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Forces of Nature: Are there strengths that underlie the challenges
of a “difficult temperament” in infancy and early childhood?
Macall Gordon, M.A., Dept. of Applied Psychology, Antioch University Seattle
BACKGROUND
METHOD S
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
Aproximately 10% of infants can be classified
as difficult (Thomas & Chess, 1977) (also ir-
ritable, fussy, temperamentally frustrated, or
unsettled).Such terms refer to a constellation of traits
related to difficulties with self-regulation and height-
ened reactivity resulting from low sensory thresholds
and higher levels of emotional intensity (Rothbart,
2011). Temperamentally difficult infants typically
have eating and/or sleeping problems (Novosad et al.,
1999), are more reactive, and less able to calm down
without assistance (Calkins et al., 2002). As a result,
parents experience higher rates of stress (e.g. Oddi et
al., 2013), depression, and anxiety (e.g. Britton,
2011).
Difficult temperament in infancy has also been
strongly linked to later externalizing disorders,
ADHD (Hemmi, Wolke, & Schneider, 2011), obesity
(Anzman-Frasca, Stifter, & Birch, 2012), and later
Sample: A total of 856 surveys were completed.
Child group: n=452;
Mean age= 43.1 mos.; SD=15.38
Infant group: n=404;
Mean age=11.2 mos; SD=3.8
Parent Age: M=32.4 yrs.; SD=6.42
Education: 40.1% College diploma;
36.7% Graduate school
Income: Mdn = $76-100,000;
Mode: $41-75,000
Heritage: African/Mixed 0.8%
Latinx/Hispanic/Mixed 5.9%
American Indian/Mixed 3.4%
Middle Eastern/Mixed 0.8%
Black/Mixed 1.9%
Southeast Asian/Mixed 2.6%
East Asian/Mixed 2.0%
White/European 82.3%
Data Analysis: A simple linear regression was used
to model the influence of the score on the “Difficult”
subscale of the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire
(ICQ)(x) on a variety of outcomes (y). Differences
between mean ICQ scores on categorical variables
were analyzed with independent samples t-tests. Fre-
quencies were computed for some of the qualitative
data. Thematic analysis will be conducted in future
research.
problems inschool settings (Stright et al., 2008)
Popular parenting discourse, however, has identi-
fied various positive aspects of a challenging tem-
perament. These constructions (e.g. active/alert,
Budd, 2003; highly sensitive, Aron, 2002; high needs,
Sears & Sears, 1996; spirited, Kurcinka, 1999) high-
light both the challenge and the potential value of
difficult traits. A qualitative study found that, though
parents of temperamentally-intense children reported
significant problems with sleep, self-soothing, and
tantrum behaviors, they also reported high levels of
alertness, perceptiveness, empathy, and precocious
verbal and/or motor ability (Kurcinka, 2011).
Are there, then, potential positive aspects of diffi-
cult infant temperament that have been overlooked?
Further, is it possible that the same features of sensi-
tivity, perceptiveness, etc. underlie both the challeng-
ing and positive traits?
Recruitment: Invitations to participate in this online
survey were targeted at parents of young children via
announcements on relevant Facebook groups and
mailing lists. The sampling frame included parents of
infants (6- to 18-months) and children (2- to 6-years).
The two frames were intended to capture both current
experiences, as well as some limited assessment of
experience over time. The two frames will also allow
for later examination of age-related differences in
temperament and behavior.
Survey Instrument: The survey was created and de-
ployed on SurveyMonkey.com. Questions were
largely response scale format with ranges between 1
and 10. Parents were asked about early infancy, as-
pects of temperament, behavior, sleep, and parenting
variables. Several open-ended questions inquired
about parents’ impressions of their child’s birth, de-
velopment, temperament, and sleep behavior. Quali-
tative questions asked for parents’ assessment of their
child’s temperament and their experiences of parent-
ing in short and longer format open-ended questions.
It is clear that children considered temperamen-
tally “difficult” have a variety of significant
challenges, including sleep difficulties and self-
soothing deficits. However, these children also ap-
pear to have higher levels of sensitivity,
perceptiveness, and persistence that may help to ex-
plain these difficulties.
Parents of challenging children struggle signifi-
cantly with the amount of energy these children re-
quire. Indeed, their experience differs dramatically
from parents of non-difficult chil-dren for whom the
parenting journey is “easy,” “fun,” and “joyful.”
While parents seem to appreciate the un-derlying
abilities their children have, they also appear to be in
need of support and guidance about how to cope
with the higher level of energy and skill these chil-
dren require.
consistent with research...
Scores on the Difficult subscale were
predictive of problems with intensity,
regulation, and sleep.
Intensity
Strong emotional reactions 1.26+(.21xICQ), R2=.50, p<.001
(1) Not strong/Fairly even tempered
(10) Very strong/Everything is a big deal
Upset quickly 0.85+(.23xICQ), R2=.49, p<.001
(1) It takes a lot to really upset them
(10) Very quickly/Goes from zero to sixty
Meltdowns -0.65+(.21xICQ), R2=.49, p<.001
(1) Significantly less than expected
(10) Significantly more than expected
Frustration (CHILD ONLY) 1.8+(.19xICQ), R2=.44, p<.001
(1) Doesn’t seem bothered. (10) Gets extremely frustrated
Self-soothing ability 1.42+(.17xICQ), R2=.35, p<.001
(1) Really good; (10) Needs a lot of help
Easy fall asleep 1.72+(.17xICQ), R2=.25, p<.001
(1) They would just conk out; (10) Didn’t want to go to sleep ever
Go to sleep, stay asleep 1.14+(.19xICQ), R2=.26, p<.001
(1) Excellent, just a few problems
(10) Terrible, sleep was a huge struggle
How much bedtime effort 0.81+(.18xICQ), R2=.23, p<.001
(1) Not very much; (10) A significant amount
How much nightwaking? 2.09+(.15xICQ), R2=.15, p<.001
(1) Slept through the night early and easily; (10) Extremely wakeful
How much effort to get 1.70+(.16xICQ), R2=.18, p<.001
baby back to sleep?
(1) Almost none/minimal help; (10) Consistently needed a lot of help
# Sleep training strategies 1.87+(.06xICQ), R2=.08, p<.001
(1) One; (6) >5
Were you successful? 0.95+(.15xICQ), R2=.12, p<.001
(1) Definitely yes; (7) Definitely no
Level of Emotional Fatigue 1.82+(.18xICQ), R2=.32, p<.001
(1) No, or very little emotional fatigue
(10) Significant emotional fatigue
Level of Physical Fatigue 2.74+(.16xICQ), R2=.30, p<.001
(1) No, or very little physical fatigue
(10) Significant physical fatigue
Did you have or suspect 1.42+(.10xICQ), R2=.11, p<.001
PPD or PPA in the first year?
(1) No (4) Possibly (7) Yes
Do you suspect it now? 0.71+(.09xICQ), R2=.11, p<.001
(CHILD ONLY) (1) No (4) Possibly (7) Yes
Parental Competence 6.06+(.58xICQ), R2=.47, p<.001
e.g.I feel like I know what I’m doing; This is similar to expectation;This
is similar to other parents; Parenting comes easy to me (Range 6-36;
Higher score= lower sense of competence)
Colic (Y/N) t(450)=11.0, p<.001
Reflux (Y/N) t(852)=16.62, p<.001
Food intolerance (Y/N) t(355)=4.66, p<.001
Snoring/Apnea (Y/N) t(402)=3.15, p=.002
Total # of problems -0.11+(.07xICQ), R2=.17, p<.001
Difficult Labor 3.99+(.05xICQ), R2=.03, p<.001
Difficult Birth 4.06+(.05xICQ), R2=.02, p<.001
Notice subtle smells, 2.37+(.08xICQ), R2=.05, p<.001
sounds, textures, etc.
(1) Doesn't really seem to notice; (10) Notices things that others don’t
Notice small, subtle 3.26+(.08xICQ), R2=.05, p<.001
changes in environment
(1) Doesn't seem to notice; (10) Notices even tiny details
Need for interaction
Ability to be left alone .66+(.16xICQ), R2=.26, p<.001
(1) Not a problem
(10) Gets extremely upset (more than expected for age)
How much interaction do 3.32+(.13xICQ), R2=.32, p<.001
they want/need?
(1) Much less than other children the same age
(10) Significantly more than other children
How interested in toys? 1.13+(.12xICQ), R2=.16, p<.001
(1) Loves them/plays for a long time
(10) Not that interested or loses interest quickly
Perceptiveness
however...
A variety of potentially positive
traits were also related to “difficult”
temperament
As an infant, startle? 1.36+(.13xICQ), R2=.17, p<.001
(1) No, not at all; (10) Startled frequently/easily
Sensitive to seams in socks, 0.57+(.14xICQ), R2=.16, p<.001
tags, textures of foods, etc.?
(1) No, not really; (10) Yes, definitely
React to loud noises, etc.? 2.2+(.09xICQ), R2=.08, p<.001
(1) Doesn’t really react ; (10) Reacts very strongly
Pick up on distress 3.28+(.09xICQ), R2=.10, p<.001
of others? (Child group: n.s.)
Notice exclusion 3.36+(.05xICQ), R2=.02, p<.001
or bullying? (CHILD ONLY)
Perfectionism 3.15+(.09xICQ), R2=.06, p<.001
(CHILD ONLY)
Fairness/ethical 3.9+(.04xICQ), R2=.01, p<.001
behavior (CHILD ONLY)
How easily will they 2.63+(.14xICQ), R2=.26, p<.001
give up on something they want?
(1) Usually with minimal or no resistance; (10) They never give up
Question the reason/logic 3.92+(.05xICQ), R2=.02, p=.003
for rules (CHILD ONLY)
(1) Not more than is normal for age; (10) All the time/fairly constantly
Nonsignificant variables included: Memory,
intuitiveness, verbal ability, asking a lot of questions,
asking “surprising” questions, amount of creative activity.
Subjects were asked to write three words to describe
their experience of parenting this child.
The two groups had contrasting responses. Top
words: Exhausting, Challenging, Frustrating,
Rewarding, and Loving/Joyful. Low Difficult
parents, on the other hand, reported that parenting
was Easy, Fun, Joyful, Amazing, and Rewarding.
Open-ended responses suggested that parents under-
stood that challenging behaviors might be by-prod-
ucts of nascent abilities.
“He is the most fun kid I’ve met
at his age—also the most intense
and exhausting. He is super
smart, intuitive, and loving, but
struggles with anger. . .”
(27 months)
“I'm both amazed and exhausted by how much my
child, knows, feels, and does. I question all the time if
I'm good enough to handle her.…She's the biggest
challenge I've ever faced, but the most proud of any-
thing I have ever done.” (36 mos.)
“She’s my Sour Patch Kid—super sassy and sour, but
can be the sweetest and most polite little girl…It’s
like her personality is too big for her little body.”
(45 mos.)
qualitative results
related variables....
Sleep Problems
Parental Toll
Persistence
sensory sensitivity
Emotional sensitivity
“He’s a force
of nature —
good and
bad.”
Contact: Macall Gordon, M.A., Antioch University
Seattle • mgordon@antioch.edu