunity to complement and support traditional training delivery methods with a practical and cost-effective approach (Guadagno et al., 2007;Kim K. et al., 2018;Bosman et al., 2019). ...
... Lastly, roleplaying can also be threatening to the people who do not feel comfortable talking in the presence of others (Van Ments, 1989;Sogunro, 2004;Bosman et al., 2019). In response, the rapid technological advances with virtual agents in computergenerated environments offer an opportunity to complement and support traditional training delivery methods with a practical and cost-effective approach (Guadagno et al., 2007;Kim K. et al., 2018;Bosman et al., 2019). Based on these observations, we consider that an effective leadership training solution should provide continuous practice while interacting with others, similar to the traditional role-playing, but with improvements able to overcome current limitations. ...
... During the early 1980s, short movies displaying high-quality animations involving realistic VHs (e.g., The Juggler from Adam Powers and Sexy Robot from Robert Abel; Magnenat-Thalmann and Thalmann, 2005) began to appear. Since then, computer graphics has increasingly evolved in computational speed and control methods, allowing the rendering of three-dimensional (3D) VHs much faster, with realistic graphics, and also suitable for real interactive applications (Badler, 1997;Waltemate et al., 2018;Bosman et al., 2019). ...
This article reports on a study to evaluate the effectiveness of virtual human (VH) role-players as leadership training tools within two computer-generated environments, virtual reality (VR) and mixed reality (MR), compared to a traditional training method, real human (RH) role-players in a real-world (RW) environment. We developed an experimental training platform to assess the three conditions: RH role-players in RW (RH-RW), VH role-players in VR (VH-VR), and VH role-players in MR (VH-MR), during two practice-type opportunities, namely pre-session and post-session. We conducted a user study where 30 participants played the role of leaders in interacting with either RHs or VHs before and after receiving a leadership training session. We then investigated (1) if VH role-players were as effective as RH role-players during pre- and post-sessions, and (2) the impact that the human-type (RH, VH) in conjunction with the environment-type (RW, VR, MR) had on the outcomes. We also collected user reactions and learning data from the overall training experience. The results showed a regular increase in performance from pre- to post-sessions in all three conditions. However, we did not find a significant difference between VHs and RHs. Interestingly, the VH-MR condition had a more significant influence on performance and task engagement compared to the VH-VR and RH-RW conditions. Based on our findings, we conclude that VH role-players can be as effective as RH role-players to support the practice of leadership skills, where VH-MR could be the best method due to its effectiveness.
... Another two emerging trends are the use of agents as companions (e.g., as therapy partners) and the modeling of agent personality and empathy. Other articles focused on IVAs in a certain domain, for example, for education and training [300], professional skills training [42], or healthcare [225]. Some reviews specifcally address empathy [270] or the nonverbal behavior [30] of agents. ...
... Although some of the above-mentioned trainings are virtual, there are no examples mentioned yet of training programs for assertiveness with a virtual agent. However, virtual agents, sometimes in combination with virtual reality devices, are used for many different types of training programs, among which are social skills [36,37]. An example is the automated social skills trainer (ASST) [38], a training in which human-agent interaction takes place via user speech and language interaction. ...
Doorstep scams, scams in which con artists tell convincing but fraudulent stories in order to enter the house of a victim and/or steal personal belongings or information, have a high impact on victims. These victims are often elderly people. Existing campaigns mostly focus on the behavioural aspects that help to prevent a doorstep scam from happening, but verbal skills also contribute to the resilience of possible victims. In this research, a serious game is designed and evaluated for this purpose. The results of the evaluation are positive. The serious game is specifically seen as a valuable addition to existing training meetings.
... Medeiros et al. [47] designed a chatbot that can reduce stress. Bosman et al. [48] summarized the virtual agents of professional social skills training in recent technologies. Formolo et al. [49] obtained interpersonal posture by extracting information from human voice signals. ...
Simulation emergency evacuation is an important part in the field of safety engineering, affective computing plays a vital role in the popularization of artificial intelligence, computer simulation and human-computer interaction. Inspired by this field, this paper proposes a method for simulating group interactions during emergency evacuation. First, each individual is assigned with dynamic survival needs and psychological quality based on urgent event and the external influence. Second, the emotional interaction of the group is realized based on OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) personality trait and the improved CA-SIRS (Cellular Automaton-Susceptible Infected Recovered Susceptible) model. Third, after the perception of the external environment changes, the accident experience and panic level are used as factors of emotion update. At last, the environmental familiarity and nearby flow factors are introduced to path planning process. Based on emotion contagion, this method explores individual’s emotional changes in different scenarios and situations. Combined with personality traits and emotional contagion, the experimental results show that the proposed method can simulate dynamic emotional changes in emergency situations in both efficient and reasonable way and provide guidance for emergency evacuation.
... For example, Tanaka et al. [4] used virtual agents to assess listening skills and Jones et al. [5] used them for expressing social attitudes. See [6] for an overview interactive agents dedicated to social training. Theoretical background work involving small group formations, including the definition of F-formations, o-spaces and personal spaces [7], [8] is a basis for designing the social demonstrator and have been used to model and study group joining and leaving behavior [9]. ...
Verbal and non-verbal behaviors that we use in order to effectively communicate with other people are vital for our success in our daily lives. Despite the importance of social skills, creating standardized methods for training them and supporting their training is challenging. Information and Communications Technology (ICT) may have a good potential to support social and emotional learning (SEL) through virtual social demonstration games. This paper presents initial work involving the design of a pedagogical scenario to facilitate teaching of socially appropriate and inappropriate behaviors when entering and standing in a small group of people, a common occurrence in collaborative social situations. This is achieved through the use of virtual characters and, initially, virtual reality (VR) environments for supporting situated learning in multiple contexts. We describe work done thus far on the demonstrator scenario and anticipated potentials, pitfalls and challenges involved in the approach.
To aid in teaching dialogue skills a virtual simulator called Communicate! was developed at Utrecht University. Teachers can build scenarios for students to practice dialogues with a virtual character. In two experiments ( n = 128 and 133, a year apart), we investigated if and how Communicate! can be an effective aid to study and practice dialogue skills, by comparing it to traditional “passive” learning tools, such as literature-study and a lecture, in an undergraduate psychology dialogue-skills course. Students were divided into four groups, two of which both read an article about conducting a bad-news dialogue and played a bad-news-dialogue-scenario (but in a different order), while the third group only played the scenario. The final group only read the article (expt. 1) or also attended a lecture on the topic (expt. 2). Playing a scenario improved performance on a different scenario played later. It increased the students’ reported engagement and motivation to learn about this topic, compared to reading the article, whereas their reported self-efficacy decreased, which may indicate a recognized learning need. It also increased the score on an MC-knowledge test on this type of dialogue. This suggests that online dialogue simulations aid studying (basic) dialogue skills, by providing flexible, authentic learning experiences.
Since the end of the last century, the automatic processing of paralinguistics has been investigated widely and put into practice in many applications, on wearables, smartphones, and computers. In this contribution, we address ethical awareness for paralinguistic applications, by establishing taxonomies for data representations, system designs for and a typology of applications, and users/test sets and subject areas. These are related to an “ethical grid” consisting of the most relevant ethical cornerstones, based on principalism. The characteristics of and the interdependencies between these taxonomies are described and exemplified. This makes it possible to assess more or less critical “ethical constellations.” To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt of its kind.
The use of conversational agents in computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) has been identified as a useful tactic for motivational intervention. The purpose of the current study was to design and implement a conversational agent called MOCA that incorporated motivational interviewing (MI) and was based on an intelligent dialogue engine to enhance learner engagement in CSCL. Additionally, the study empirically examined the effects of MOCA on promoting positive changes in collaborative learning engagement through multiturn conversation interventions. A prototype system was developed by combining MOCA and an immersive virtual world, and an effectiveness study was conducted with 40 volunteers. A series of multilevel growth models based on the framework of hierarchical linear model (HLM) was established through multiwave longitudinal data. The results indicated that the use of MOCA significantly improved student engagement scores (p < .001) and that female students performed better on collaborative tasks than male students (p < .05, t = 2.97). Additionally, time was an important predictor and significantly interacted with the MOCA-use condition. The study has implications for the design and assessment of conversational agents embodied in virtual reality.
‘Role-play’ is a ubiquitous method for training people in workplace settings of all kinds to better interact with other colleagues and members of the public. Van Hasselt, Romano and Vecchi define role-play as ‘simulations of real-world interpersonal encounters, communications, or events’ (2008, p. 251). Typically, role-play methods involve the people being trained or assessed interacting with actors or other simulated interlocutors, using ‘narrative adaptations’ of hypothetical or actual scenarios as the basis for the simulated encounter (Van Hasselt, Romano and Vecchi, 2008, p. 254, see also Rosenbaum and Ferguson, 2006). In addition to its training function, role-play is used to assess ‘communication skills’ across numerous workplace settings. It is also used more generally as a pedagogical tool in educational contexts (e.g., Andresen, 2005; Rogers and Evans, 2007), and to assess other sorts of psychological competences (e.g., Leising, Rehbein and Sporberg, 2007; Palmieri et al., 2007).
While virtual humans are proven tools for training, education and research, they are far from realizing their full potential. Advances are needed in individual capabilities, such as character animation and speech synthesis, but perhaps more importantly, fundamental questions remain as to how best to integrate these capabilities into a single framework that allows us to efficiently create characters that can engage users in meaningful and realistic social interactions. This integration requires in-depth, inter-disciplinary understanding few individuals, or even teams of individuals, possess. We help address this challenge by introducing the ICT Virtual Human Toolkit, which offers a flexible framework for exploring a variety of different types of virtual human systems, from virtual listeners and question-answering characters to virtual role-players. We show that due to its modularity, the Toolkit allows researchers to mix and match provided capabilities with their own, lowering the barrier of entry to this multi-disciplinary research challenge.
NPCEditor is a system for building a natural language-processing component for virtual humans capable of engaging a user in spoken dialog on a limited domain. It uses statistical language-classification technology for mapping from a user's text input to system responses. NPCEditor provides a user-friendly editor for creating effective virtual humans quickly. It has been deployed as a part of various virtual human systems in several applications. Copyright © 2011, Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence. All rights reserved.
In this paper, I address the question as to why participants tend to respond realistically to situations and events portrayed within an immersive virtual reality system. The idea is put forward, based on the experience of a large number of experimental studies, that there are two orthogonal components that contribute to this realistic response. The first is 'being there', often called 'presence', the qualia of having a sensation of being in a real place. We call this place illusion (PI). Second, plausibility illusion (Psi) refers to the illusion that the scenario being depicted is actually occurring. In the case of both PI and Psi the participant knows for sure that they are not 'there' and that the events are not occurring. PI is constrained by the sensorimotor contingencies afforded by the virtual reality system. Psi is determined by the extent to which the system can produce events that directly relate to the participant, the overall credibility of the scenario being depicted in comparison with expectations. We argue that when both PI and Psi occur, participants will respond realistically to the virtual reality.
One can use a number of techniques (e.g., from videotaping to computer enhancement of the environment) to augment the feedback that a subject usually receives during training on a motor task. Although some forms of augmented feedback have been shown to enhance performance on isolated isometric tasks during training, when the feedback has been removed subjects have sometimes not been able to perform as well in the "real-world" task as controls. Indeed, for realistic, nonisometric motor tasks, improved skill acquisition because of augmented feedback has not been demonstrated. In the present experiments, subjects (Experiment 1, N = 42; Experiment 2, N = 21) performed with a system that was designed for teaching a difficult multijoint movement in a table tennis environment. The system was a fairly realistic computer animation of the environment and included paddles for the teacher and subject, as well as a virtual ball. Each subject attempted to learn a difficult shot by matching the pattern of movements of the expert teacher. Augmented feedback focused the attention of the subject on a minimum set of movement details that were most relevant to the task; feedback was presented in a form that required the least perceptual processing. Effectiveness of training was determined by measuring their performance in the real task. Subjects who received the virtual environment training performed significantly better than subjects who received a comparable amount of real-task practice or coaching. Kinematic analysis indicated that practice with the expert's trajectory served as a basis for performance on the real-world task and that the movements executed after training were subject-specific modifications of the expert's trajectory. Practice with this trajectory alone was not sufficient for transfer to the real task, however: When a critical component of the virtual environment was removed, subjects showed no transfer to the real task.
The Handbook of Communication Skills is recognised as one of the core texts in the field of communication, offering a state-of-the-art overview of this rapidly evolving field of study. This comprehensively revised and updated fourth edition arrives at a time when the realm of interpersonal communication has attracted immense attention. Recent research showing the potency of communication skills for success in many walks of life has stimulated considerable interest in this area, both from academic researchers, and from practitioners whose day-to-day work is so dependent on effective social skills.
Covering topics such as non-verbal behaviour, listening, negotiation and persuasion, the book situates communication in a range of different contexts, from interacting in groups to the counselling interview. Based on the core tenet that interpersonal communication can be conceptualised as a form of skilled activity, and including new chapters on cognitive behavioural therapy and coaching and mentoring, this new edition also places communication in context with advances in digital technology.
The Handbook of Communication Skills represents the most significant single contribution to the literature in this domain. Providing a rich mine of information for the neophyte and practising professional, it is perfect for use in a variety of contexts, from theoretical mainstream communication modules on degree programmes to vocational courses in health, business and education. With contributions from an internationally renowned range of scholars, this is the definitive text for students, researchers and professionals alike.
This book constitutes the proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents, IVA 2017, held in Stockholm, Sweden, in August 2017. The 30 regular papers and 31 demo papers presented in this volume were carefully reviewed and selected from 78 submissions.
The annual IVA conference represents the main interdisciplinary scientic forum for presenting research on modeling, developing, and evaluating intelligent virtual agents (IVAs) with a focus on communicative abilities and social behavior.
Background:
Embodied conversational agents (ECAs) are computer-generated characters that simulate key properties of human face-to-face conversation, such as verbal and nonverbal behavior. In Internet-based eHealth interventions, ECAs may be used for the delivery of automated human support factors.
Objective:
We aim to provide an overview of the technological and clinical possibilities, as well as the evidence base for ECA applications in clinical psychology, to inform health professionals about the activity in this field of research.
Methods:
Given the large variety of applied methodologies, types of applications, and scientific disciplines involved in ECA research, we conducted a systematic scoping review. Scoping reviews aim to map key concepts and types of evidence underlying an area of research, and answer less-specific questions than traditional systematic reviews. Systematic searches for ECA applications in the treatment of mood, anxiety, psychotic, autism spectrum, and substance use disorders were conducted in databases in the fields of psychology and computer science, as well as in interdisciplinary databases. Studies were included if they conveyed primary research findings on an ECA application that targeted one of the disorders. We mapped each study's background information, how the different disorders were addressed, how ECAs and users could interact with one another, methodological aspects, and the study's aims and outcomes.
Results:
This study included N=54 publications (N=49 studies). More than half of the studies (n=26) focused on autism treatment, and ECAs were used most often for social skills training (n=23). Applications ranged from simple reinforcement of social behaviors through emotional expressions to sophisticated multimodal conversational systems. Most applications (n=43) were still in the development and piloting phase, that is, not yet ready for routine practice evaluation or application. Few studies conducted controlled research into clinical effects of ECAs, such as a reduction in symptom severity.
Conclusions:
ECAs for mental disorders are emerging. State-of-the-art techniques, involving, for example, communication through natural language or nonverbal behavior, are increasingly being considered and adopted for psychotherapeutic interventions in ECA research with promising results. However, evidence on their clinical application remains scarce. At present, their value to clinical practice lies mostly in the experimental determination of critical human support factors. In the context of using ECAs as an adjunct to existing interventions with the aim of supporting users, important questions remain with regard to the personalization of ECAs' interaction with users, and the optimal timing and manner of providing support. To increase the evidence base with regard to Internet interventions, we propose an additional focus on low-tech ECA solutions that can be rapidly developed, tested, and applied in routine practice.
Laboratory experience is a key factor in technical and scientific education. Virtual laboratories have been proposed to reduce cost and simplify maintenance of lab facilities while still providing students with access to real systems. It is important to determine if such virtual labs are still effective for student learning. In the assessment of a graduate computer networks course, the author quantifies the amount of learning that is observed in lectures and labs. The results not only show that learning indeed occurs during lab sessions, but almost equally as much (45.9%) as in lectures (54.1%). Also, it is observed that even students who have prior experience in networking benefit from virtual labs.
The success of a virtual learning environment (VLE) depends to a considerable extent on student acceptance and use of such an e-learning system. After critically assessing models of technology adoption, including the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), TAM2, and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Usage of Technology (UTAUT), we build a conceptual model to explain the differences between individual students in the level of acceptance and use of a VLE. This model extends TAM2 and includes subjective norm, personal innovativeness in the domain of information technology, and computer anxiety. Data were collected from 45 Chinese participants in an Executive MBA program. After performing satisfactory reliability and validity checks, the structural model was tested with the use of PLS. Results indicate that perceived usefulness has a direct effect on VLE use. Perceived ease of use and subjective norm have only indirect effects via perceived usefulness. Both personal innovativeness and computer anxiety have direct effects on perceived ease of use only. Implications are that program managers in education should not only concern themselves with basic system design but also explicitly address individual differences between VLE users.
This paper presents an architecture for a memory model that facilitates versatile reasoning mechanisms over the beliefs stored in an agentpsilas belief base. Based on an approach for belief aggregation, a model is introduced for controlling both the formation of abstract and complex beliefs and the retrieval of them based on their activation history. An implementation of the presented mechanisms illustrates how it can be used in intelligent agents that exhibit human-like (biased) reasoning as well as rational reasoning.
Good doctors communicate effectively with patients—they identify patients' problems more accurately, and patients are more satisfied with the care they receive. But what are the necessary communication skills and how can doctors acquire them?
When doctors use communication skills effectively, both they and their patients benefit. Firstly, doctors identify their patients' problems more accurately.1 Secondly, their patients are more satisfied with their care and can better understand their problems, investigations, and treatment options. Thirdly, patients are more likely to adhere to treatment and to follow advice on behaviour change.2 Fourthly, patients' distress and their vulnerability to anxiety and depression are lessened. Finally, doctors' own wellbeing is improved.3–5 We present evidence that doctors do not communicate with their patients as well as they should, and we consider possible reasons for this. We also describe the skills essential for effective communication and discuss how doctors can acquire these skills.
#### Summary points
We used original research studies into doctor-patient communication, particularly those examining the relation between key consultation skills and how well certain tasks (such as explaining treatment options) were achieved. We used key words (“communication skills,” “consultation skills,” and “interviewing skills” whether associated with “training” or not) to search Embase, PsycINFO, and Medline over the past 10 years. We also searched the Cochrane database of abstracts of reviews of effectiveness (DARE).
### Box 1: Key tasks in communication with patients RETURN TO TEXT
During the past decades, the virtual reality community has based its development on a synthesis of earlier work in interactive 3D graphics, user interfaces, and visual simulation. Currently, the VR field is transitioning into work influenced by video games. Because much of the research and development being conducted in the games community parallels the VR community's efforts, it has the potential to affect a greater audience. Given these trends, VR researchers who want their work to remain relevant must realign to focus on game research and development. Leveraging technology from the visual simulation and virtual reality communities, serious games provide a delivery system for organizational video game instruction and training.
Artificial intelligence researchers attempting to create engaging, apparently living creatures may find important insight in the work of artists who have explored the idea of believable character. In particular, appropriately timed and clearly expressed emotion is a central requirement for believable characters. We discuss these ideas and suggest how they may apply to believable interactive characters, which we call "believable agents." This work was supported in part by Fujitsu Laboratories and Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of any other parties. Keywords: artificial intelligence, emotion, believable agents, art, animation, believable characters. 1 BELIEVABILITY 1 1 Believability There is a notion in the Arts of "believable character." It does not mean an honest or reliable character, but one th...
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