The effects of climate change on decomposition processes in Andean Paramo ecosystem-synthesis, a systematic review

Abstract

The paramo is a high mountain ecosystem with cold and humid climate, it has high amount of sunlight and cloudiness, furthermore, organic matter has low decomposition rates, hence, leaf litter degradation gets 40% per year as maximum. In the last 70 years, the air temperature near the surface of the Tropical Andes has increased significantly up to 0.34 °C/decade. In the same region, it is estimated that in this century the average temperature will vary from <+ 1.60 °C to >+ 2.61 °C, which exceeds the threshold of natural climatic variability. On the other hand, although precipitation along the Andes has not shown an increase or diminish pattern between 1955 and 1994, it is projected that by the year 2100, it will decrease in the outer tropics and will increase in the interior tropics. In this paper, we discuss how the decomposition of organic matter in paramo areas is influenced by climate change and analyze how current trends of variation in temperature are projected to affect ecosystem processes. Previous studies have determined that the increase of the atmospheric temperature (as long as the humidity remains stable or increases), generates higher decomposition rates, so that an increase of 1 °C in the atmospheric temperature would also mean an increase in the rate of decomposition of up to 10%. These changes would cause the release of the carbon accumulated in the soil to the atmosphere as CO2, which would be a determining factor for climate change.

Full text

Gutiérrez - Salazar – Medrano-Vizcaíno: The effects of climate change on decomposition processes in Andean paramo ecosystem–
synthesis, a systematic review
- 4957 -
APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 17(2):4957-4970.
http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_49574970
 2019, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON DECOMPOSITION
PROCESSES IN ANDEAN PARAMO ECOSYSTEM–SYNTHESIS, A
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
GUTIÉRREZ-SALAZAR, P.1* – MEDRANO-VIZCAÍNO, P.2
1Grupo de Investigación Ambiental para el Desarrollo Sustentable (GIADES) Universidad
Politécnica Salesiana, Rumichaca y Morán Valverde s/n, Quito, Ecuador
(phone: +593-2-396-2900; fax: +593-2-396-2800)
2Centro de Biología, Laboratorio de Zoología, Universidad Central del Ecuador,
Av. Universitaria 170129, Quito, Ecuador
(phone/fax: +593-2-252-8810)
*Corresponding author
e-mail: pgutierrez@ups.edu.ec; phone: +593-2-396-2900
(Received 8th Nov 2018; accepted 5th Mar 2019)
Abstract. The paramo is a high mountain ecosystem with cold and humid climate, it has high amount of
sunlight and cloudiness, furthermore, organic matter has low decomposition rates, hence, leaf litter
degradation gets 40% per year as maximum. In the last 70 years, the air temperature near the surface of
the Tropical Andes has increased significantly up to 0.34 °C/decade. In the same region, it is estimated
that in this century the average temperature will vary from <+ 1.60 °C to >+ 2.61 °C, which exceeds the
threshold of natural climatic variability. On the other hand, although precipitation along the Andes has
not shown an increase or diminish pattern between 1955 and 1994, it is projected that by the year 2100, it
will decrease in the outer tropics and will increase in the interior tropics. In this paper, we discuss how the
decomposition of organic matter in paramo areas is influenced by climate change and analyze how
current trends of variation in temperature are projected to affect ecosystem processes. Previous studies
have determined that the increase of the atmospheric temperature (as long as the humidity remains stable
or increases), generates higher decomposition rates, so that an increase of 1 °C in the atmospheric
temperature would also mean an increase in the rate of decomposition of up to 10%. These changes
would cause the release of the carbon accumulated in the soil to the atmosphere as CO2, which would be a
determining factor for climate change.
Keywords: CO2, global warming, greenhouse gases, organic matter, temperature
Introduction
The paramo is a high mountain ecosystem in the humid tropic, it is located in the
Andes, the Afroalpine zone, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (Buytaert et al., 2011).
This ecosystem has a cold and humid climate, with high amount of sunlight and
cloudiness, its temperature gets an anual average of 10 °C at 3000 m a.s.l. and reaches
0 °C at 4600 m a.s.l. (Llambí et al., 2013). Climate conditions in this region are
variable, so that, the daily thermal amplitude ranges between 10 and 15 °C in the air and
in clear days it reaches 50 °C in the soil surface (Llambí et al., 2013), while
precipitation ranges between 700 mm to 3000 mm/year (Llambí et al., 2013). Despite
climate conditions, there is a high biological diversity and endemism, approximately
3400 species of vascular plants inhabit the paramo of South America and 60% are
endemic (Luteyn, 1999; Rangel Churio, 2000).
Paramo is considered as a carbon sink, it can store a higher quantity of carbon per
hectare than tropical forests (Hofstede et al., 2014). It accumulates between 119 and

Gutiérrez - Salazar – Medrano-Vizcaíno: The effects of climate change on decomposition processes in Andean paramo ecosystem–
synthesis, a systematic review
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APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 17(2):4957-4970.
http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_49574970
 2019, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
397 tons per hectare (t/ha) in 0 to 40 cm depth, (Castañeda–Martín and Montes–Pulido,
2017) meanwhile bofedales show an approximate accumulation of carbon of 30 kg m²
(Segnini et al., 2010).
In addition to carbon storage in mineral soils, there is also accumulation of organic
matter in peat bogs (Hofstede et al., 2014). In the north of Ecuador, it was estimated the
average organic matter quantity in two peat bogs is 1282 t/ha (Hribljan et al., 2016),
with an accumulation of 4.6 t/ha/year (Chimner and Karberg, 2008). Moreover, paramo
vegetation contributes with fresh organic matter to soil, which means about 6 to
13 t/ha/year (Escobedo–Urquizo, 1980).
On the other hand, despite the importance of paramo through supplying
environmental services such as water provision, climate regulation and carbon
accumulation in soil), it is one of the more vulnerable terrestrial ecosystems to global
climate change (Buytaert et al., 2011; Ruiz et al., 2008). It is found within alpine life
zones that are highly sensitive to climate change because its distribution has been
closely related to temperature and precipitation patterns (Cuesta et al., 2017). Likewise,
if high mountain ecosystems lose humidity and the annual average temperature gets
higher, it would cause an increasing conversion of organic matter into atmospheric
carbon, which would favor climate change conditions (Buytaert et al., 2011; Jones et al.,
2005).
In the same way, an increasing environmental temperature would augment the
evaporation and evapotranspiration, altering the precipitation patterns (Arnell, 1999),
which could cause a deficit in water supply to populations that depend directly on water
from the paramo, like Quito and Bogotá (Buytaert et al., 2011).
In the Tropical Andes region, environmental temperature has shown an increasing
trend of 0.11 °C/decade from 1939 to 1998 and 0.34 °C/decade from 1974 to 1998
(Buytaert et al., 2014). Regarding precipitation, changes have not been significant in all
the region (Vuille et al., 2003). Nevertheless, records from weather stations indicate
higher precipitation levels for Ecuador, but lower levels Peru and Bolivia (Buytaert et
al., 2014).
The aim of this paper is to comprehensively review the state of knowledge of
decomposition and climate change in paramo ecosystems to understand the
consequences on ecological processes, and to obtain ideas to develop strategies to
mitigate the effects of climate change.
Decomposition and climate projections
Climate projections for the Andean Region show an increase in the average
temperature up to 5 °C on the eastern flank of Ecuador and Peru (Herzog et al., 2012).
Precipitation has a mixed pattern: increasing in the eastern and western flanks and
decreasing in the inter Andean region up to 15% (Vuille et al., 2008; Urrutia, 2008;
IPCC, 2013; Kirtman et al., 2013)
Predictions of global climate models and regional models for the Andean region have
a high range of uncertainty due to lack of meteorological stations at altitudes above
3000 m a.s.l. (Buytaert et al., 2014). However, these projections are important to
analyze the effects that climate change could have on the stability of ecosystems,
environmental services and ecological processes (IPCC, 2007), especially because
climate change has the capacity to alter physical and biological processes, threatening
survival of endangered species (Carroll et al., 2015). For example, many studies have

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synthesis, a systematic review
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_49574970
 2019, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
focused on assessing the influence of climate change on certain species, and some
results suggest that climate change conditions could lead to changes in communities
composition, populations declines, range shifts, changes in relative abundance and high
extinction risks (Gillings et al., 2015; Bush et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2016; Dalamsuren
et al., 2017; Pecl et al., 2017; Urban, 2015).
Decomposition comprises physical and chemical processes that allow the reduction
of macromolecules into their essential components (Aerts, 1997) generating CO2 and
soluble forms of nutrients that can be recycled in plants and other organisms (Cronan,
2018). Most of the organic matter that is involved in this process in terrestrial
ecosystems are derived from plants (leaf litter, stems, root exudates) (Carter et al.,
2007), while influential factors are: weather, chemical composition of leaf litter and soil
organisms (Coûteaux et al., 1995; Aerts, 1997, 2006).
Concerning climate, temperature and soil moisture (commonly referred to as climate
decomposition index) have shown to be the best predictors of decomposition rates
(Parton et al., 2007)), they can slow or accelerate organic matter decomposition
(Davidson and Janssens, 2006; Coûteaux et al., 2002).
As shown, it is evident that decomposition is different in every ecosystem (Zhang et
al., 2008; Djukic et al., 2018). This was verified by assessing decomposition rates in
three regions of the planet: Tropical, Temperate and Mediterranean, the average values
obtained per year were 2.33, 0.36, 0.35 respectively, showing that in humid tropics the
decomposition rate is higher than in the temperate and Mediterranean zones (Aerts,
1997).
Regarding chemical composition of organic matter, leaf litter quality has a
significant and predictable influence on the temperature sensitivity of organic matter
decomposition (Fierer et al., 2005), besides, it is also important during decomposition
phases due to its effects on humus formation (Coûteaux et al., 1995). Likewise, certain
plant species have low decomposition rates compared to their high lignin content
(Zhang et al., 2008) or presence of polyphenols that inhibit degradation (Hättenschwiler
et al., 2005).
Although bacteria and fungi are the main decomposer organisms, macroinvertebrates
also play a fundamental role, starting the process of litter crushing (Ulyshen, 2016).
While more organisms participate in degrading organic matter, an increase in the rate of
decomposition is generated (Smith and Bradford, 2003; Wall et al., 2008).
Given the sensitivity of decomposition to climatic conditions, it is understood that
global warming will increase litter decomposition rates, through direct effects and
through indirect effects on leaf litter quality and soil organisms (Aerts, 2006).
Organic matter decomposition in paramo ecosystems
Decomposition process in paramo ecosystems is mainly limited by atmospheric
temperature that shows a high daily variation (temperature differences higher than
20 °C between night and day are common) (Hofstede et al., 2014). On the other hand, in
paramo ecosystems with volcanic origins, an important factor is the presence of vesicles
that organic matter generates with aluminum from volcanic ashes, turning into chemical
complexes that are resistant to organisms degradation (Hofstede et al., 2003, 2014;
Bottner et al., 2006).
As mentioned before, although bacteria communities are important for
decomposition (Bottner et al., 2006; Pansu et al., 2004), invertebrates also play an

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_49574970
 2019, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
important role in the disintegration of organic matter (Ulyshen, 2016), its diversity is
associated with the presence of vegetation (Ewers et al., 2015) and, richness of soil
fauna together with climate are associated with decomposition rates globally (Wall et
al., 2008).
Concerning leaf litter quality, decomposition process in paramo do not depend on
lignin concentration. As paramo vegetation is mainly composed by rosettes, cushions,
shrubs and herbs (Ramsay and Oxley, 1997) it is not woody, then its lignin content
would be low (Coûteaux et al., 1995). Nevertheless, some species contain aromatic
resins that decrease the rate of decomposition (Smith, 1981).
Several studies have analyzed decomposition processes in High Andean ecosystems
focusing research in: 1) the effect of human activities on decomposition (Jiang et al.,
2015; Ossola et al., 2016; Urbina and Benavides, 2015), 2) influence of altitude in
organic matter decomposition (Coûteaux et al., 2002; Röderstein et al., 2005) and 3)
factors that influence on organic matter decomposition (Bottner et al., 2006; Pansu et
al., 2004, 2007; Ibrahim et al., 2015; Martinez et al., 2007; Pinos et al., 2017).
Climate change and organic matter decomposition
It is expected that in this century, the increasing CO2 concentrations and other
greenhouse gases in Earths atmosphere cause warmer surface temperatures and changes
in precipitation patterns (IPCC, 2013). These environmental changes could affect the
carbon cycle, modifying the function and ecosystem services (Dukes et al., 2005).
In order to determine the influence of climate change on ecosystems, models have
been generated to simulate the response of the decomposition process to climate change,
which have made it possible to determine that an increasing atmospheric temperature
will produce a decrease of 54 gigatons (Gt) in the global carbon stock of the soil for
2100 (Jones et al., 2005).
In addition, some studies have shown the influence of climate change on the
decomposition process, so that, it was determined that the increase in soil temperature
accelerates the decomposition process in Arctic soils (Robinson et al., 1995), while in
other study, researchers determined that the decomposition process is limited by
moisture in the xeric zones and in the mesic zone it is determined by temperature (Shaw
and Harte, 2001). On the other hand, a research using experimental microcosms,
determined that the change of climatic conditions in a short term (from days to decades)
strongly influences the decomposition process of litter (Strickland et al., 2015).
Climate change and organic matter decomposition in Andean paramos
In the Tropical Andes, atmospheric temperature near surface has increased
significantly in the last 70 years (Vuille et al., 2008). A regression analysis with
ordinary least squares indicates a warming of 0.10 °C/decade and a general temperature
increase of 0.68 °C since 1939 (Vuille et al., 2008). Furthermore, it is suggested that in
this century, in a scenario with a balanced use of fossil fuels and energies of non–fossil
origin (scenario of A1B emissions), the temperature for Tropical Andes region will
probably vary from <+ 1.60 °C to >+ 2.61 °C, exceeding the threshold of natural
climatic variability (+ 1.78 °C) (Ruiz–Carrascal et al., 2017).
In the case of precipitation, there are no reports of increasing or decreasing patterns
at a regional levels between 1955 and 1994 (Vuille et al., 2003). For the period 2071–
2100 in a scenario of A1 emissions (rapid economic growth at global level, a maximum

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_49574970
 2019, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
of the worlds population by the middle of the century and a rapid introduction of new
and more efficient technologies) precipitation along the Andes would present a mixed
pattern of increase and decrease that goes from –50 to 250% (Urrutia, 2008). In general
terms, it is projected that for the second half of the 20th century, rainfall will decrease in
the outer tropics and increase in the interior tropics (Urrutia, 2008; Vuille et al., 2008).
According climatic projections for the Andean Region (10°–20°S) (Herzog et al.,
2012), with a high population growth (scenario of A2 emissions), an increase in average
temperature and precipitation would occur by the end of the 21st century, for example,
on the western flank of the northern Peru, the increase in rainfall would be up to 70%,
while in the Inter Andean region of Colombia a decrease of up to 15% will occur; and
an increase of 5 °C of temperature is projected in the eastern flank of Ecuador and Peru
(Herzog et al., 2012).
In the Fifth Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) results
of projections for an immediate climate change (Period 2016–2035 regarding 1986–
2005 in RCP4.5 scenario comparable with B1) in the Andean Region suggest an
increase in temperature of up to 1.5 and an increase in precipitation of up to 10%
(IPCC, 2013; Kirtman et al., 2013).
An eventual change in the temperature and humidity of the paramo soil would lead to
a modification in decomposition processes. It is necessary to consider that high Andean
ecosystems would be more sensitive than the humid tropical forest in conditions of
increasing temperature, with a trend to increase the rate of decomposition, therefore
carbon sink ecosystemic services would be affected. In addition, it is important to
mention that it is unknown how microbial communities would participate in different
climate change scenarios (Hofstede et al., 2014).
While preparing this document, a considerable amount of information about the
impact of climate change on soil and biodiversity was found. However, in the few
investigations found about the effect of climate change on the decomposition process in
the paramo (Appendix 2), it was determined that the increase in atmospheric
temperature accelerates decomposition rates.
Climate change in the Andean Region will increase decomposition and
mineralization rates up to 10% (Salinas et al., 2011). In situ studies through an
altitudinal gradient, have allowed to project the changes of climatic conditions, being
able to determine that the decomposition rate in the Andean paramo will be influenced
by an increase in the air temperature (Espín Meneses, 2012). Furthermore, even if
atmospheric temperature increases, when humidity decreases, decomposition rate
decreases too, it happens not only due to its direct incidence on degradation process but
also because it alters abundance and richness of decomposing organisms (Looby and
Treseder, 2018).
Conclusions
Despite the importance of decomposition process in the functioning of ecosystems
and although since 1939 there have been alarming reports of a general increase in
temperature of 0.68 °C for Tropical Andes region, there are few studies about the
influence of climate change on decomposition in paramo areas, in other words,
knowledge about this issue is currently scarce.
Decomposition process at biomes scale is controlled by climate, then climate change
can directly affect the functioning of ecosystems. Studies about this issue mention that

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_49574970
 2019, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
the rate of decomposition increases with higher temperatures (only when humidity is
maintained or increased), then an increase of 1 °C in atmospheric temperature could
cause the decomposition rate to increase by up to 10%.
Projections suggest that in this century, paramo areas will have constant humidity
and increasing temperatures exceeding 2 °C. According to this climate scenario, the rate
of decomposition would increase, causing the carbon accumulated in the organic matter
of the soil to be emitted back into the atmosphere
Exploring studies about the effect of climate change in decomposition rates in
paramo ecosystems is still a challenge, we need to conduct experimental research in
order to understand how ecological processes work in this ecosystem. Generating
knowledge will provide people new ideas to mitigate effects of climate change for
present and future scenarios.
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_49574970
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_49574970
 2019, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
APPENDIX
Appendix 1. Studies about decomposition process in paramo ecosystems
Authors
Year
Title
Conclusions
Decomposition %
Hofstede
1995
The effects of
grazing and
burning on soil and
plant nutrient
concentrations in
Colombian paramo
grasslands.
There is greater
decomposition in sites
with high affectation by
grazing and burning than
in sites without
disturbances.
In areas without
disturbance, litter loss is
up to 11.3 ± 4.64% per
year. While in areas
exposed to livestock and
fire, the decomposition
rate is 34.3 ± 8.03% per
year.
Chapela et al.
2001
Ectomycorrhizal
fungi introduced
with exotic pine
plantations induce
soil carbon
depletion.
Paramo soil with Pinus
radiata plantations
contain less carbon than
paramo grassland. It is
caused by the
introduction of
ectomycorrhizas in the
roots of the pines.
The soil of the pine
plantations of 10 to 20
years, show 30% less C
than soils of pasture
paramos.
Coûteaux et al.
2002
Decomposition of
standard plant
material along an
altitudinal transect
(65–3968 m) in the
tropical Andes.
Decomposition rates
decrease along with
decreasing temperatures
(while altitude is higher).
Five altitudes were
assessed: 95, 165, 780,
1800, 3400 y 3968 m
a.s.l., carbon loss
percentage in the first
year was 78.7, 76.6, 67.5,
62.9, 40.4 and 42.8
respectively.
Sarmiento and
Bottner
2002
Carbon and
nitrogen dynamics
in two soils with
different fallow
times in the high
tropical Andes:
indications for
fertility restoration.
In an agricultural area of
the Andean region above
3000 m a.s.l.,
decomposition of straw
in a restored soil is
significantly faster than
in a degraded soil.
Soil carbon loss was
expressed as the initial
percentage of 14C added
to the soil (mineralized).
The percentage of
mineralization of 14C
after 12 weeks of
incubation was 43.9% in
the restored soil and
42.9% in the degraded
soil.
Pansu et al.
2004
Comparison of five
soil organic matter
decomposition
models using data
from a 14C and
15N labeling field
experiment.
The best model of
organic matter
decomposition of soil
(MOMOS) uses kinetic
constants: three entries
of microbial biomass
MB and two MB outputs
mortality and respiration
constants. This model
significantly improved
the predictive quality and
robustness of MB-14C
and -15N predictions.
In 720 days, 80% of 14C
was lost in the analyzed
samples. This
decomposition percentage
was obtained in the five
models of soil organic
matter decomposition.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_49574970
 2019, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
Röderstein et al.
2005
Above-and below-
ground litter
production in three
tropical montane
forests in southern
Ecuador.
Decrease in temperature
while altitude increases,
influence the carbon
cycle of montane forests.
The decrease in
temperature along the
slope affects
decomposition.
The litter mass decreased
to less than one third (862
to 263 g m-2 y-1) with
increasing altitudes (1890
m to 3060 m). While
litter production of fine
roots increased in an
approximated factor of
four (506 to 2084 g m-2 y-
1).
Bottner et al.
2006
Factors controlling
decomposition of
soil organic matter
in fallow systems
of the high tropical
Andes: a field
simulation
approach using 14
C- and 15 N-
labelled plant
material.
The relation between C
and N is determinant in
decomposition. If the
C:N relation in the plant
material increases, the
decomposition rate
decreases and the
mortality of the
microbial biomass
increases.
For N-rich plant material
(N + treatment), the total
of 14 C remaining at the
end of the experiment
was similar in the
Gavidia paramo and in
Puna de Patacamaya:
25% of the initial 14 C.
Pansu et al.
2007
Modelling the
transformations
and sequestration
of soil organic
matter in two
contrasting
ecosystems of the
Andes.
The dynamics of 14C
and 15N were very
different in the two
systems. In the puna, the
transformation processes
stop during the long dry
periods, although the
annual total
mineralization is greater
than in paramo.
In dry puna, the 66% of
the 14C initially added
was mineralized during
the first wet season (first
120 days). Subsequently,
the mineralization was
almost paralyzed until the
end of the dry season (on
day 400), then 73% of the
aggregate 14C was
mineralized after the
second wet season (on
day 500) and 75% on day
690 after the first rain that
followed the last long dry
period. In humid paramo,
only 42% of the 14C
added was mineralized
during the initial phase of
the process, then
mineralization progressed
slowly, until
approximately 65% of the
14C was mineralized
after 1 year, and the 75%
after 2 years.
Martinez et al.
2007
Succession pattern
of carrion-feeding
insects in Paramo,
Colombia.
The succession of
scavenger insects can be
an indicator of the state
of decomposition and the
time elapsed after an
organism death.
After 83 days, 83% of the
initial weight of Sus
scrofa corpse had been
lost. Five stages of
decomposition were
identified with indicator
species: Calliphora
nigribasis in the fresh

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 2019, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
stage; Compsomyiops
verena in the swollen
stage; Compsomyiops
Bolivian during active
decomposition; Stearibia
nigriceps and Hydrotaea
sp. during the advanced
decay and Leptocera sp.
for dry remains.
Garrido
2011
Study on radial
growth, exchange
and leaf
decomposition of
three Polylepis
species (Rosaceae)
in two locations of
the Ecuadorian
Andes.
There is a highly
significant difference
among species. Polylepis
reticulata had the least
decomposition,
attributed to climatic
conditions as soil
moisture and
temperature, since they
are better predictors of
decomposition than
quality of its organic
matter.
The global average for
the remaining biomass
percentage of leaf
decomposition is 75.44%.
P. reticulata shows a
lower decomposition with
a mean of 86.67 +
7.015% Standard
deviation (D.E.), P.
pattern shows an average
of 75.809 + 12.183%
D.E. and P. incana had a
greater decomposition
with an average of 63.83
+ 16.467% D.E.
Ibrahim et al.
2015
Modelling carbon
turnover through
the microbial
biomass in soil.
Comparison of
predictions with
collected data in the field
showed that the model is
capable of simulating
transformations and
movement (plant-soil-
atmosphere) of the
carbon depending on the
parameters previously
defined
The predictions of the
model showed a higher
microbial content of C
and a higher microbial
respiration activity in the
wheat plots than in vean
plots. The metabolic
coefficient (mg CO2/g
MB C) after 9 months
was 0.04 in wheat and
0.025 in bean.
Urbina and
Benavides
2015
Simulated small
scale disturbances
increase
decomposition
rates and facilitates
invasive species
encroachment in a
high elevation
tropical Andean
peatland.
Decomposition rate in
soil surface (0-10 cm)
triples in fertilized soils
with physical
disturbances in
comparison with the
control (soil without
additions of foreign
materials or physical
disturbances).
Decomposition rate in the
control was 0.09 ± 0.001
and in the plots with
fertilized soils with
physical disturbances was
0.25 ± 0.005.
Pinos et al.
2017
Leaf litterfall and
decomposition of
polylepis reticulata
in the treeline of
the Ecuadorian
Andes.
Temperature was one of
the main regulators for
decomposition rates of
litter. Humidity was not
controlled, then it is not
a limiting factor in
decomposition.
Decomposition rate of
litter of Polylepis
reticulata was 0.38 ± 0.02
per year. The study was
conducted in an
altitudinal range of 3700
to 3900 m a.s.l.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_49574970
 2019, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
Appendix 2. Studies about the effect of climate change in decomposition process in paramo
ecosystem
Authors
Year
Title
Conclusions
Decomposition %
Salinas et al.
2011
The sensitivity of
tropical leaf litter
decomposition to
temperature: results from
a large‐scale leaf
translocation experiment
along an elevation
gradient in Peruvian
forests.
When samples were
grouped between species
and elevations, soil
temperature explained
95% of the variation in
the rate of
decomposition, but no
direct relation with soil
humidity or precipitation
was observed.
Heating of 0.9 °C in the
last decades could have
increased decomposition
and mineralization rates
of nutrients by 10%.
Espín
2012
Altitudinal patterns of
litter decomposition in
two paramo localities
with different climatic
regimes.
Using an altitudinal
gradient to outline
possible in situ scenarios
on climate change is
valid. It is useful to
determine that there is a
strong relation between
temperature and
decomposition rate in the
Andean paramo.
Decomposition rates of
litter could increase up to
5% per year with every
1 °C additional average
diurnal temperature.
Salcedo
2014
Effects of the increasing
temperatures and fires on
Mesofauna (Arthropods)
of the Soil and the
Decomposition of Litter
in a paramo Ecosystem
in the North of Ecuador.
In a cold ecosystem such
as paramo, an increase in
temperature could be
expected to determine
greater decomposition of
litter; however, the
results of the study
showed an opposite
pattern, perhaps as a
result of a decrease, at
least temporarily, in the
moisture content of the
ground.
Decomposition rate in
the treatments that were
heated with cameras
(which increased the
temperature between
0.89 °C and 2.06 °C in
the day and between
0.66 °C and 0.86 °C at
night) They were
between 3 and 4%
slower than treatments
that were not heated with
cameras. The treatment
with the slowest
decomposition was
camera/burning (54.5%
± 1.38), while the
highest decomposition
was recorded in the plots
with the control
treatment (49.7% ± 1.2).
Looby and
Treseder
2018
Shifts in soil fungi and
extracellular enzyme
activity with simulated
climate change in a
tropical montane cloud
forest.
Fungi abundance and
alpha diversity increased
significantly with
warmer temperatures and
drier conditions.
Concerning composition
of fungal community, it
showed a change with
increasing temperatures
With a 4 °C increase and
20% of humidity
decrease, fungal
abundance and richness
grew in 50%.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_49574970
 2019, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
(F = 4.31, R2 = 0.170,
P < 0.001) and
decreasing humidity (F =
4.30, R2 = 0.170,
P < 0.001). Alterations in
the composition of the
community was
associated with changes
in the richness of certain
fungal phylum. There
was a general increase in
Ascomycota richness
with warmer
temperatures and drier
conditions. While, the
richness of
Cryptomycota decreased
in translocated soils to
warmer and drier
conditions.