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Conservation contracts for supplying Farm Animal Genetic Resources (FAnGR) conservation services in Romania
Abstract
This paper describes a choice experiment (CE) administered to explore farmer preferences for conservation agreements to conserve rare breeds among a sample of 174 respondents in Transylvania (Romania). The study site was chosen due to the prevalence of small-scale and extensive farm systems threatened by a changing policy environment that is increasing the scale and intensity of production units. Agreement attributes included length of conservation contract (5 or 10 years); scheme structure (community or individual managed conservation programme), and scheme support (application assistance or farm advisory support). A monetary attribute that reflects compensation for scheme participation allows the assessment of farmers’ willingness to accept (WTA) for different contracts. Results suggest 89% of respondents would be willing to farm with rare breeds; cattle and sheep being the most popular livestock option; 40% of farmers were reportedly farming with endangered breeds. However, only 8% were likely to qualify for funding support under current requirements. WTA estimates reveal minimum annual compensation values of €167 and € 7 per year respectively, for bovine and ovine farmers to consider enrolling in a contract. These values are comparable to Romanian Rural Development Programme (RDP) support offered to farmers keeping rare breeds of € 200 and € 10 per year for bovine and ovine farmers respectively. Our estimates of scheme uptake, calculated with coefficient values derived from the CE, suggest rare breed conservation contracts are considered attractive by Romanian farmers. Analysis suggests meeting farmer preferences for non-monetary contractual factors will increase participation.
... However, its application in the context of biodiversity has been limited (less than 2% of the PES schemes evaluated by Grima et al. [14]) and that related to agrobiodiversity even more. Examples include EU support payments for threatened livestock breeds under Regulations 1257/99 [15] and 1750/99 [16]; and crop genetic resource-related payments for agrobiodiversity conservation services (PACS) schemes from Latin America, Zambia and India (see Drucker and Ramirez [17], Wainwright et al. [18], and Krishna et al. [19]). ...
... Wainwright et al. [18], using a stated preference approach, provide a rare example of a (hypothetical) livestock breed-related conservation tender approach in Romania. They find that while farmer willingness to accept (WTA) was well within the range of the Rural Development Programme (RDP) support payments available, relatively few farmers (8%) were actually likely to qualify for such support. ...
... More attention should also be paid to the implementation arrangements, as was also noted in the Romanian context [18], which is revealed to be an important cause for farmer dissatisfaction with the current scheme. Such dissatisfaction primarily results from the fact that obligations are either difficult to accommodate in practice or are time-consuming and do not generate value for their operations. ...
Local livestock breeds in Slovenia have been eligible for financial incentives in the form of a fixed payment per livestock unit (LU) since 2002. The scheme has however not been successful in reversing the erosion of animal genetic resources (AnGR). This paper investigates an alternative, whereby incentive payments would better reflect breeders’ actual opportunity costs. The paper contributes to the limited existing body of knowledge related to the use of tender mechanisms in the design of the payments for agrobiodiversity conservation schemes (PACS), particularly for AnGR. Empirical findings draw on the results of a stated preference survey involving 301 farmers in Slovenia, engaging, or being potentially able to engage, in the rearing of local pig, sheep and goat breeds. Interval and logistic regression model results suggest that willingness to accept (WTA) conservation support significantly differs from actual payment levels. The estimated WTA was found to be 27% lower for the local sheep and goat breeds and 5% higher for the local pig breed, suggesting that differentiated incentive payments would provide a more cost-effective alternative. Additional analysis of breeders’ preferences and motives for engaging in local livestock breed production further informs understanding regarding AnGR conservation policy and the importance of accompanying actions to reverse negative population trends. These include reducing administrative barriers and enhancing the market valorisation of local breeds.
... The same study estimated that farmers would give up around 400€ per hectare per year for increasing the cattle density by one livestock unit per hectare, reflecting the high opportunity costs of extensification of grazing in Portuguese montados (Santos et al., 2015). Furthermore, Wainwright et al. (2019) observed a nonlinear relationship between payment values and farmers' participation, which indicates the high significance of other contract attributes. also observed that farmers required higher compensation for programs with very high levels of demand and low flexibilities. ...
... The majority of the studies observed that technical support is welcomed by farmers and can lead to higher participation and lower compensation payments (Christensen et al., 2011;Espinosa-Goded et al., 2010;Hasler et al., 2019;Kuhfuss et al., 2015;Ruto & Garrod, 2009). However, farmers did not consider scheme support important for a conservation program in some studies (Franzén et al., 2016;Wainwright et al., 2019). Furthermore, the attribute is highly preferred when it is provided free of cost (Christensen et al., 2011;Kuhfuss et al., 2015). ...
Contract attributes are strong motivators for eliciting farmers’ preferences for a particular agri-environmental scheme. Our study aims to conduct a systematic literature review to highlight the attributes used in choice experiment studies of agri-environmental schemes using the PRISMA framework. We obtained 34 studies for an in-depth review, through which we extracted 32 attributes that were classified into five typologies: ‘monetary’ (7 attributes), ‘general’ (4 attributes), ‘flexibility’ (6 attributes), ‘prescription’ (12 attributes), and ‘purpose’ (3 attributes). Though monetary attributes should theoretically define farmers’ choices; general design and flexibility attributes are more critical for farmers’ participation and willingness to accept. The study also discusses the lesser-used attributes that could be potentially explored in future studies. Thus, our review can be used as a reference by future AES studies to select their bundle of choice attributes and test with a broader range of attributes in their choice experiments.
... In order to deal with these effects, there is an urgent need to transform agriculture, livestock farming, and food systems towards more sustainable production methods that respect the environment and meet consumers' expectations while providing substantial income and good working conditions to the local farmers [10][11][12][13][14]. The reduction in carbon footprints and greenhouse gas fluxes, the production of environmentally friendly and healthier food products, as well as the genetic conservation and preservation of local breeds that are well-adapted to the local environment, are potential strategies that can be profitable and can safeguard natural resources for future generations [8,[15][16][17][18]. ...
Simple Summary
This review highlights the benefits of using valuable alternative feeds such as crop residues, silage, grasses, hay, browse, plant leaves, shrubs, and agro-industrial by-products in small ruminants’ diets. Alternative feeds can significantly improve the productivity and reduce carbon footprints and GHG fluxes of small ruminant farms, making them both environmentally friendly and cost-effective. Additionally, these alternative feeds possess antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiseptic properties that can enhance the quality of the meat and milk produced.
Abstract
Small ruminants, such as sheep (Ovisaries) and goats (Capra hircus), contribute to approximately 475 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2e) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, accounting for approximately 6.5% of the global emissions in the agriculture sector. Crop residues, silage, grasses, hay, browse, plant leaves, shrubs, agro-industrial by-products, poultry litter, and other alternative feed sources are frequently utilized for small ruminant production. The use of these valuable alternative feeds can significantly improve animal productivity and reduce carbon footprints and GHG fluxes, making it both environmentally friendly and cost-effective. Additionally, these alternative feeds possess antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiseptic properties that can enhance the quality of the meat and milk produced. By impacting the bacteria involved in ruminal biohydrogenation, alternative feeds can reduce methane emissions and contribute to a decrease in the carbon footprint. Overall, the use of alternative feed sources for small ruminants generally improves their apparent nutrient digestibility and productivity, and has an impact on the production of greenhouse gases, especially methane. Finally, this review recommends evaluating the economic analysis of reducing methane emissions in small ruminants by utilizing different feed sources and feeding techniques.
... In this context, the reduction of carbon footprint and greenhouse gas fluxes via the decrease in the use of conventional energies [33], the genetic conservation and preservation, and the redeployment of biodiversity [34,35], and the development of climate-smart strategies (e.g. eco-friendly alternatives to chemical pesticides) [36] can be profitable and safeguard natural resources for future generations [30,[37][38][39]. ...
Camel livestock is an ancestral activity in Algeria; however, climate change has forced camel herders to modify their breeding practices to make them more sustainable. This study summarized livestock production practices, milk qualities, and the potential of camel livestock to preserve production ability under global warming. To collect data related to livestock farming practices, 10 camel herders were interviewed using a formal questionnaire. Then, 15 milk samples (9 samples of raw milk and 6 samples that had undergone heat treatment) were collected in the region of Oued Souf in southeastern Algeria to carry out the physicochemical and bacteriological analysis. From 1990 to 2021, results showed severe drought accompanied by a significant increase in the annual average maximum temperature with a temporal slope of 0.04 °C year-1 and a significant decline in annual precipitation with a temporal slope of 0.07 mm year-1. A socio-demographic survey revealed a low educational level for camel herders. They owned a small herd of camels (6.84 to 8.66 camels) in the transhumant and extensive system or > 150 heads in the nomadic and extensive system. The average daily milk production in the nomadic system was very low (3 L/day); it was less important compared to that in the transhumant system (4-5 L/day), with an acceptable physicochemical quality but poor bacteriological quality.
Given the susceptibility of the research area, we recorded that camel livestock and travel mobility were used as adaptation strategies to the effects of climate change. On the one hand, camel breed conservation programs can enhance biodiversity and a sustainable ecosystem. On the other side, a genetic improvement program that might boost productivity and profitability might be advantageous. Smallholders may benefit from this by receiving a fair and secure income and good working conditions, which could contribute significantly to social equity and local economies.
... Organophosphorus pesticides have been used increasingly in agriculture after banning or restricting organochlorine in use. Organophosphorus pesticides including malathion, dimethoate, chlorpyriphos, profenofos, coumaphos, dichlorvos, methamidophos, ethion, parathion methyl are highly toxic to mammals and are considered as mutagens, carcinogens, and teratogens substances (Needham et al., 2005;Sun et al., 2020;Wainwright et al., 2019). Carbamates are organic pesticides that include carbaryl, carbofuran, and aldicarb. ...
Milk is a widely consumed food rich in macro- and micronutrients that play an important role in health preservation. While it affects positively human nutrient and energy uptake, the presence of pesticide residues could, however, counterbalance these benefits and negatively affect human health. This systematic review provides an overview of studies on pesticide residues during the last decade and the related human health risk assessment. Thirty-five original articles published since 2010 reporting the levels of pesticide residues in raw cow's milk in 69 regions from 15 countries were reviewed. Data showed that pesticide residue levels were ranked as, DDTs> permethrin> bifenthrin> Drins> endrin> endosulfan> HCHs> cyhalothrin> cypermethrin> heptachlor> ethion> coumaphos> deltamethrin> dimethoate, chlorpyriphos> profenofos> malathion> dichlorvos> parathion methyl> carbaryl> aldicarb> carbofuran> methamidophos. High geographic variation was observed, and many regions appear as contaminated zones with high risks such as Punjab in Pakistan (× 3080 > MRL and × 113 > MRL for Cypermethrin and Drins, respectively), Sand Pedro in Columbia (× 1090 > MRL and × 200 > MRL for endrin and Drins, respectively), and Gezira State in Sudan (× 109 > MRL DDTs). The risk assessment for humans indicated that HQ Drins values were > 1 in Columbia (Sucre, Casa Azul, San Pedro, Costanera, Sabanas, Sinú Medio, and San Jorge regions), and in Pakistan (Punjab region). Moreover, the HQ values for endrin were > 1 in Sinú Medio (Colombia) and for heptachlor in Costanera region, Sinú Medio, and Sabanas (Colombia). Furthermore, HI values were > 1 in seven regions in Colombia, 1 region in Pakistan, 1 region in Egypt and 1 region in Turkey, suggesting a serious health risk. In conclusion, to avoid cow's milk contamination by pesticides, it is necessary to develop eco-friendly alternatives to chemical pesticides and promote integrated pest management (IPM) strategies.
... Several research studies and government reports have recommended that to deal with the effects of climate change and global warming, which are accentuated and accelerated by globalization, urbanization, mechanization, population growth, urgent transformation of industrial and agricultural activities should consider environmental effects and embrace green economy. This includes decreasing carbon footprint and greenhouse gas fluxes, replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy, genetic conservation and preservation of local breeds which are well adapted to the local environment, and redeploying biodiversity Brini, 2021;IPCC, 2014IPCC, , 2021Khelifa et al., 2021;Martin et al., 2020;Srivastava et al., 2021;Wainwright et al., 2019). Moreover, this transformation aims, not only to mitigate and adapt to the climate change effects but also to provide a fair and stable income and good working conditions to vulnerable populations and contribute significantly to social equity and local economies, especially, in developing countries (Boudalia et al., 2020;de Azambuja Ribeiro and González-García, 2016;Hoffmann, 2011;Mohamed-Brahmi et al., 2022;Zander et al., 2009). ...
Algeria ratified the 2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change which is committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through renewable energy promotion, expanding forest areas and improving water resources. However, the exploration and the exploitation of shale gas are authorized in Algeria. Here, we discuss the socioeconomic factors that have led Algeria to authorize shale gas exploitation regardless of the potential effects of hydraulic fracturing on biodiversity loss and human health under climate change uncertainty context. Data reported show the difficulty to understand the multifaceted aspect of shale gas impacts. Indeed, without a comprehensive environmental assessment (air, soil, water and biodiversity) and human health impacts under climate change context, there is no clear evidence regarding the real costs, on the one hand, and the palpable benefits, on the other, of shale gas exploitation. Scientific data actualization and fully recognizing evidence in the literature are recommended when evaluating the potential adverse effects of unconventional gas on human and animal health, and also when creating hydraulic fracturing legislation. The development of alternative ecofriendly tools and methods to fossil energy sources (e.g., solar photovoltaics, wind, and geothermal energy) has become an emergency to help diversify the economy and safeguard natural resources for future generations.
... However, PES are often implemented in regions with fragmented land ownership, so successful grassland conservation depends on incentivising a large number of farmers to participate in the programme (Franks & Emery, 2013). Several previous studies have shown that farmers generally prefer individual contracts over different approaches to coordination and collective enrolment of farmers into the AEM (Le Coent et al., 2017;Villanueva et al., 2015;Wainwright et al., 2019). However, if coordination efforts are compensated with an additional payment (i.e. ...
Government-funded payments for ecosystem services (PES) have increasingly been used to facilitate transactions between users of environmental services and their providers. In order to improve the link between payments and the service provided, some countries in the EU have promoted result-based schemes (RBS), which remunerate farmers for ecological results, as part of their agricultural policy. Since PES programs are voluntary, it is important to understand farmers’ responses before more large-scale implementations of RBS are initiated. Using a choice experiment and a mixed logit model, we elicited the preferences of farmers in two Natura 2000 sites in Slovenia for different design elements of a hypothetical scheme for dry grassland conservation. We found that the majority of farmers preferred the result-based approach over the management-based scheme both in terms of payment conditions and monitoring; one group of farmers preferred the RBS very strongly (average WTA of more than 500 EUR/ha/yr) and another group less strongly (average WTA about 200 EUR/ha/yr). Farmers also showed a higher preference for on-farm advise and training in small groups than for lectures, which would be offered to a larger audience. A collective bonus, which would incentivise coordination and could potentially increase participation rates in the scheme, significantly influenced the farmers’ willingness to adopt the scheme. However, the estimated average WTA was comparable or lower than the 40 EUR/ha annual bonus payment. Older farmers and those who managed small and semi-subsistent farms were significantly more likely to be highly resistant to scheme adoption no matter its design.
... However, PES are often implemented in regions with fragmented land ownership, so successful grassland conservation depends on incentivising a large number of farmers to participate in the programme . Several previous studies have shown that farmers generally prefer individual contracts over different approaches to coordination and collective enrolment of farmers into the AEM (Le Wainwright et al., 2019). However, if coordination efforts are compensated with an additional payment (i.e. ...
Agriculture is one of the most important factors in reducing biodiversity in the EU. However, the integration of nature conservation into the Common Agricultural Policy remains inadequate. The purpose of the doctoral dissertation is to study the planning, effects and evaluation of the Slovenian agricultural policy in the field of nature conservation. An analysis using BRT models showed a negative link between the diversity of farmland birds and direct payments, while environmental measures had a weak relative influence on bird diversity in the period 2008–2019. Bird diversity was highest in open landscapes on Natura 2000 sites that had a high diversity of agricultural plants and low stocking density. A programme theory analysis of the Slovenian agricultural policy showed numerous gaps in the definition of the intervention logic. Particularly lacking is a definition of objectives and indicators that would enable an assessment of the effectiveness of interventions. At the strategic level, the integration of nature conservation is limited mainly to voluntary measures. Strategies for preventing conflicts between nature conservation and other objectives of agricultural policy are mostly not defined. We estimated that in the 2014–2020 programming period, approximately 5 % (17.8–19.4 million EUR) of the annual budget of the Slovenian agricultural policy was allocated to nature conservation. The dissertation is concluded with an analysis of the possibilities for improving the result-orientation of agri-environmental measures, which was conducted with a discrete choice experiment (521 farmers in the Haloze and Karst area) and a qualitative thematic analysis of interviews with farmers, researchers, decision-makers and agricultural advisers. The farmers showed statistically significant higher preferences for result-based schemes than for schemes with prescribed practices and a preference for an individual approach to knowledge transfer. In order to successfully implement result-based schemes, it is necessary to improve data bases, research into sustainable production models and the training of staff in supervisory and advisory services.
... A complementary approach would be to apply market-based incentives such as payments for environmental services (PES) for the conservation of genetic resources (Narloch et al., 2011) that can be framed as conservation contracts for supplying farm animal genetic resources (Wainwright et al., 2019) as well as agroecosystem conservation. ...
Extensive outdoor low-intensity livestock farming systems are the principal form of management of high natural value farmland in Europe. Their marginalisation and poor recognition in policies and markets, can ultimately risk the future of sustainable farming and their paired mosaic landscapes. Traditional high-quality meat products from Mediterranean pigs are produced in extensive-type production systems using native agro-pastoral resources. This is the case of the porc negre mallorquí, the Majorcan Black Pig (MBP), a traditional extensive pig breed native from Mallorca island (Balearic islands, Spain), characterised by its high rusticity and adaptation to the Mediterranean climatic conditions. In this study we assessed island dwellers’ preferences for management options for MBP, its agroecosystem and related products through a choice experiment valuation survey. Our results show overall societal support for improved breed conservation status, tree crop and product diversity. Outcomes of this study call for complementary policies to support this breed and its coupled agroecosystem where breed conservation and enhancement of landscape diversity through public funding is complemented with product innovation and premium niche markets for overall agroecosystem viability.
... Social and economic pressures have exposed at least 1000 livestock breeds to the risk of extinction [30], with cattle having the highest number of extinct breeds [27]. The main causes of genetic erosion of indigenous cattle breeds is their marginalisation in favour of elite exotic cattle breeding lines and the subsequent unstructured crossbreeding [14,31,32]. Although crossbreeding programmes between exotic and indigenous breeds were intended to improve biological and economic efficiency [33], their unstructured nature has produced non-descript crossbred cattle that are currently dominant in most smallholder farming areas in Southern Africa [7,33]. ...
Indigenous cattle breeds are the most important livestock species in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region owing to their role in human food, nutrition, income, and social security. Despite the role of these breeds in the household and national economies, they are currently underutilised, their productivity remains low, and populations are faced with extinction. In addition, there are insufficient measures taken to secure their present and future value. The current review highlights strategies for sustainable use of indigenous cattle genetic resources in the region, including the use of novel production and marketing practices, women and youth empowerment, and development of the appropriate capacity building, legislative, and policy structures. At present, the lack of coordination among the different stakeholders still poses a challenge to the implementation of these strategies. To this end, partnerships, collaboration, and stakeholders’ participation are recommended to effectively implement strategies for sustainable use of indigenous cattle breeds.
Concentration on elite breeding lines has endangered a number of traditional dairy breeds. Although several of those breeds are known for superior functional traits such as robustness, they are increasingly replaced by Holstein cows. A discrete choice experiment with 159 breeders revealed the determinants of farmers’ willingness to join a stylised scheme to conserve endangered dairy breeds. Results of a Random Parameter Logit model showed that farmers favour short-term contracts and a bonus for a collective cattle population increase. By contrast, farmers tend to reject schemes which ban slatted floors. The majority of the respondents would be willing to join an entry-level scheme without financial support, pointing to an important role of intrinsic motivation present in farmers, which seems to be particularly pronounced for small breeds threatened by extinction. If it is the political will to offer such conservation schemes, we recommend inclusion of a collective bonus. This finding is also supported by the results of a Latent Class analysis. A collective bonus might change social norms regarding the conservation of endangered breeds and provide impetus for increasing the overall population of a specific breed.
CONTEXT: Currently, local cattle breeds are facing numerous challenges, and their disappearance could have social, economic, and environmental consequences. OBJECTIVE:
This study was conducted in the northeast of Algeria to understand the characteristics, constraints of production systems and examine the specific strategies implemented in farms to ensure their viability. METHOD: A total of 175 smallholder farmers who practice Algerian local cattle breeding were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Typology construction was carried out through factor analysis of mixed data, followed by sequential agglomerative hierarchical and K-means clustering, to define distinct farmer types with common characteristics. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Results highlight three farm types. The first group, representing 54.9% (96/175Farms) of the farms studied, is characterized by low-resource breeders who raise small herds of local breeds in association with small ruminants. Type 2 (25.7 %) (45/175) consists of crossbred, diversified, supported breeding with better technical performance. The intensification strategies adopted by breeders of this type have relegated local cattle to the background. The third type (19.4%) (34/175) includes cattle pastoral farms, with the predominance of the local cattle breed characterized by limited productivity. SIGNIFICANCE: This study highlights farm diversity, the necessity of government support, and specific policies to ensure the sustainability of local cattle breeding, with particular emphasis on pastoral breeding, which has the largest number of local cattle breeds.
Keywords: strategies, farming system, local cattle breed, sustainability, Algeria, farm typology.
Algerian indigenous cattle breeds are well adapted to the harsh local arid and semi-arid environments. This study aims to summarize livestock practices, milk quality, and discuss the potential of local cattle breeds to maintain production capacity in the face of global warming conditions. A total of 175 smallholder farmers who practice the breeding of the Algerian local cattle breed were interviewed using a formal questionnaire. Following that, 122 milk samples were collected for physicochemical and bacteriological analyses. Climate data variability in the study area was evaluated. Results reveal that between 1980 and 2018, the average annual temperature rose by 0.3 ± 0.001 °C per year. Predictions suggest that by 2081 to 2100, temperatures could increase by 1.18°C under SSP1-2.6, 2.33°C under SSP2-4.5, and 4.59°C under SSP5-8.5. In the same period from 1980 to 2018, annual precipitation decreased by-0.99 ± 0.24 mm per year. Projections indicate a further decline of 22.5 mm for SSP1-2.6, 44.4 mm for SSP2-4.5, and 95.2 mm for SSP5-8.5 from 1980-2000 to 2081-2100. These changes in temperature and precipitation coincided with an expansion of cropland, which increased by 90.3% from 1992 to 2005. Conversely, pasture areas decreased by 53.7% between 1993 and 2009. A socio-demographic survey revealed that breeders have a low educational level (39.4% are unlettered). They own a small herd (6.84 ± 8.66 cattle). Moreover, the average daily milk production was 4.13 ± 2.12 Liters/cow, with acceptable physicochemical quality but poor bacteriological quality. Considering the climate change vulnerability of the study area, we can conclude that the exploitation of local breeds seems to be the best adaptation strategy to climate change effects. Conservation programs for local breeds can enhance biodiversity and ecosystem balance. Concurrently, genetic improvement programs have the potential to boost productivity and profitability, making substantial contributions to social equity and local economies.
The Philippine native pig (PhNP) is a unique genetic resource composed of multiple domesticated Sus scrofa lineages and interspecific hybrids. No prior study has determined the population structure and genetic diversity of PhNPs on multiple islands and provinces, which is essential for establishing conservation priorities. In this study, we explore the population structure and genetic diversity of various PhNP populations in Luzon and the Visayas, Philippines, to identify conservation priorities. We analyzed seven PhNP populations ( n = 20–27 samples each; Benguet [B], Kalinga [K], Nueva Vizcaya [N], Isabela [I], Quezon [Q], Marinduque [M], and Samar [S]) and four transboundary breeds present in the Philippines ( n = 9–11 samples each; Duroc, Large White, Landrace, and Berkshire). The pigs were compared against a panel of 20 microsatellite markers recommended by the ISAG–FAO. We tested for population structure at the island, region, and province levels. Strong genetic differentiation between native and transboundary breeds was confirmed by Bayesian clustering ( k = 2) and Nei's D A genetic distance (100% bootstrap support for the PhNP cluster). PhNP exhibited high heterozygosity ( Ho : 0.737), a high allele count ( Na : 7.771), and a low inbreeding coefficient ( F is: −0.040–0.125). Bayesian clustering supported genetic differentiation at the island ( k = 2; North Luzon and South Luzon‐Visayas cluster), region ( k = 3), and population ( k = 8) levels. The pairwise F 'st between PhNP populations ranged from 0.084 (N and I) to 0.397 (Q and K), confirming that some PhNP populations exhibited sufficient genetic distance to be considered separate populations. This study shows that native pigs from B, K, I, Q, M, and S are unique genetic units for conservation. Furthermore, the small effective population sizes of B, I, Q, M, and S ( Ne : 3.9, 19.1, 14.2, 44.7, and 22.5, respectively) necessitate immediate conservation actions, such as incentivizing PhNP farming.
The Philippine native pig (PhNP) is a unique genetic resource with complex genetics due to multiple ancestries and hybridizations with wild pigs. No prior study has determined the population structure and genetic diversity of PhNPs on multiple islands and provinces, which is essential for establishing conservation priorities. In this study, we explore the population structure and genetic diversity of various PhNP populations in Luzon and the Visayas, Philippines, to identify conservation priorities. We analyzed 157 native pigs representing 7 populations (Benguet (B), Kalinga (K), Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela (I), Quezon (Q), Marinduque (M), and Samar (S)) and 39 pigs of transboundary distribution (Duroc, Large White, Landrace, and Berkshire). The pigs were compared against a panel of 21 ISAG–FAO recommended microsatellite markers. We tested for population structure at the island, administrative region and province levels. Strong genetic differentiation between native and transboundary breeds was confirmed by analysis of molecular variance (Frt: 0.08; F’st: 0.288-0.728), Bayesian clustering (k = 2) and Nei’s DA genetic distance (98% bootstrap support for the PhNP cluster). PhNP exhibited high heterozygosity (Ho: 0.72), a high allele count (Na: 9.24) and a low inbreeding coefficient (Fis: -0.022 to 0.150). Bayesian clustering supported genetic differentiation at the island (k = 2; North Luzon and South Luzon-Visayas cluster), administrative region (k = 4) and population (k= 9) levels. The pairwise F’st between PhNP populations ranged from 0.130 (Q and M) to 0.427 (Q and K), confirming that PhNP populations exhibited sufficient genetic distance to be considered separate populations. This study shows that the seven previously assigned PhNP populations, roughly delimited by provincial origin, are unique genetic units for conservation. Furthermore, the small effective population sizes of B, Q, I, and S (Ne: 5, 17, 24, and 26, respectively) necessitate immediate conservation actions, such as incentivizing the farming of PhNP.
The agricultural sector contributes approximately 10–20% of the total anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions. Consequently, climate change can negatively affect crop yields and livestock production thus threatening food security, especially in a vulnerable continent like Africa. This review provides an overview of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices and their impacts on smallholder farmers in five African countries (Algeria, Senegal, Benin, Nigeria and Zambia). A total of 164 published articles on CSA practices were reviewed. Analysis of extracted data showed that CSA practices are classified as follows: agricultural practices, restoration practices of degraded lands, forest and cropland regeneration practices, practices in the livestock sub-sector, water resources and use of weather and climate information services. Moreover, climate change effects differed alongside strategies adapted from one country to another. Adoption of these strategies was often influenced by financial means put in place by governments, the role of policy legislation, access to climate information and farmers’ intellectual level. To address this deficiency, scientific-outcome-based research should be used to increase the effectiveness of climate adaptation management programs. In conclusion, to enhance the uptake of climate-smart agricultural practices in Africa, this review recommends the use of scientific-research-driven adaptation measures and prioritization of climate change in governments’ agendas.
Zusammenfassung Zielkonflikte in der Landwirtschaft sind oft sehr komplex und fordern eine umfassende und fachübergreifende Diskussion, damit nachhaltige Lösungen erarbeitet werden kön-nen. Vor diesem Hintergrund hatte diese Arbeit zum Ziel, Naturwissenschaft und Geis-teswissenschaft (christliche Ethik) miteinander zu verbinden. Dazu wurde in dieser Arbeit der Zielkonflikt zwischen der Hochleistungszucht und der Erhaltung tiergeneti-scher Ressourcen beim Milchrind diskutiert. Zunächst wurde zu einer Review-Frage ein systematisches Review nach der Methode von Page et al. (2021) durchgeführt. Anschlie-ßend wurde der ganzheitliche Ansatz in der jüdisch-christlichen Spiritualität sowie die Soziallehre der katholischen Kirche vorgestellt. Der Schwerpunkt wurde hier auf die Sozialenzyklika Laudato si' von Papst Franziskus Über die Sorge für das gemeinsame Haus (2015) (Papst Franziskus, 2015) gesetzt. Aus dieser wurden sechs Bewertungskriterien für die christlich-ethische Beurteilung der Zielkonflikte formuliert. Der Zielkonflikt wurde anhand dieser bewertet. Anschließend wurden Schlussfolgerungen und Handlungsemp-fehlungen für Landwirte, Verarbeitung, Handel bzw. Wirtschaft, Politik und Verbraucher formuliert. Abschließend wurde aufgezeigt, welche weiterführenden Möglichkeiten noch zur Vertiefung der Diskussion des betrachteten Zielkonflikts bestehen. Summary High-performance breeding vs. preservation of animal genetic resources in dairy cattle-Christian-ethical evaluation of a conflict of objectives in agriculture Conflicts of objectives in agriculture are often very complex and require a comprehensive and interdisciplinary discussion so that sustainable solutions can be developed. Against this background, this thesis aimed to combine natural science and humanities (Christian ethics). For this purpose, this thesis discussed the conflict of objectives between high-performance breeding and the preservation of animal genetic resources in dairy cattle. First, a systematic review was conducted on a review question according to the method of Page et al. (2021). Then, the holistic approach in Jewish-Christian spirituality and the social teaching of the Catholic Church was presented. The focus here was on the social 218 Isabella Seidl, Christian Hecht, Ruben Schreiter und Markus Freick encyclical Laudato si' of the Holy Father Francis On Care for the Common Home (2015) (Papst Franziskus, 2015). From this, six evaluation criteria were formulated for the Christian ethical assessment of the conflict of objectives. The conflict of objectives was evaluated on the basis of these. Subsequently, conclusions and recommendations for action for farmers, processing, trade or business, politics and consumers were formulated. Finally, it was shown which further possibilities still exist to deepen the discussion of the considered conflict of objectives.
Antecedentes:
Los avances en las técnicas de biología molecular, como son el descubrimiento de la Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa (PCR) y el empleo de secuencias polimórficas del ADN mitocondrial en la región d-Loop se han utilizado para describir líneas maternas en animales, la mayoría en aves.
Objetivo.
Realizar una revisión sobre las técnicas de laboratorio aplicadas a genética molecular y su importancia en la conservación de los recursos zoogenéticos.
Desarrollo:
Los marcadores moleculares en especial los microsatélites, se hicieron cada vez más útiles, rentables y generalizados a medida que se perfeccionaban los protocolos y la tecnología, los métodos genéticos proporcionan información confiable para contribuir a la conservación de los recursos zoogenéticos de manera especial en circunstancias en las que las orientaciones más tradicionales son inadecuadas.
Conclusiones:
El empleo de técnicas moleculares proporciona medidas objetivas de la diversidad entre y dentro de razas, permite estudiar las relaciones genéticas entre ellas, así como evidenciar atributos genéticos únicos o fenómenos de aislamiento genético en el pasado.
Sustainability in livestock farming requires monitoring of autochthonous breeds which are well adapted to the local environment. The morphometric measurements seem to be the first approach which can provide useful information on the suitability of animal genetic resources for selection. In this work, thirteen morphometric variables were used for the phenotypic characterization of 130 adult autochthones cattle randomly selected from 30 local farms in Guelma. There were cases from four commonly accepted and traditional ecotypes: Guelmois, Cheurfa, Sétifien and Fawn. The results showed several and significant positive correlations between the different variables. Correlations were analyzed using Varimax orthogonal rotation PCA and three factors were extracted, which explain more than 75% of the total variation in the four ecotypes. Stepwise discriminant analysis showed that 6 of the 13 variables had discriminatory power to define the phenotypic profile of the ecotypes. Canonical discriminant analysis indicated that the Sétifien ecotype is separate from the other three ecotypes. Mahalanobis distances were significant between the different ecotypes except for the distance between the Guelmois and Fawn ecotypes. The cross-validation procedure assigned 91.42% of the Sétifien animals to their genetic group, while the percentages of animals assigned to the Cheurfa, Guelmois and Fawn ecotypes were 80.00%, 65.71% and 53.33% respectively. The multivariate approach has proven to be effective in differentiating the four ecotypes, with clear morphological differences from the Sétifien ecotype that may benefit from a genetic improvement program for more sustainable genetic resources preservation.
The present paper aimed to make an empirical analysis of farm structure and land concentration in Romania and the EU-28 in the period 2003-2013. Index method, comparison method, Gini coefficient and index, and concentration index were used to characterize the dynamics and structure of the number of holdings, utilized agricultural area, standard output, average farm size in terms of land area and standard output, concentration degree of land in the top 10% largest farms. While the number of farms is going down, the average holding size increased to 3.66 ha/farm in Romania and 16.1 ha the EU-28. About 0.57% of farms with more than 50 ha are working 52.43% of the utilized land. Economic efficiency of the Romanian agriculture is the smallest in the EU, Euro 3.30 thousand/farm, 10.7 times less than the EU average. About 83% of the farms produced less than Euro 4,000/holding. The unequal concentration of farms in Romania is attested by Gini value 0.582, and Concentration index 73% meaning that the top 10% farms keep a huge agricultural land, compared to the farms belonging to other size classes. Romania comes on the following positions in the EU-28: 1st position for the number of holdings (33.6%), 6th position for the utilized area (7.47%), 26th position for average farm size (3.6 ha), 27th position for the number of farms with more than 50 ha (0.57%), 20th position for the land worked by the farms with over 50 ha (52.13%), 28th position for standard output/farm (Euro 3.3 thousand), 6th position for its contribution to the EU standard output, 6th position for Gini coefficient value and Concentration index which included the country in the sharp dual category. So, farm structure and land concentration in Romania is running on the right way, but it is still a long-term process to the optimal farm size which could assure a higher economic efficiency.
In comparison to many Western European countries, in Romania the use of common pastures remains widespread and is strongly linked to the predominance of subsistence and semi-subsistence farming in much of the country. The majority of permanent pasture in the country is under state or community ownership, and these areas are of high natural and cultural, as well as economic importance for Romania. Whilst traditional governance systems of the commons are still partly intact, or at least within living memory here, new institutions are forming in response to substantial changes in agriculture and rural life that have been occurring, particularly since Romania's accession to the EU in 2007. We describe the changing role of common pastures for local communities in the case study region of Târnava Mare in Southern Transylvania, Romania. The number of active users here is decreasing, and those who have more animals are increasingly grazing their animals on long-term leased or private land, thus effectively no longer participating in the commons. This is encouraged by the current system of relatively low prices for agricultural products and EU agricultural support payments, which for smallholders and larger farmers alike are now a major factor in the financial viability of farming in Romania. The future of the commons in the study region will hinge on the success of the communities to self-organise and take advantage of the opportunities presented by the changing rural context of pastoral commons use. © content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
This study analysed the incentives for conservation of local breeds in 35 European
countries, with the particular reference to the situation in Slovenia. In order to collect
all necessary data in different countries, detailed questionnaire was developed and sent
out to National coordinators for Animal Genetic Resources in the European Region. Data
were edited and analysed using MS Excel program where basic descriptive statistics
was performed to show differences among countries in incentive payments. Incentives
for local breeds in Slovenia were paid from the Agri-environmental payments. The
amount of payment for one livestock unit was 89.38 € per year. Subsidies for adult cattle
and horses of local breeds were therefore 89.38 € per animal, while for pigs there
were 44.69 € per animal and for sheep and goats 13.41 € per animal. Comparing data
from different countries, the highest subsides were received for cattle ranging from
45 € to 520 € for bulls. From all 35 countries, 16 countries have subsidies for horses.
Despite two breeds of sheep and one breed of goat in Slovenia highly endangered, the
level of subsides for sheep and goats for local breeds included in the environmental
payments were equal i.e., 13.41 € per animal. Compared to 21 countries reported the
financial support for sheep, only two countries had lower support than in Slovenia.
The EC Regulations can explain differences in payments where the Member States are
free when determining the payments level. Another reason could be since out of 35
countries, eleven are not EU members. National coordinators from all countries agreed
that financial support per head is very important tool for breed conservation and such a
practice should be continued. However, the current level of support does not compensate
loss of income due to lower productivity.
The region of Tarnava Mare in Southern Transylvania contains extensive semi-natural open landscapes maintained by predominantly low-intensity farming, which is widespread in Romania and indeed many areas of Eastern Europe. Threats to these species-rich habitats from agricultural intensification and land abandonment have been increasing in recent years, to a large extent linked with Romania’s accession to the EU in 2007. At the same time, however, the opportunities for biodiversity conservation in the area have expanded. In 2008, the region became a Site of Community Importance (SCI) as part of the Natura 2000 network, and farmers have applied agri-environment schemes as part of the EU Common Agricultural Policy since 2006. Furthermore, the Tarnava Mare region has been the location of several EU and nationally funded projects combining research, practical and information measures. In this article, we review these various instruments from the practical perspective of an NGO that has been working since 2004 to support High Nature Value farmland and rural communities in this region. We focus on three major support measures - agri-environment schemes, Natura 2000, and publicly funded conservation projects - and consider their effects individually and collectively. We conclude that the presence of multiple instruments can have synergistic effects on the conservation of semi-natural open habitats such as HNV farmland, and that this overlap provides a certain amount of resilience: if one instrument fails, another may fill the gap. Cross-cutting projects combining research with activities to tackle the “problem” of the socio-economic undesirability of low-intensity farming as well as the “symptom” of the loss of HNV farmland are also particularly important in this context.
The main socioeconomic tendencies of farm management in the Romanian agriculture in recent years reveal some important structural changes: acceleration of the transfer of land resource operation to younger managers; diminution of the consumption of labour force in the Romanian agriculture; increased productivity of labour involved in agricultural activities. The farming performance differs greatly between individual farms due to the complexity of Romanian farming system and farm structures. Generally speaking, the young farmers perform better than the older ones, and the farm economic performance, evaluated in terms of labour productivity and land resources, is greater as far as the farm managers' agricultural training level increases.
Private landholders’ contributions to biodiversity conservation are critical in landscapes with insufficient formal conservation reserves, as is the case in Australia's tropical savannas. This study reports results from a discrete choice experiment conducted with pastoralists and graziers across northern Australia. The experiment was designed to explore the willingness of pastoralists and graziers to sign up to voluntary biodiversity conservation contracts. Understanding preferences for contractual attributes and preference heterogeneity were additional objectives. Such knowledge can increase effectiveness and efficiency of conservation programs by informing contract design, negotiation and administration. Random parameter logit modelling showed that of contract attributes, conservation requirement, stewardship payment, contract duration and flexibility in contract conditions significantly influenced choices. Land productivity was a significant factor as were attitudes. There was significant heterogeneity of preferences for all contract attributes. Models were run for best–worst scaling responses and the first preferences subset, with the latter model deemed superior. Latent class modelling distinguished four classes of decision-makers and illustrated different decision heuristics. Conservation investment strategies, which offer farmers contract options that meet biodiversity requirements while accommodating heterogeneous attribute preferences, are likely to lead to increased participation rates. Complementary suasion efforts are also required which espouse the benefits that pastoralists derive from biodiversity and participation in voluntary conservation contracts.
The need to integrate social and economic factors into conservation planning has become a focus of academic discussions and has important practical implications for the implementation of conservation areas, both private and public. We conducted a survey in the Daly Catchment, Northern Territory, to inform the design and implementation of a stewardship payment program. We used a choice model to estimate the likely level of participation in two legal arrangements - conservation covenants and management agreements - based on payment level and proportion of properties required to be managed. We then spatially predicted landholders' probability of participating at the resolution of individual properties and incorporated these predictions into conservation planning software to examine the potential for the stewardship program to meet conservation objectives. We found that the properties that were least costly, per unit area, to manage were also the least likely to participate. This highlights a tension between planning for a cost-effective program and planning for a program that targets properties with the highest probability of participation.
The total economic value (TEV) of two threatened Italian cattle breeds (Modicana and Maremmana) was investigated using a choice experiment survey. Most respondents (85%) support breed conservation, their stated willingness-to-pay easily justifying EU support. The high landscape maintenance, existence and future option values of both breeds (around 80% of their TEVs) suggest that incentives mechanisms are indeed needed in order to allow farmers to capture some of these public good values and hence motivate them to undertake conservation-related activities. The positive direct use values of both breeds (around 20% of their TEVs) imply that niche product markets aimed at enhancing the private good values associated with conservation could also form elements of a conservation and use strategy for these breeds.
Unlike most parts of the European Union (EU),
Southern Transylvania (Central Romania) is characterized
by an exceptionally high level of farmland
biodiversity. This results from traditional small-scale
farming methods that have maintained extensive
areas of high nature value farmland. Following
the post-socialist transition, Southern Transylvania
faces serious challenges such as under-employment
and rural population decline, which put traditional
farming at risk. With Romania’s accession to the
EU in 2007, Southern Transylvania became part of
a complex multi-level governance system that in
principle providesmechanisms to balance biodiversity
conservation and rural development. To this end, the
most important instruments are the ‘Natura 2000’
network of protected areas and EU rural development
policy. Structured questionnaires and semi-structured
interviews with town hall representatives from 30
villages in Southern Transylvania and local EU experts
revealed that EU policies are often poorly aligned
with local conditions. To date, the implementation of
EU rural development policy is strongly focused on
economic development,with biodiversity conservation
being of little concern. Moreover, relevant EU funding
opportunities are poorly communicated. Bridging
organizations should be strengthened to foster the
implementation of a rural development strategy that
integrates local needs and biodiversity conservation.
The protection of genetic resources in agriculture is an important aspect of biodiversity conservation. Knowledge of the value of genetic resources can contribute to determining the appropriate focus and extent of conservation. This study reviewed and summarised literature on the economic value of genetic resources using meta-analysis. Altogether, 22 studies were used to describe current knowledge on the value of genetic resources. Furthermore, 14 studies with 93 value observations were examined with a meta-regression model to identify variables that explain the willingness-to-pay (WTP) for or willingness-to-accept (WTA) loss of genetic resources. Grain genetic resources were ascribed lower value compared to animal genetic resources (AnGR) and agrobiodiversity, and the values of breeds or varieties and conservation programmes were higher than the value of individual attributes. Future research should address the gaps in knowledge that are relevant for policy-making. This particularly includes improving knowledge on the value of plant genetic resources (PGR), obtaining value estimates for maintaining genetic diversity in Europe and the United States, estimating the relative magnitude of use and non-use values and determining the value consumers place on genetic resources and diversity in agriculture. An extensive database with valuation literature on genetic resources that fulfils the requirements for benefit transfer is essential to utilise value information more efficiently in decision-making situations.
This paper reviews conflicts between biodiversity conservation and agricultural activities in agricultural landscapes and evaluates strategies to reconcile such conflicts. Firstly, a historical perspective on the development of conflicts related to biodiversity in agricultural landscapes is presented. Secondly, recent trends in agricultural policies of the European Union that contribute to biodiversity decline in agricultural landscapes are considered. Three major processes responsible for creating biodiversity-related conflicts are described: the intensification of agriculture, the abandonment of marginally productive but High Nature Value Farmland, and the changing scale of agricultural operations. Conflicts created by these processes and approaches to their reconciliation are identified, emphasizing the need for monitoring as an integral part of conflict reconciliation strategies. A generic approach comprising three types of monitoring is developed for measuring success of reconciliation strategies: monitoring of the intensity of the conflict between stakeholders, of the social and economic effects on farmers, and of the status and trends in biodiversity. Surprisingly, we found no evidence in the literature that the first type of monitoring has ever been undertaken for biodiversity-related conflicts in agricultural landscapes. For each type of monitoring, suitable indicators are outlined. Finally, challenges for conflict management in agricultural landscapes are summarized.
Danish farmers have been far less interested in agri-environmental subsidy schemes (AES) than anticipated. In order to examine how to improve the appeal of such schemes, a choice experiment was conducted concerning 444 Danish farmers' preferences for subsidy schemes for pesticide-free buffer zones. A random parameter logit framework was used to capture heterogeneity among farmers. Our results indicate that 1) the vast majority of farmers are willing to trade off the size of the subsidy for less restrictive scheme requirements and that 2) the amount of the subsidy they are willing to trade off varies with specific scheme requirements, suggesting which features are most important for successful policy design. Our results suggest that farmers value flexible contract terms higher than reduced administrative burdens. Finally, we suggest a practical approach to estimating a monetary value of farmers' reluctance to participate in AES. While the trade off's that farmers are willing to make between subsidy size and individual scheme requirements are case specific, our results concerning increased use of farm advisors, farmers ability of valuing different types of flexibility, and our attempt to place a monetary value on farmers' reluctance to engage in regulatory subsidy schemes have a potentially broader application platform.
Many traditional farming landscapes have high conservation value. Conservation policy in such landscapes typically follows a “preservation strategy,” most commonly by providing financial incentives for farmers to continue traditional practices. A preservation strategy can be successful in the short term, but it fails to acknowledge that traditional farming landscapes evolved as tightly coupled social–ecological systems. Traditionally, people received direct benefits from the environment, which provided a direct incentive for sustainable land use. Globalization and rural development programs increasingly alter the social subsystem in traditional farming landscapes, whereas conservation seeks to preserve the ecological subsystem. The resulting decoupling of the social–ecological system can be counteracted only in part by financial incentives, thus inherently limiting the usefulness of a preservation strategy. An alternative way to frame conservation policy in traditional farming landscapes is a “transformation strategy.” This strategy acknowledges that the past cannot be preserved, and assumes that direct links between people and nature are preferable to indirect links based on incentive payments. A transformation strategy seeks to support community-led efforts to create new, direct links with nature. Such a strategy could empower rural communities to embrace sustainable development, providing a vision for the future rather than attempting to preserve the past.
The Borana cattle in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya have unique traits that make them suitable for the harsh environment in the lowlands and have long formed a part of their livestock-keepers' cultural identity. However, genetic erosion of this important cattle breed has been occurring at an accelerating rate for the last few decades. Conservation initiatives for the Borana breed are required and in this context, this study provides empirical evidence for the high economic value of the Borana breed and its different subtypes, measured by their distinct attributes. This evaluation, firstly, strengthens conservation justification and provides guidance regarding cost-efficient conservation approaches and, secondly, provides a better understanding of breeding values. The analysis presented is based on a choice model (CM) with 370 local livestock-keepers. The results of the CM indicate that the preferences for some cattle attributes (in particular for cultural traits such as body size and horn conditions) and Borana subtypes vary largely between Kenya and Ethiopia and that high monetary values are placed on adaptive traits, fertility and traction suitability. We further conclude that it is most cost-effective to conserve in-situ the Ethiopian Borana subtype in Ethiopia and the Somali Borana subtype in Kenya.
Gorton M., Hubbard C. and Hubbard L. The folly of European Union policy transfer: why the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) does not fit Central and Eastern Europe, Regional Studies. This paper assesses the appropriateness of the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) for meeting rural development challenges in the New Member States (NMS). It argues that while the mitigation of structural problems confronting rural areas in these countries is critical to meeting the challenge of effectively integrating Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) into the European Union, the CAP is poorly suited to this task. Overall, the CAP was insufficiently reformed to accommodate CEE accession effectively and it represents a failure of the European Union to adjust adequately from an exclusively Western European institution into an appropriate pan-European organization.
This paper examines the factors influencing farmers' participation in several agri-environmental schemes. A multinominal logit model is used to separate between participating and nonparticipating farmers. In addition this model allows to predict farmers participation in one measure as well as in different measures simultaneously. Data stems from a survey conducted in eight European countries and includes a description of both farmer and farm characteristics. Three categories of schemes have been analysed: landscape maintenance, biodiversity protection and restriction of intensive farming practices. The combination of these three types of schemes provides eight possible packages which can be selected by eligible farmers. The multinominal logit model shows the importance of both farm and farmer as well as attitudinal characteristics on the participation in different combinations of schemes. For instance, the environmental concern favours landscape maintenance and biodiversity protection as well as their combinations with schemes requiring restrictions of intensive practices. However, it has a negative effect on the single participation in schemes requiring restrictions of intensive practices only. Our analysis confirms a number of previous findings. In addition, it shows the importance for policy makers to take into account that farmers have the opportunity to enter several schemes simultaneously. Indeed, due to cost complementarities, joint participation provides both private and public benefits.
In the Mexican state of Yucatan the Pel6n pig breed has been identified as being endangered. The gradual disappearance of this indigenous breed that is able to survive well in an extreme environment and under low-input conditions undermines food and livestock security for Yucatan's rural poor. This study uses contingent valuation to identify those backyard pig producers who require least compensation to conserve the Pel6n breed. Understanding the conditions under which livestock keepers most committed to the use of the indigenous breed would be willing to participate in different conservation scenarios allows for a comparative analysis of alternate conservation schemes, in terms of cost and breed population growth. The findings suggest that establishing a community-based conservation scheme could be sufficient to ensure that the Pel6n pig reaches a 'not at risk' extinction status. Alternatively, establishing open-nucleus breeding schemes would result in a higher effective population size, but at relatively greater cost. We conclude that for the specific case of the Pel6n pig in Yucatan, Mexico, if effectively designed, the cost of conservation and sustainable use strategies may be little more than the cost of facilitating access to the animal genetic resource for those most reliant upon it.
Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) are a component of agricultural biodiversity making a large contribution to ecosystem services, resulting from their complex interaction with their respective environments. This review investigates how AnGR diversity, which includes more than 7000 distinct local and 1000 transboundary livestock breeds of around 40 species plus domesticated honeybees and other pollinators, influences, through livestock production systems and practices, the generation of a diversity of provisioning, regulating and maintenance, as well as cultural ecosystem services. The main use of domestic animals is for their provisional services of food production, with a large contribution from commercial breeds in industrial production systems in developed and emerging countries. However, in rural areas of developing countries, local livestock breeds often play a crucial role in food security, nutrition and health. Less intensive systems, located especially in harsh climate conditions, offer more diverse ecosystem services, including important regulating and maintenance services, with indirect use or non-use values, while permitting the use of land not suitable for crop production. Breeds used in such systems have often developed specific adaptive features for those environments. The identification and integration of traits relevant for ecosystem services within breeding programmes represent however a particular challenge, especially in low-input systems. The keepers of the livestock that offer these services are often marginalised and isolated from markets and excluded from decision making processes, however. It is therefore important to recognize the existence and value of these ecosystem services to better understand the trade-offs and synergies associated with their maintenance, and to account for them in policy and legal frameworks at national and international levels including providing appropriate incentives to the communities contributing to the generation of those services. © 2018 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Forestry partnership schemes have been deployed to integrate industrial plantations' and local communities' interests in forest resource management. However, the unsatisfactory impacts of the scheme lead to both parties reassessing the value of the partnership schemes. This article explores local communities' willingness to remain in or opt-out of the partnership schemes designed to grow pulpwood in Indonesia, and investigates their preferences for accepting the modified contract attributes. The contract attributes include contract length, labor participation, insurance, training, road improvement and income. A choice experiment approach was used to estimate preferences of 287 smallholders, of which half were participating with the timber industry under Company-Community Partnership schemes. The results show that a bundle of the contract attributes that could increase local communities' utility are provision of road improvement, higher expected income, and higher timber production insurance. Greater incentives are required to compensate smallholders' loss of utility due to longer contract length and monitoring planted areas. The preferences vary significantly depending on smallholders' participation status in the scheme but not land tenure status. The continuity of the partnership schemes is challenged by a significant number of respondents always rejecting the contract option. The implication of the findings is that designing a bundle of contract attributes focusing on a promotive social safeguard approach likely keeps the participating smallholders in the schemes.
Landowner preferences are elicited for different contractual agri-environmental agreements (AEA) using choice experiments in the Portuguese montados, an agro-forestry ecosystem with high conservation value. The choice experiment is developed with the help of biologists from local environmental authorities and builds upon existing AEA in the Portuguese Rural Development Program ProDeR implemented at Natura 2000 conservation sites. Current uptake rates of AEA for montado conservation are very low. The study's main objective is to assess how varying the institutional–economic terms and conditions underlying current contract design can increase this uptake. We find demand for AEA inside and outside the currently designated protection areas, but there exist clear trade-offs between willingness to accept financial compensation and opportunity costs measured through varying cattle and oak tree density levels. Also contract duration plays a significant role. Minimum willingness to accept financial compensation for a hypothetical scenario representing the current contract conditions in the region is more than six times higher than the actual payment levels under the existing agri-environmental agreements.
Many regions in the EU aim to increase their forest cover in order to expand timber production, sequester CO2 or to provide more opportunities for recreation. Despite funding opportunities to support afforestation on private land, some of these regions do not succeed in enhancing their forest area. The objective of this study is to explore the institutional, economic and ecological conditions that would encourage farmers to enrol in an agri-environmental scheme for afforestation in Saxony, Germany. Using choice experiments and qualitative interviews, farmers’ demand for varying contract designs is estimated. The findings show that farmers have a strong disutility for large forests and long contracts and would be willing to receive less subsidy if they receive technical forest management advice and have the opportunity to return to agricultural land-uses after the contract ends. Biodiversity and ecosystem service related factors (species’ diversity, timber production and recreational access) do not significantly influence farmers’ choices.
Traditional agricultural location theory has not been very successful in explaining land-use patterns and recent behavioural approaches have stressed the satisficing characteristics of economic behaviour. An important aspect of the satisficer concept are the goals and values of farmers, which are examined in a survey of hop growers in the West Midlands. Whilst the ranking of values is similar to Gasson's original study, her noted differences between the operators of large and small farms could not be substantiated. Values were found not to vary according to a range of farm and farmer characteristics. The final classification of hop farmers highlighted important interrelationships and demonstrated the complexity which surrounds studies of farmers' attitudes and motivations.
Preface 1. In the beginning 2. Basic notations of statistics 3. Choosing 4. Paradigms of choice data 5. Processes in setting up stated choice experiments 6. Choices in data collection 7. Nlogit for applied choice analysis: a primer 8. Handling choice data 9. Case study: model choice data 10. Getting started modelling: the workhorse - MNL 11. Getting more from your model 12. Practical issues in the application of choice models 13. Allowing for similarity of alternatives 14. Nested logit estimation 15. The mixed logit model 16. Mixed logit estimation Nlogit terms and commands References Index.
Agricultural land and food security are under pressure from climate change, population growth, urbanisation, and demand for biofuels and animal protein. We have re-assessed the role of ruminant livestock in meeting food requirements in the context of mixed agricultural systems, and focussed on seven major challenges:
• Poor animal health and welfare.
• Consumption of human food by livestock.
• Environmental footprint.
• Livestock species and genotypes adapted to the local environment.
• Focus on healthy food.
• Feed the animals correctly.
• Livestock husbandry and management.
Theses issues are intended to guide research, and stimulate discussion and international collaboration. The challenges are multidisciplinary, so solutions can only be identified and demonstrated in real-world production systems. We propose the establishment of a network of ‘farm platforms', across different climatic and eco-regions, such as the University of Western Australia Future Farm, Thiruvazhankunnu Livestock Research Station, and the Rothamsted Research North Wyke Farm Platform.
A precise identification of a given animal as belonging to a given breed is essential for livestock census, and developing policies for selection, improvement and conservation of animal genetic resources. It consists of assigning animals to a breed on the basis of certain phenotypic traits and basically forms a classification problem. Existing computer learning algorithms require a learning data set for predicting the class of a new case. The available information on a breed consists of analysed survey data on a number of its phenotypic traits. Usually this information is presented in the form of breed descriptors as has been prepared for several breeds. This paper reports a learning approach in the form of a scoring function that aggregates trait values to provide a score for identifying breed of the given animal on the basis of breed descriptor. Experiments with the scoring function on both simulated and actual data of four Indian cattle breeds revealed high accuracy of identification. Its performance was comparable to the results obtained with PNC2 (Haendel, 2003, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Dortmund), a recent instance-based learning algorithm.The scoring function technique has been extended to make a decision on breed classification of an animal when breed descriptor of a single breed is available, and also in case the new animal does not belong to any of the breeds under comparison. The technique involves generation of one thousand animals’ simulated data from the available breed descriptors and locating the score of new animal in the range of scores of the generated animals for decision support on breed of the new animal.
This paper focuses on contract design to improve the incentive structure of current coordination mechanisms related to sustainable land use management in the Ethiopian highlands. The main objective is to assess whether, and if so under which terms and conditions, rural households are willing to enter into contractual agreements to invest in soil conservation measures on their land. Participation constraints are tested under different soil erosion and institutional-economic conditions in a choice experiment targeting 750 rural households. We show that contracts provided by local government peasant associations offering additional credit, land use security and extension services could be an effective means to increase the share of farmers implementing soil conservation measures. However, trust in contract terms and conditions appears to play an important role. Farmers living in the most erosion prone areas are most likely to participate, while farmers taking soil conservation measures already are less likely to enter into a contractual agreement with the local government. Farmers not taking soil conservation measures will only do so if the contract price is lower than or equal to the income losses suffered from soil erosion.
Economic theory treats motivation as a parameter, explaining variation in economic behaviour in terms of availability of resources. This theory does not provide a wholly convincing account of farmers' actions. It is suggested that a better understanding of motivation, taken in conjunction with information already available on material resources and constraints, could lead to a more adequate explanation and prediction of farmers' economic behaviour. This paper explores the subject of goals and values in the farming occupation as one facet of motivation. Values may refer to instrumental, social, expressive or intrinsic aspects of farming and it is their ordering relative to one another which influences farmers' decisions in situations of choice. Pilot studies suggest that farmers have a predominantly intrinsic orientation to work, valuing the way of life, independence and performance of work tasks above expressive, instrumental or social aspects of their occupation. Comparing value orientations of larger with smaller farmers illustrates some implications and possible uses of this approach.
Résumé
BUTS ET VALEURS DANS L'ACTIVITÉ DE L'EXPLOITANT AGRICOLE
Lu théorie économique traite la motivation comme un paramétre, expliquant la variation dans le comportement de l'économie en termes de disponibilité des ressources. Cette théorie ne fournit pas une information entiérement convaincante sur l'activité des exploitants agricoles, Une meilleure compréhension de la motivation, utilisée en conjonction avec les données déjà disponibles sur les ressources et contraintes matérielles, pourrait conduire, selon l'argument développé, à des explications et prévisions plus rigoureuses sur le comportement économique des agriculteurs. L'auteur analyse le thème des buts et valeurs dans le métier d'exploitant agricole comme un des aspects de la motivation. Les valeurs peuvent se référer à des aspects professionnels, sociaux, expressifs ou intrinsèques de l'exploitation agricole et c'est l'ordre dans lequel elles sont placées relativement les unes aux autres qui influence les décisions des agriculteurs dans les situations de choix. Les études pilotes convergent vers la conclusion selon laquelle les exploitants agricoles ont une orientation intrinsèque prédominante vers le travail, plaçant le style de vie, l'indépendance et la qualité des tâches qu'ils accomplissent au‐dessus des aspects expressifs, contributifs ou sociaux de leur profession. La comparaison des orientations de valeur entre grands et petits exploitants permet de souligner certaines des implications et des utilisations possibles de cette optique.
Zusammenfassung
ZIELE UND WERTE DER FARMER
Die wirtschaftliche Theorie behandelt die Motivation als einen Parameter, der die Veränderung im wirtschaftlichen Verhalten in Form von verfügbaren Ressourcen erklärt. Diese Theorie liefert keine ganz überzeugende Darstellung der Handlungen von Farmem. Es wird vorgeschlagen, doss ein besseres Verständnis der Motivation, zusammen mit der Information, die schon über Materialressourcen und über die notwendigen Folgerungen bestehen, zu einer angemesseren Erklärung und Vorhersage der wirtschaftlichen Verhaltensweise von Farmern führen könnte. Dieser Artikel erforscht das Thema der Ziele und Werte in der Farmtätigkeit als einen Teil der Motivation. Werte können sich auf instrumental, soziale, äussere oder innere Aspekte des Farmens beziehen, und es ist ihre Anordung zueinander, die die Entscheidungen der Farmer in einer Entscheidungssituation beeinflussen. Grundstudien lassen den Schluss zu, dass Farmer eine hauptsächlich innere Ausrichtung auf ihre Arbeit haben, wobei sie den Lebensstil, die Unabhängigkeit und die Ausführung ihrer Arbeitsaufgaben höher einschätzen als äusserliche, instrumental oder soziale Aspekte ihrer Beschäftigung. Der Vergleich der Wertorientierung zwischen grossen und kleinen Farmern veranschaulicht einige Folgerungen und mögliche Anwendungen dieses Ansatzes.
The article analyses the potential cultural value of local livestock breeds with the aim of identifying useful elements to both conserve and attribute value to them. Local breeds can be considered cultural properties in relation to their role as historical witnesses as they often play a central part in the agriculture tenures and in the social life of rural populations. Local breeds can also be likened to cultural properties because they contribute to the preservation of ancient local traditions. To analyse the historical value of a local breed, a methodology is proposed which is based on a set of parameters including antiquity, role in the agricultural system, farming techniques, role in landscape, gastronomy, folklore and handicrafts and presence in forms of higher artistic expression. To assess the role of the breed as a custodian of local traditions, additional parameters are proposed to evaluate its contribution in maintaining traditional landscape, gastronomy, folklore and handicrafts. The proposed methodology is applied to a set of nine local cattle breeds, covering a wide spectrum of farming settings. The analysis shows that consistent differences can be observed in the cultural values of local breeds, both as historical witness and as custodian, today, of local traditions.
Studies throughout Europe have suggested that voluntary agri-environmental programmes often engender very little change in attitudes towards productivist agriculture among conventional farming communities. This study examines why this may be so, using case studies from Hessen, Germany and Aberdeenshire, Scotland. By constructing a conceptual framework based on Bourdieu's notions of capital we explore how farming activities are able to generate symbolic capital, and compare this with the symbolic value of conservation work. We find that voluntary agri-environmental work returns little symbolic capital to farmers as, by prescribing management practices and designating specific areas for agri-environmental work, such schemes fail to allow farmers to develop or demonstrate skilled role performance – thus inhibiting the development of embodied cultural capital. We conclude by suggesting that entrepreneurial production-target based agri-environmental schemes may be ultimately more effective in changing long-term behaviour.
Considerable importance is attached to social exclusion/inclusion in recent EU rural development programmes. At the national/regional operation of these programmes groups of people who are not participating are often identified as ‘socially excluded groups’. This article contends that rural development programmes are misinterpreting the social processes of participation and consequently labelling some groups as socially excluded when they are not. This is partly because of the interchangeable and confused use of the concepts social inclusion, social capital and civic engagement, and partly because of the presumption that to participate is the default position. Three groups identified as socially excluded groups in Northern Ireland are considered. It is argued that a more careful analysis of what social inclusion means, what civic engagement means, and why participation is presumed to be the norm, leads to a different conclusion about who is excluded. This has both theoretical and policy relevance for the much used concept of social inclusion.
This paper presents the results of a cost-benefit analysis of a conservation program for the Pentro horse. This horse breed has been reared for millennia in a Southern Italian wetland where it is now strongly tied to the traditions of the region, but presently faces extinction as only 150 horses have survived. Horse herds live in a wild state, characterising in a remarkable manner the landscape of the wetland. This results in a flow of social benefits that the market value of this breed fails to capture. The benefits from a conservation program for this currently unprotected local breed is estimated in a contingent valuation study, while a bio-economic model is used to estimate the costs associated with its in situ conservation. The results show that the benefit/cost ratio is, in the worst scenario, equal to 1.67, thus justifying a conservation policy. This combined approach could be useful to support policy-making for conservation in regions with a long history of breeding domestic animals.
"Agri-environmental schemes (AES) have had a limited effect on European agriculture due to farmers' reluctance to participate. Information on how farmers react when AES characteristics are modified can be an important input to the design of such policies. This article investigates farmers' preferences for different design options in a specific AES aimed at encouraging nitrogen fixing crops in marginal dry-land areas in Spain. We use a choice experiment survey conducted in two regions (Aragón and Andalusia). The analysis employs an error component random parameter logit model allowing for preference heterogeneity and correlation amongst the non-status quo alternatives. Farmers show a strong preference for maintaining their current management strategies; however, significant savings in cost or increased participation can be obtained by modifying some AES attributes." Copyright (c) 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation (c) 2010 The Agricultural Economics Society.
In recent decades agri-environment schemes (AES) have become an increasingly important tool for policy makers aiming to reverse the post-war decline in environmental quality on agricultural land. The voluntary nature of such schemes means that the decision of farmers to participate is central to achieving policy objectives. Therefore, this paper uses a choice experiment approach to investigate the role that scheme design can have on encouraging farmers to participate. Choice data was gathered from a survey of farmers in 10 case study areas across the EU and analysed using both mixed logit and latent class models. In general, farmers were found to require greater financial incentives to join schemes with longer contracts or that offer less flexibility or higher levels of paperwork. It was also observed that a large segment of farmers ('low resistance adopters') would be willing to accept relatively small incentive payments for their participation in schemes offering relatively little flexibility and high levels of additional paperwork, when compared to a contrasting segment of 'high resistance adopters'.
This paper analyses the heterogeneity of compliance costs on farmers' choices to participate in agri-environment schemes. The theoretical distinction between fixed and variable costs is used to explain why factors that determine participation may differ from those which determine how much land participants enrol in a scheme. The level of fixed costs may explain why the smallest farms tend to be least likely to participate in such schemes. The empirical analysis presented in the paper compares models estimated with and without the hypothesis of negligible fixed costs. It also discusses the situation where the nature of costs can be identified and isolated. The results show that in the presence of fixed compliance costs, fixed transaction costs are a significant contracting barrier for smallest farms.
This paper examines actual and contingent participation by Dutch arable farmers in biodiversity conservation programmes. Probit and Tobit modelling were used to analyse the effect of farm and farmer characteristics and farmer attitudes on participation. The optimal bid offer was derived from a referendum contingent valuation (CV) survey for a proposed field margin programme. The results indicate that actual and contingent participation are better explained by the production environment and by familiarity with conservation programmes than by farmer characteristics or field characteristics. Contingent participation was significantly affected by farmers' perceptions of weed risks. The CV experiment suggested that up to 60 per cent participation might be achieved with appropriate bid offers.
The research agendas of psychologists and economists now have several overlaps, with behavioural economics providing theoretical and experimental study of the relationship between behaviour and choice, and hedonic psychology discussing appropriate measures of outcomes of choice in terms of overall utility or life satisfaction. Here we model the relationship between values (understood as principles guiding behaviour), choices and their final outcomes in terms of life satisfaction, and use data from the BHPS to assess whether our ideas on what is important in life (individual values) are broadly connected to what we experience as important in our lives (life satisfaction).
The standard model of labor is one in which individuals trade their time and energy in return for monetary rewards. Building on Fiske's relational theory (1992), we propose that there are two types of markets that determine relationships between effort and payment: monetary and social. We hypothesize that monetary markets are highly sensitive to the magnitude of compensation, whereas social markets are not. This perspective can shed light on the well-established observation that people sometimes expend more effort in exchange for no payment (a social market) than they expend when they receive low payment (a monetary market). Three experiments support these ideas. The experimental evidence also demonstrates that mixed markets (markets that include aspects of both social and monetary markets) more closely resemble monetary than social markets.
Recent studies that incorporate the spatial distributions of biological benefits and economic costs in conservation planning have shown that limited budgets can achieve substantially larger biological gains than when planning ignores costs. Despite concern from donors about the effectiveness of conservation interventions, these increases in efficiency from incorporating costs into planning have not yet been widely recognized. Here, we focus on what these costs are, why they are important to consider, how they can be quantified and the benefits of their inclusion in priority setting. The most recent work in the field has examined the degree to which dynamics and threat affect the outcomes of conservation planning. We assess how costs fit into this new framework and consider prospects for integrating them into conservation planning.
This paper examines actual and contingent participation by Dutch arable farmers in biodiversity conservation programmes. Probit and Tobit modelling were used to analyse the effect of farm and farmer characteristics and farmer attitudes on participation. The optimal bid offer was derived from a referendum contingent valuation (CV) survey for a proposed field margin programme. The results indicate that actual and contingent participation are better explained by the production environment and by familiarity with conservation programmes than by farmer characteristics or field characteristics. Contingent participation was significantly affected by farmers' perceptions of weed risks. The CV experiment suggested that up to 60 per cent participation might be achieved with appropriate bid offers. Copyright 2003, Oxford University Press.
The popularity of stated choice (SC) experiments has produced many design strategies in which researchers use increasingly more 'complex' choice settings to study choice behaviour. When the amount of information to assess increases, we wonder how an individual handles such information in making a choice. Defining the amount of information as the number of attributes associated with each choice set, we investigate how this information is processed as we vary its 'complexity'. Four ordered heterogeneous logit models are developed, each for an SC design based on a fixed number of attributes, in which the dependent variable defines the number of attributes that are ignored. We find that the degree to which individuals ignore attributes is influenced by the dimensionality of the SC experiment, the deviation of attribute levels from an experienced reference alternative, the use of 'adding up' attributes where feasible, the number of choice sets evaluated, and the personal income of the respondent. The empirical evidence supports the view that individuals appear to adopt a range of 'coping' strategies that are consistent with how they process information in real markets, and that aligning 'choice complexity' with the amount of information to process is potentially misleading. Relevancy is what matters. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Agri-environmental measures play an important role in Italian rural areas, as shown by the financial commitment to the Rural Development programmes. However, in contrast with other European Union (EU) countries, policy-makers still have limited experience on how farmers approach environmental incentive schemes. This paper casts new light on this issue from a northern Italian perspective. The rationale of the farmers' decision-making process is explored using two multinomial models. The first explains the probability of non-participation or participation in one of three specific agri-environmental measures. The model outcomes show that labour-intensive farming types and high dependency of household income on farming activity constrain farmers' participation, whereas previous experience, easy-to-implement environmentally friendly farm practices and adequate compensation of extra costs encourage participation. The second model explores the effect of farmers' attitudes and beliefs on their predispositions towards participation in any of the schemes. The results highlight that, besides income factors, the farm's future in the business, and the relationship with neighbouring farmers and their opinions on environmentally friendly practices all have significant effects on adoption of agri-environmental measures. The paper concludes by suggesting that farmers' attitudes and beliefs, as well as the local behavioural influences, have to be taken into account when designing and communicating agri-environmental measures. Copyright 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 The Agricultural Economics Society.
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