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College students’ metacognitive strategy use in an EFL flipped classroom
Computer Assisted Language Learning
Abstract
This study examines EFL students’ metacognitive strategy use in a university flipped classroom and the underlying factors of metacognitive strategy use. The participants in our study were students enrolled in an elective English course at a university in Taiwan, where they had to watch online course videos outside of class and participate in activities that required knowledge application. Students’ metacognitive strategy use and factors affecting their use were elicited through written accounts, class observations, and semi-structured interviews. Findings show that factors affecting their metacognitive strategy use include students’ expected learning outcome and peer learning. Students’ greater control over learning in a flipped classroom context further facilitates their metacognitive strategies. Finally, possible directions for metacognitive instruction are discussed.
... Of the several strategies, metacognitive strategies are quite effective in improving high-level cognitive abilities. This strategy can be in the form of stages of learning activities such as designing, planning, monitoring progress, and evaluating (Çini et al., 2020;Shih & Huang, 2019). Metacognitive strategies can support an individual's ability to develop an independent attitude, manage themselves, strategize, monitor, and evaluate their own writing results. ...
... In addition, the flipped classroom model is also able to make the class dynamic and interactive both between teachers and students and between students. Previous studies have shown that the flipped classroom model is able to improve high-level cognitive abilities and encourage active student participation through various modes in the flipped classroom such as online quizzes, videos, and individual assignments in the flipped classroom (Jiang et al., 2020;Shih & Huang, 2019, 2020. So, the flipped idea of the FLIP framework is able to create a student-centered learning environment through the delivery of content to achieve learning goals. ...
... Metacognitive strategies that include planning, monitoring, and evaluation can improve the quality of students' essay writing. These findings reinforce that metacognition can be used as a theoretical basis that explains that metacognitive strategy components are significantly correlated with essay writing competence (Çini et al., 2020;Shih & Huang, 2019). The current findings are also in accordance with previous studies that emphasize that metacognition is built by a regular structure and can be used to predict learning strategies. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of metacognitive strategy integration in the best class model on writing ability, anxiety, and self-efficacy in writing. The method used in this study was a quasi-experiment involving 250 vocational high school students using a random sampling method with 60% female and 40% male. The experimental group used five different types of metacognitive strategies with the flipped classroom model, while the control group received metacognitive strategy instruction intervention with traditional classes. The instruments used in this study were a writing self-efficacy scale, a writing ability measurement scale, two writing tasks, and a writing anxiety scale. Data analysis used the one-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov (K-S) Test and the one-way ANCOVA test. The results showed that the integration of metacognitive strategies based on flipped classrooms was able to significantly improve writing ability compared to writing ability that received metacognitive strategy intervention in traditional classes. The improvement of students’ writing skills is seen in several components, namely content, organization of ideas, vocabulary usage, and mechanics. Metacognitive strategies that included planning, monitoring, and evaluation are able to improve the quality of students’ essay writing. The integration of metacognitive strategies in the flipped classroom model encouraged students to fully participate in various online learning activities before attending class and could reduce anxiety and writing self-efficacy substantially. This learning activity improves high-level cognitive skills, which can directly prepare students before entering the learning process activities. This study implies that the integration of technology with language learning models will not only be able to improve language skills but also be able to improve aspects that support the improvement of these language skills and reduce writing anxiety because students are equipped with various features in technology.
... For instance, Challob (2021) and Nourinezhad et al. (2022) demonstrated the effectiveness of flipped instruction in improving EFL learners' writing abilities and learner attitudes. Additionally, Van Vliet et al. (2015) and Shih and Huang (2020) have examined the use of metacognitive strategies in flipped classrooms, revealing the potential of this pedagogical approach to foster deeper learning and strategic thinking. However, a comprehensive review of the literature reveals a notable gap in studies that simultaneously investigate the effects of collocation instruction, flipped learning, and metacognitive academic writing strategies on EFL learners' writing proficiency. ...
... The investigation's findings align with previous studies that have explored the effect of flipped instruction on EFL learners' writing abilities and their use of writing strategies. Studies conducted by Van Vliet et al. (2015), Huang (2020), andJiang (2022) have demonstrated that flipped classrooms can positively influence critical thinking, task value, and peer learning, leading to improved metacognitive strategy use. Similarly, the results of the current study show that the flipped online group, which had access to diverse learning materials and engaged in pre-class activities, demonstrated more significant improvements in writing proficiency and strategic use of collocations. ...
... This is consistent with the flipped online group's deeper comprehension of collocations and their more strategic incorporation in writing tasks. The flipped online group's access to personalized learning experiences and greater control over their learning pace resonates with the findings of Shih and Huang (2020), who emphasized the importance of student control in promoting metacognitive strategy use. ...
In recent years, the concept of flipped instruction has emerged as an innovative approach in language education, focusing on the significance of metacognitive academic writing strategies to enhance writing and language learning. This study aimed to investigate the impact of flipped instruction on the proficiency of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in process paragraph writing, their awareness of collocations, their use of metacognitive academic writing strategies, and overall writing proficiency. Sixty intermediate EFL learners, selected based on their performance on the Oxford Placement Test (OPT), were randomly assigned to either a flipped online group or a flipped face-to-face group. Both groups completed a pre-test, including a writing assessment and an academic writing strategies questionnaire. In the flipped online group, the participants engaged with collocations relevant to process paragraphs through Skyroom before attending regular classes. In contrast, the flipped face-to-face group received printed instructional materials one week before their in-person class. After a six-week treatment period, all participants underwent post-tests for process paragraph writing and metacognitive academic writing strategies. They also completed post-intervention academic writing strategies questionnaires. The data were analyzed using paired and independent samples t-tests. The results revealed that flipped online instruction had a significant positive impact on EFL learners' process paragraph writing proficiency, collocation awareness, metacognitive academic writing strategies, and overall writing proficiency. This research illuminates the dynamic relationship between flipped online instruction, metacognitive academic writing strategies, and collocation awareness, showcasing its potential to enhance multiple facets of EFL learners' language skills. Additionally, the research offers practical implications for language educators and researchers seeking innovative approaches to improve language learning outcomes through flipped instruction.
... According to Bishop and Verleger (2013), a flipped classroom is defined as a new teaching approach in which students study the learning materials through recorded lectures at home and spend in-class time on discussion and communicative activities (see also Putra, 2021;Shih & Huang, 2020). As Pavanelli (2018) noted, by using the flipped classroom model in teaching writing, students can watch lecture videos outside the classroom and spend all the available in-class time for writing practice, immediate feedback from the teacher, and revision of their work. ...
... The flipped classroom is defined as a new way of teaching where students are required to watch recorded lectures or online videos at home and then come to class to discuss the lesson and complete tasks that help them better understand it (Putra, 2021;Shih & Huang, 2020). Similarly, based on Bishop and Verleger's (2013) description, the flipped classroom involves doing interactive activities in the classroom and watching assigned videos asynchronously at home. ...
... In accordance with Putra's (2021) and Shih and Huang's (2020) definition of the flipped classroom, and Bishop and Verleger's (2013) description of this model, the flipped classroom instruction was implemented in this study as follows. ...
A flipped classroom model has been identified as a new classroom instruction in the 21st century. Since its emergence, the flipped classroom has been a subject of empirical studies in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms in various contexts. This action research study, adopting a qualitative approach, aimed to explore EFL university students' perceptions of implementing the flipped classroom model in writing classes in Cambodia. An online open-ended questionnaire was used to collect data from three Year 1 classes consisting of 104 students studying an academic writing course called Writing Skills 102 in the second semester of the foundation year of the academic year 2021-2022 at the Department of English of the Institute of Foreign Languages of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The findings revealed students' positive perceptions of the flipped classroom model despite some challenges. These findings solidify the benefits of the flipped classroom model on students' learning experiences, making it clear that the flipped classroom holds immense potential to solve writing instructional issues and transform EFL writing classrooms in the post-COVID-19 world.
... While the flipped classroom has been recognized as a beneficial approach for enhancing EFL learners' linguistic competence (O'Flaherty and Phillips, 2015;Shih and Huang, 2020;Turan and Akdag-Cimen, 2020), limited research exists on its impact on other variables, particularly reading comprehension-an essential skill for academic knowledge acquisition-and self-regulated learning strategies-an important tool for independent language learning (Vitta and Al-Hoorie, 2020;Fathi and Rahimi, 2022). Research suggests that an online flipped classroom model can enhance reading comprehension (Karimi and Hamzavi, 2017;Samiei and Ebadi, 2021). ...
... FCM brings rich chances for learners, adds flexibility and adaptability Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org (Bergmann and Sams, 2014;Shih and Huang, 2020), and offers practical tasks during class. Insights have arisen from diverse fields, spanning social sciences (Wanner and Palmer, 2015;Lee and Wallace, 2018), engineering (Karabulut-Ilgu et al., 2018), and education (Zainuddin and Attaran, 2016;Sommer and Ritzhaupt, 2018), all of which increasingly advocate the effectiveness of the flipped classroom in enhancing learners' educational outcomes (Çakıroğlu and Öztürk, 2017;Liu et al., 2019). ...
... Blended teaching can make students autonomous in their language learning process by planning to learn, having more pace for selecting and sequencing the video-and audio-based content, possessing ownership, making decisions, enhancing higher-order learning skills, and observing learning to support self-regulated learning strategies (Lai and Hwang, 2016;Tan et al., 2017;Van Laer and Elen, 2017;Lee and Choi, 2019;Shih and Huang, 2020;. Moreover, an online flipped classroom, as a blended learning strategy, can offer authentic, meaningful, and personal materials, offer learners control and provide sufficient scaffolding and opportunities for interaction, reflection, and cooperation (Van Laer and Elen, 2017). ...
Introduction
This research investigates the effectiveness of an online collaborative flipped classroom approach in enhancing English reading skills and self-regulated learning among Chinese English learners.
Methods
A total of 71 participants were divided into three instructional groups: traditional instruction (TI) group (n = 24), flipped instruction (FI) group (n = 22), and online flipped instruction (OFI) group (n = 25). The participants’ reading comprehension ability was assessed using the reading section of the IELTS exam. Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) strategy use was evaluated using a questionnaire, and weekly online quizzes assessed participants’ understanding of course materials. Online learning behaviors were examined by considering online log-on times. The instruction period lasted for 12 weeks, with pre-tests and post-tests conducted to measure progress.
Results
The results indicated that both the FI and OFI groups outperformed the TI group in terms of reading comprehension and self-regulated learning. Furthermore, the OFI students demonstrated superior online learning behaviors and objective performances compared to the FI students.
Discussion
These findings suggest that the integration of flipped and online instruction methods holds promise for improving English reading skills and enhancing self-regulated learning among Chinese English learners.
... The flipped classroom learning model reverses the traditional learning model. Before studying in class, students first study the material by watching videos or other teaching materials and then continue to do homework (Bergmann & Sams, 2012;Network, 2014;Ramakrishnan & Priya, 2016;Shih & Huang, 2020). Sessions in class can be continued with active learning. ...
... One of the advantages of the flipped classroom compared to the traditional model is that it can facilitate the speed and learning needs of diverse learners with maximum study time (Stakern & Horn, 2012;Bergmann & Sams, 2012;Network, 2014;Shih & Huang, 2020;Angelona). et al., 2020). The flipped classroom model overcomes the limitations of learning time by providing additional time to carry out learning activities outside the classroom (Bergmann & Sams, 2012;Network, 2014;Anderson & Brennan, 2015;Petrillo, 2015;Schroeder, 2015;Wasserman et al., 2015;Ramakrishnan & Priya, 2016;Li et al., 2017;Sergis et al., 2017;Ramadhani, 2019;Shih & Huang, 2020). ...
... et al., 2020). The flipped classroom model overcomes the limitations of learning time by providing additional time to carry out learning activities outside the classroom (Bergmann & Sams, 2012;Network, 2014;Anderson & Brennan, 2015;Petrillo, 2015;Schroeder, 2015;Wasserman et al., 2015;Ramakrishnan & Priya, 2016;Li et al., 2017;Sergis et al., 2017;Ramadhani, 2019;Shih & Huang, 2020). ...
... Flipped Learning is an instruction methodology that has attracted strong advocates among L2 educators for its promising potential in L2 settings (Huang & Hew, 2018;Rajabi et al., 2021;Shih & Huang, 2020). There are four key elements that conceptualise flipped learning (McLaughlin et al., 2016). ...
... The second element is the provision of the course content and materials to the learners and the learners' effective preparation in the pre-class phase. There have been several arguments in which researchers apprise that in the pre-class phase of flipped learning, some students may not be able to learn the required content through the learning materials provided due to their lack of SR learning skills or adequate assistance (Miles & Foggett, 2016;Shih & Huang, 2020). In out-of-class learning modes, there is plenty of information, some of which can encourage students to learn, while some might distract students' concentration. ...
... FCM offers a different approach to learning by reversing the traditional learning sequence. In FCM, students study material independently before class meetings through learning resources such as videos, readings, or other digital resources (Bergmann & Sams, 2012;Flipped Learning Network, 2014;Shih & Huang, 2020). Class time is used for discussion, collaboration, and in-depth application of concepts (Al-Samarraie et al., 2020;Clark et al., 2022). ...
... This suggests that FCM effectively minimizes the performance gap between UA and LA students. This effectiveness is attributed to FCM's ability to optimally facilitate student learning time , allowing students to learn at their own pace and according to their individual learning styles (Al-Samarraie et al., 2020;Bergmann & Sams, 2012;Clark et al., 2022;Shih & Huang, 2020). Additionally, FCM reduces the time pressures commonly associated with conventional learning models (Sargent & Casey, 2020). ...
Effectiveness of the flipped classroom model in minimizing student achievement gaps in higher education. Various previous experimental studies have highlighted the potential of the flipped classroom model (FCM) for improving student learning performance. However, the question of how far FCM can make a positive contribution to various academic abilities remains unclear. Some studies suggest that some learning models tend to benefit students with higher academic abilities (UA) than those with lower abilities (LA). Objectives: This study aims to explore whether the application of FCM can be effective in reducing the learning performance gap between LA and UA students. Method: We used an ANCOVA test with a 3 x 2 factorial design to answer this research question. We applied three different learning models (FCM, PBL, and Expository) to a total of 25 LA and UA students. Results: The analysis results showed that using the FCM model was more successful in reducing the learning performance gap between LA and UA students compared to the PBL and expository models. Conclusion: These findings make a significant contribution to our understanding of the effectiveness of specific learning models in addressing learning performance gaps, with important implications for the development of more inclusive learning policies and practices.
... Students are required to watch the assigned instructional videos by themselves before class time (Tang et al., 2023). Then, class time incorporates a variety of communicative activities, such as group work and interactive discussion (Shih & Huang, 2020;Wang & Qi, 2018). ...
... Furthermore, five students referred to "Control on Time to Learn" as one of the benefits of the flipped instruction. This advantage was pinpointed by other scholars as well (Alghasab, 2020;Kim, 2018;Lai & Hwang, 2016;Shih & Huang, 2020). ...
This qualitative study explored Iranian higher education learners’ perceptions of the online flipped instruction.
Participants were 25 Iranian undergraduates, aged 20 to 27 years, majoring in English Language Translation, selected
through convenience sampling. They received flipped instruction in an online course titled ‘Approaches and Methods
in Language Teaching’, which consisted of 14 sessions conducted in Iran. Data were collected through a structured
interview that examined the benefits, drawbacks, and challenges of implementing online flipped instruction. It was
found that all the participants were satisfied with their experience. Several benefits were stated, such as ‘effective
learning’, ‘interesting and motivating class’, ‘more interaction’, ‘more cooperation and collaboration’, ‘more
engagement’, ‘useful class time’, ‘learning teamwork’, ‘control on time to learn’, ‘acquiring practical knowledge and
skills’, ‘reducing stress’, ‘self-reflection and self-evaluation’, ‘learning to take responsibility’, ‘boosting selfconfidence’, ‘more attention in class’, ‘receiving effective feedback’, ‘becoming autonomous’, and ‘satisfying all
learning styles’. However, five students also complained that the approach put a heavy burden on students. Six
students argued that poor internet connection and lack of adequate technological tools could cause difficulty for
students who study in poor areas of the country. Therefore, positive outcomes can be achieved through the online
flipped pedagogy, although careful planning is also required.
Keywords: flipped pedagogy, online classes, higher education learners’ perceptions.
... Teachers need to be careful to design online learning activities that are engaging and that keep students on task. Teachers also need to provide regular feedback to students so that they can track their progress and make sure they are learning the material as it was strongly suggested by the previous research (Hung, 2015;Marca & Longo, 2017;Roux & Hamciuc, 2014;Shih & Huang, 2019). Overall, online learning can be a very effective way to deliver instruction to high school students. ...
... The implementation of flipped classroom methodologies, which emphasize pre-class engagement with learning materials and subsequent in-class active discussions, may further accentuate the challenges stemming from this issue. While the flipped classroom model has shown promise in fostering student participation and critical thinking skills, its success heavily relies on students' commitment to the initial independent acquisition of content (Haghighi et al., 2019;Khoiriyah, 2021;Shih & Huang, 2019;Su Ping et al., 2019). The lack of self-driven online learning readiness among high school students could undermine the effectiveness of this approach, as the success of the in-class components hinges on the prerequisite comprehension gained through online engagement. ...
This study investigated the impact of FC on Saudi secondary school students' grammar proficiency. The participants in this study were 61 Saudi female students from the second level of secondary school. The participants were divided into two groups: the control group consisted of 30 students, and the experimental group consisted of 31 students. The control group was taught using the traditional method of instruction, while the experimental group was taught using FC. The data collection instrument was a pretest and posttest that were designed by the researchers. The pretest was administered at the beginning of the intervention, and the posttest was administered after a period of four weeks. The data from the pretest and posttest were analyzed quantitatively. The findings of the study revealed that FC did not have a significant impact on students' performance in grammar. There was no statistical difference between the scores of the students in both groups in the posttest. This study contributes to the existing literature on FC by providing evidence that FC does not have a significant impact on students' performance in grammar. One explanation is the potential mismatch between the self-directed nature of online education and the level of maturity and discipline typically expected from high school students. Also, other factors, such as the quality of the instructional materials and the teacher's pedagogical skills, may be more important than FC in improving students' grammar proficiency.
... Teachers need to be careful to design online learning activities that are engaging and that keep students on task. Teachers also need to provide regular feedback to students so that they can track their progress and make sure they are learning the material as it was strongly suggested by the previous research (Hung, 2015;Marca & Longo, 2017;Roux & Hamciuc, 2014;Shih & Huang, 2019). Overall, online learning can be a very effective way to deliver instruction to high school students. ...
... The implementation of flipped classroom methodologies, which emphasize pre-class engagement with learning materials and subsequent in-class active discussions, may further accentuate the challenges stemming from this issue. While the flipped classroom model has shown promise in fostering student participation and critical thinking skills, its success heavily relies on students' commitment to the initial independent acquisition of content (Haghighi et al., 2019;Khoiriyah, 2021;Shih & Huang, 2019;Su Ping et al., 2019). The lack of self-driven online learning readiness among high school students could undermine the effectiveness of this approach, as the success of the in-class components hinges on the prerequisite comprehension gained through online engagement. ...
This study investigated the impact of FC on Saudi secondary school students' grammar proficiency. The participants in this study were 61 Saudi female students from the second level of secondary school. The participants were divided into two groups: the control group consisted of 30 students, and the experimental group consisted of 31 students. The control group was taught using the traditional method of instruction, while the experimental group was taught using FC. The data collection instrument was a pretest and posttest that were designed by the researchers. The pretest was administered at the beginning of the intervention, and the posttest was administered after a period of four weeks. The data from the pretest and posttest were analyzed quantitatively. The findings of the study revealed that FC did not have a significant impact on students' performance in grammar. There was no statistical difference between the scores of the students in both groups in the posttest. This study contributes to the existing literature on FC by providing evidence that FC does not have a significant impact on students' performance in grammar. One explanation is the potential mismatch between the self-directed nature of online education and the level of maturity and discipline typically expected from high school students. Also, other factors, such as the quality of the instructional materials and the teacher's pedagogical skills, may be more important than FC in improving students' grammar proficiency.
... In other words, the increase in the perceived learning support in the flipped learning increases the self-regulation skills of the students. This finding supports the results of other similar studies (Chen et al., 2014;Fraga & Harmon, 2014;Lai & Hwang, 2016;Shih & Huang, 2020;Shyr & Chen, 2018;Sletten, 2017;Sun et al., 2017;Tan et al., 2017;Zheng & Zhang, 2020). Students' taking responsibility in planning and monitoring their learning processes is expressed as self-regulated learning (Lai & Hwang, 2016). ...
... Thus, flipped learning model is also be considered as one of these learning environments, where students have more autonomy over their own learning processes. In a flipped learning environment, students need to regulate their learning, especially in extracurricular processes (Cheng et al., 2019;He et al., 2016;Shih & Huang, 2020;van Alten et al., 2019;Tan et al., 2017). ...
... However, in the second cycle they tried to be more cooperative, more active and achieved an increase in their score in the last cycle. Research that aims to look at the implementation of metacognitive strategies in improving students' critical reading skills supports the results of other empirical research obtained by (12)(13)(14)(15)(16). The results of the research show that students' critical reading skills improve through the application of metacognitive strategies in classroom learning. ...
It is a universal agreement among scientists that critical reading skill is one of the hardest skill that should be possessed by the student. Meanwhile, there is a prove claimed that the metacognitive strategy gave a major significance in reading ability. This study was intended to discover the use of metacognitive strategy in enhancing students’ critical reading skill. The subject of this study was the students of Nommensen HKBP University. This study applied the reading test and the observation sheets in two different cycles to observe the significant improvement of the students in their critical reading ability. The results showed the improvement of the students’ reading test score during the implementation of the two cycles. Furthermore, the observation sheets showed that the students was becoming interesting and easier in doing the critical reading practice and test that leading the class to comprehend the critical reading skill successfully. Therefore, it is apparent that through the implementation of the metacognitive strategy, students can improve their understanding in the critical reading skill.
... FCM's positive contributions to students' motivation, cognitive learning outcomes as well as engagement in the information and communication course were also pointed out by Kostaris et al. (2017). In addition, Shih and Huang (2020) and Molnar (2017) showed that thanks to FCM, students can study rich course contents at their own pace within the context of a flexible digital learning environment. If these rich course contents are available in a digital format, for instance as interactive multimedia on online platforms that also offer Page 6 of 19 Şan Asian. ...
As the traditional teaching paradigm is reversed in Flipped Classroom Model (FCM), it has the potential to empower the teacher to allocate more valuable face-to-face classroom time for productive language tasks. Digital flipped course contents encourage the students and the teacher to take advantage of becoming a member in an online learning community and engage in a social-constructive learning approach. Such a profound shift from the traditional teaching and learning paradigm may influence the identity progression of L2 teachers. This longitudinal study aims to explore the ramifications of flipped grammar teaching on four L2 teachers’ identity progression over the course of two academic years within the three fundamental modes of belonging for identity formation, namely engagement, alignment, and imagination, identified by Wenger (1999) at tertiary level. Methodological triangulation was adopted to boost the transferability and reliability of the findings. Semi-structured interviews provided in-depth insights into the four L2 teachers’ relational thinking about flipped grammar teaching and their professional identity progression. The data also included four hours of classroom observations to witness the real-life implications of teachers’ accounts. The twofold data was analyzed using deductive content analysis. The results indicated that English teachers need to make long lasting and conscious efforts towards a reconciliation between their existing identities and FCM. The teachers not only need to find accommodation strategies to ensure better integration of reluctant students into FCM but also overcome their own accuracy-based exam anxiety as they redefine their grammar identities incorporating FCM.
... Xiao Han and Chen, Da (2018) and He Xueqin (2016) explored integrating the Flipped Classroom Model (FCM) in the digital era's English reading instruction. FCM brings rich chances for learners, adds exibility and adaptability (Shih & Huang, 2020). Through the interactive and collaborative online ipped classrooms, EFL learners engage in a multifaceted approach to reading. ...
Reading is the foundation of mastering a language as well as a primary instrument to obtain information. Reading teaching has always been a hot topic in English language teaching (ELT). The present study sought to trace the characteristics of existing studies on English reading teaching in China. Based on research articles in the CNKI database collected by Chinese core journals and CSSCI in the past two decades, 603 studies on English reading teaching were selected and analyzed. Firstly, the Cite Space software is used to visualize the annual number of published papers, research hotspots and research trends. Subsequently, a detailed content analysis was conducted to distil and summaries the predominant research foci in English reading instruction in China over the past twenty years. The results show that the number of published papers on reading teaching research in China increases first and then fluctuates. The evolution of research topics is discerned to encompass three distinct stages and was influenced by prevailing educational policies. The research foci mainly include three aspects: English reading teaching modes, English reading teaching strategies and English reading ability. This comprehensive review aims to map out the current research landscape, shedding light on future scholarly inquiry in English reading teaching
... Since students are expected to take ownership of their learning, metacognitive skills are essential for both language learning and the success of a flipped classroom. Both learning activities with and without teacher's instruction can benefit from the implementation of several key strategies, including planning, directed attention, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and selective attention (Shih et al. 2019). ...
... The similar pattern in the perception of this particular strategy in both L1 and L2 academic reading might provide proof to Goodman's (1967) psycholinguistic guessing game model of reading, which believes that reading is rather a selective process that is composed of readers' prediction of reading passages, sampling reading passages and confirming predictions based on background knowledge and prior predictions on reading passages. Shih and Huang (2020) and Aryanjam et al. (2021) also confirm that the global strategy of "having purpose of reading" has a considerable role in reading success and comprehension level in any language. ...
This study employed a mixed methods approach to investigate Iranian EFL learners' perceived and actual use of metacognitive reading strategies while reading English and Persian. The study examined the actual and perceived MRs across three categories: global, problem-solving, and support. In the quantitative phase, 133 intermediate EFL learners studying TEFL at Islamic Azad University and Farhangyan University were selected as participants. In the qualitative phase, 40 students from high and poor reading ability levels (20 from each group) were selected as the focus group participants. The instruments employed in this study included the Persian Reading Comprehension Placement Test, the Oxford Placement Test, the Reading Section of the PET, Perceived Reading Strategy Questionnaires in English and Persian, semi-structured interviews, and think-aloud protocols. The data analysis involved using chi-square, MANOVA, and theme-based analysis. The findings indicated a statistically significant difference between the frequency and type of perceived problem-solving strategies but no statistically significant disparity between the frequency or type of support and global strategies. The qualitative data revealed a discrepancy between the participants' actual usage in practice and their subjective perception particularly in relation to the global and support strategies. Finally, the theoretical and pedagogical implications of this study were highlighted.
... This finding is consistent with previous studies that reported the effectiveness of visual scaffolds in assisting digital readers to unpack the meaning of text (Dabarera et al., 2014;Jeon & Yamashita, 2014;Xin et al., 2020). Additionally, this study supports previous research that investigated scaffolding as self-paced and self-managed metacognitive strategies and confirmed the positive effect of scaffolds in enhancing reading comprehension performance (Lysenko & Abrami, 2014;Shih & Huang, 2020;ter Beek et al., 2018). The study also found that an interactive combination of processing strategies can reduce cognitive overload and facilitate digital text processing, which is consistent with previous studies (Berthold et al., 2007;Hahnel et al., 2018;Perfetti & Stafura, 2014;Saks & Leijen, 2019). ...
Background
This study investigates the effects of higher and lower‐level text processing strategies on both higher and lower‐level processing skills and cognitive load using the computer‐assisted interactive reading model (CAIRM) as the educational intervention framework.
Objectives
The objectives of this study are to examine the effects of the CAIRM model on reading performance and cognitive load, and to investigate the interactive use of higher‐level and lower‐level text processing skills on reading performance and cognitive load.
Methods
A mixed methods research design was used with QUAN + QUAL data and one‐way ANOVA to examine the effects of the CAIRM model on 120 randomly sampled BA students majoring in TEFL.
Results
The study provides empirical evidence for the interactivity effect in digital text processing, revealing that the development of one skill can enhance the development of another skill interactively. The interactive use of higher‐level and lower‐level text processing skills was found to improve reading performance and reduce cognitive load during digital text processing. Interestingly, the results show that some participants preferred lower‐level skills, while others preferred higher‐level skills to manage cognitive load during reading activities, indicating mixed effects in strategy use.
Conclusion
The findings of this study underscore the importance of interactive use of higher and lower‐level text processing skills for enhancing reading performance and reducing cognitive load during digital text processing. These results have both theoretical and pedagogical implications for CALL researchers and practitioners, emphasising the need for personalised instruction tailored to individual learners' needs and preferences. Future studies can further explore the potential effects of text processing skills and develop instructional strategies to optimise learners' reading performance and cognitive load. Overall, the study contributes to the growing body of literature in CALL and highlights the significance of interactive learning models for improving learning outcomes.
... In the realm of EFL classrooms, there has been a significant interest in exploring the significance of metacognitive strategies on adult learners' selfregulated learning experiences. Extensive scholarly inquiry has been devoted to metacognitive strategies in the domain of language acquisition, specifically concerning the topics, such as vocabulary (Cabrera-Solano, 2019), writing (Pitenoee et al., 2017;Teng, 2022;Teng, 2021), reading (Amini et al., 2020;Marboot et al., 2020;Wallace et al., 2021), listening (Maftoon & Alamdari, 2020;Chou, 2017), and the use of technology in language learning (Shih & Huang, 2020;Yilmaz & Baydas, 2017). Most of these studies provide empirical-based explanations into the role of metacognitive strategies in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning through the lens of language skills which are only essential for effective communication. ...
Although many studies focus on enhancing resource assistance and the advancement of adult learners' knowledge and abilities, there is a paucity of studies on the theoretical views that define strategies for assisting adults in learning independently. To fill this gap, this study draws on previous research to elaborate on why metacognitive strategies are suitable for adults’ self-regulated learning (SRL), and how metacognitive strategies promote SRL. As this study employed a systematic review, a rigorous search scheme was implemented across multiple databases, resulting in the selection of relevant studies based on predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The selected articles were assessed for quality, and data extraction was performed to identify key characteristics of the studies. The synthesis of the existing literature underscores the suitability of metacognitive strategies in EFL adult learners' self-regulated learning. The findings reveal that incorporating metacognitive strategies helps cultivate SRL in EFL adult learners, owing to their cognitive maturity, pre-existing knowledge, and life experiences. In addition, the metacognitive strategy helps EFL adult learners enhance their awareness of cognitive processes, regulate learning behaviours, and optimize language learning outcomes. Regarding the role, metacognitive strategy is one of the key components of SRL. Some practical recommendations are made to support teachers in facilitating adults’ self-regulated language learning.
... Metacognition therefore plays a large role in the out-of-class learning that takes place in flipped classrooms [26]. The increased freedom offered to students in a flipped classroom environment can give them more opportunities to reflect on their learning processes and more control over their learning environment [75,76] and existing work has shown that the FC benefits metacognitive awareness [51]. Therefore, the relationship between metacognition and the flipped classroom seems to be mutually beneficial. ...
Flipped classroom teaching approaches have increased in popularity in recent years. A common problem in these models is that students do not prepare properly for class. This study seeks to address this problem from the perspective of metacognitive reflection in order to equip students to be more capable of managing their own learning. A custom website was developed for use in a university-level flipped classroom. It provided students with access to their course content and also included three versions of metacognitive prompts, two of which included gamification. One version used structured gamification and the other made use of an open-ended gamification design. A between-subjects experiment was conducted across two undergraduate courses (n=58) over five weeks. The results showed no change in metacognitive awareness for the student group as a whole. However, the open-ended gamification group showed a significant difference compared to the guided gamification group. Furthermore, the structured gamification group showed a decrease in their regulation of cognition skills. This highlights the potential for bottom-up, open-ended gamification designs to be effective in educational situations where reflection is important. The article concludes with a discussion of the context-specific nature of gamification, as the potential gamification design implications based on these results.
... They used the planning strategy to set a goal for their in-class performance and out-of-class learning effectiveness, as well as the self-monitoring strategy to track their learning attitude, learning process (how well they could follow the teacher's explanation or complete a group task), and emotion (how they felt in class). They also chose the self-evaluation technique to assess their learning efficiency (Shih and Huang, 2019). ...
... They used the planning strategy to set a goal for their in-class performance and out-of-class learning effectiveness, as well as the self-monitoring strategy to track their learning attitude, learning process (how well they could follow the teacher's explanation or complete a group task), and emotion (how they felt in class). They also chose the self-evaluation technique to assess their learning efficiency (Shih and Huang, 2019). ...
... Furthermore, classroom environments can affect the metacognition awareness of EFL/ESL learners. Among all the possibilities of classroom environments, according to previous research (Shih & Huang, 2020;Shyr & Chen, 2018;van Vliet et al., 2015), the flipped classroom is found to have an impact on metacognition. The flipped classroom is "the blend or mixture of any two instructional technologies" (Caner, 2012, p. 24). ...
... Furthermore, the metacognitive awareness raising of EFL/ESL students might be impacted by the teaching setting (Shyr & Chen, 2018). The flipped classroom, in contrast to other classroom settings, is observed to have an effect on metacognition (Limueco & Prudente, 2019;Shih & Huang, 2020). The flipped classroom is "the blend or mixture of any two instructional technologies" (Caner, 2012, p. 24). ...
... Flipped learning approach can be beneficial if students have adequate Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) skill (He et al., 2016;Shih & Huang, 2020). SRL has an essential role in the successful implementation of flipped learning. ...
This study aims to determine how the influence of Self Regulated learning and Flipped Learning with the help of video learning simultaneously or partially can affect learning outcomes and to find the indicators of Self Regulated Learning that most contribute to learning that is carried out with the help of learning videos within the scope of this model. This research is a type of quantitative research with a total sample of 84 students from the 2021 class of the 2021/2022 even semester. The research used questionnaires and written tests as research tools. The data analysis technique uses multiple regression with the term Dummy Regression using gretl. It is called dummy regression because one of the variables is Flipped Learning as a dummy variable. Based on the results of the study, it was found that Flipped Learning and Self-Regulated Learning simultaneously had a significant and positive effect on learning outcomes, partially Flipped Learning had an effect on learning outcomes while Partial Self-Regulated Learning had no significant effect on learning outcomes. The Revisit indicator was found to be one of the most contributing indicators in flipped learning-assisted learning on learning outcomes. In this study, it resulted in implications through a finding that was different from previous research, partially SRL did not significantly affect student learning outcomes. This is possible because students' SRL is not enough to understand students in a learning material. It takes modifications to the environment outside of the student to optimize the student's SRL in learning activities, one of which is the use of learning videos in flipped learning
... Flipped learning/teaching is a pedagogical strategy that challenges conventional ideas of classroom learning. Unlike a traditional classroom, in a flipped classroom, students are accustomed to familiarizing themselves with the topic before class and deepening their understanding through problem-solving exercises during class (Shih & Huang, 2020;Wang & Qi, 2018). ...
This study proposes a flipped classroom methodology in the context of a group pre/post-quasi-experimental study to improve the writing skills of EFL students, with a particular emphasis on writing topic sentences, supporting sentences, concluding sentences, adjectives, adverbs, and sentence structures correctly. The research sample consisted of 25 EFL (English as a Foreign Language) students studying the course titled “Technical Report Writing,” adopting flipped classroom methodology. The effectiveness of students' writing skills before and after the experiment was evaluated by researchers through pre- and post-experimental exams. Results for the post-test were influenced by the dependent-sample t-test. It was determined that the flipped classroom remarkably improved EFL students' writing abilities. Other EFL teaching and learning challenges may be addressed through implications with the additional study into flipped classroom approaches.
... This situation can positively affect students' language learning and participation in the lesson (Haghighi et al., 2019). In traditional EFL instructions, it is difficult to perform collaborative group activities, peer and instructor interactions due to the time and place limitations (Wu et al., 2020;Shih & Huang, 2020) suggest that the use of communication-based learning environments provide more active roles for EFL students. ...
The aim of this study is to examine the development of self-regulated learning (SRL) of university students in an EFL course via Flipped classroom through a novel measurement roadmap. Microanalytic techniques were used throughout the process rather than students’ perceptions at a given moment. SRL skills scores are reported as well as sample testimonies from students as qualitative data used to explain the analytic measures. The study was conducted with 12 students studying at a public university and lasted for 6 weeks. A new system FCMWEB is designed throughout to monitor online SRL development taking Zimmerman (2008) SRL model as a basis. While the forethought phase was monitored in the online sessions and the performance and self-reflection phase were associated with the face-to-face sessions. Records from FCMWEB as microanalytic, worksheet, observation notes and self-reflection form were used as data collection tools. During the study, the sub skills of forethought phase, self-reflection phase and performance phase are analyzed and validated through students’ perspectives. The developments in the skills of the forethought and self-reflection phases were between sufficient and advanced levels. The performance phase was mostly sufficient, but also included poor and advanced levels. The results provide implications for course designers and instructors who desire to provide a better flipped classroom experience in EFL for university students.
... Many studies showed a positive relationship between flipped classes and using metacognitive strategies and problem-solving. Shih and Huang (2020) when students control more learning outside of class, it gives them more opportunity to use metacognitive strategies in learning and using the time for problem-solving. With regard to previous studies, it concluded that metacognition and problem-solving play a key role in education programs and the academic achievement of students and are considered the most effective factors in learning that were ignored in traditional classes because of limited time and the students didn't have enough opportunity to think, self-assessment, problem-solving and didn't be responsible to learning and couldn't determine the pace of their learning. ...
Background: students didn’t have the opportunity to engage in problem-solving and knowledge management activities in traditional teaching methods. So, it is essential to change the instructional approach in order to use the online resources and material that leads to creating modern techniques. One of the new methods is flipped learning, which improves basic skills.
Aims: The present study is aimed to determine the effectiveness of instructional packages based on flipped learning on students’ metacognition and problem-solving skills.
Methods: The method was semi-quasi with a pre-and post-test design. The statistical population was all students in Alashtar. It is chosen 60 students through simple probability sampling. The instruments were Haroldetil and Abedi’s metacognition questionnaire and a researcher-made problem-solving test. The control group was taught through traditional methods, and it is designed and developed an instructional package based on flipped learning for the experimental group the teacher and students’ activities are done in three stages: pre and during, and after class. Data were analyzed by multivariate and univariate analysis of covariance.
Results: There is a significant difference between the control and experimental group in meta cognition and problem-solving skill. (p
... The findings of the present study, in general, found that FL could be a beneficial teaching approach to be applied in a language learning context since it allows learners to study in a flexible learning time and environment while managing time and speed (Shih & Huang, 2020). It provides more engaged students and integrates various techniques in EFL/ ESL classrooms (Birgili et al., 2021). ...
... The findings of the present study, in general, found that FL could be a beneficial teaching approach to be applied in a language learning context since it allows learners to study in a flexible learning time and environment while managing time and speed (Shih & Huang, 2020). It provides more engaged students and integrates various techniques in EFL/ ESL classrooms (Birgili et al., 2021). ...
... The findings of the present study, in general, found that FL could be a beneficial teaching approach to be applied in a language learning context since it allows learners to study in a flexible learning time and environment while managing time and speed (Shih & Huang, 2020). It provides more engaged students and integrates various techniques in EFL/ ESL classrooms (Birgili et al., 2021). ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the flipped classroom(FL) on reflective thinking(RT), academic self-efficacy(ASE), and achievement motivation (AM)in language learners at the intermediate level. So far, however, there has been little discussion about this subject. To this end, 429 participants were selected through multiple-stage cluster sampling. First, five institutes were chosen randomly. Then all the learners at the intermediate level, 429 EFL learners, were designated using census technique sampling. Finally, 374 correctly filled questionnaires were collected. Also, it should be mentioned that the learners’ language level was assessed through the Quick Placement Test (OQPT) to ensure the homogeneity of the participants. In the next stage, participants were randomly divided into a control group (187 learners) and an experimental group (187 learners). Three questionnaires were used to collect data. Questionnaires were the Reflective Thinking Scale, the Foreign Language self-efficacy scale, and the Hermans (1970) Achievement Motivation Scale. Data analyzed by SPSS 23. Descriptive and inferential statistics showed that FC significantly impacts EFL learners’ RT(Sig = 0.00, F = 572.51); ASE (Sig = 0.00, F = 55.30), and AM (Sig = 0.00, F = 147.56). The implication could be beneficial for teachers, instructors, and language schools to rethink their teaching mediums to keep up with new developments and direct learners toward a better understanding.
... The in-class time is spent integrating knowledge through active learning tasks and synthesis-based activities like peer cooperation and discussion (Bergmann & Sams, 2012;Bishop & Verleger, 2013). Researchers discovered that the flipped classroom is student-centered and allows students to study at their own pace while also providing a flexible learning environment with technology support (Shih & Huang, 2020). The strong necessity to operate electronically in the COVID-19 setting may have enhanced student acceptance of studying with electronic resources, with the pandemic potentially having a beneficial impact on the flipped classroom (Clark et al., 2022). ...
The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on education. The closure of schools and the cessation of face-to-face classrooms have affected schools and students worldwide. The current need is to transform the traditional classroom to adapt to the new social and educational background. The flipped classroom is usually defined as a strategy to subvert the conventional academic environment; that is, the information transmission part of the traditional face-to-face lecture is removed from the classroom time for online self-learning. The flipped classroom is a highly flexible classroom mode, which has brought significant changes to education. Therefore, this study aims to examine the studies’ research trends, advantages, and challenges concerning the flipped classroom for EFL courses during the COVID-19 epidemic. For this purpose, databases including the web of Science (WOS) and Scopus were reviewed, and 15 articles were analyzed. A systematic review was used as the research methodology. The study’s findings revealed the effectiveness of flipped classrooms for EFL courses during the pandemic. Based on the review, this paper puts forward suggestions for future research and points out the future development direction.
... Moreover, in order to carry out online and face-to-face learning activities together, students should have self-regulated learning skills (Shih & Huang, 2019). Flipped learning transfers the responsibility of learning from the teachers to the learners and directs learners to be active. ...
... Flipped classroom is a pedagogical model that provides a flexible learning environment with support of technology by flipping the traditional learning's roles and sequences, moving some learning processes outside of the classroom, and utilizing class time for activities that will strengthen, support, and deepen students' learning (Shih & Huang, 2020). Flipped classroom transforms the lecture-based teaching style into short video lessons. ...
As innovative and effective approaches, gamification and flipped classroom have
been widely applied in foreign languages teaching and learning, but little studies were
conducted about gamification applying in flipped classrooms to assist the learning of Romanian
language. To fill this gap, it was necessary to search for effective ways to find innovative
solutions. Implementation of gamification in flipped classrooms can increase students'
motivation towards in-class activities and towards Romanian language learning. The purpose of
this article is to provide a practical and theoretical framework for integrating gamification in
flipped Romanian language courses and use mobile applications such as (Kahoot! and Quizizz)
for in-class activities, which can help in supporting with Romanian language learning by
concentrating on various perspectives to apply the flipped classroom, in-class activities,
gamification, and mobile applications in the educational context.
Keywords: flipped classroom; gamification; mobile applications; foreign languages; Romanian
language; instructional design.
The flipped classroom model has gained significant attention as an innovative pedagogical approach to teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL). This method promotes active learning, student engagement, and improved language proficiency by shifting content delivery to pre-class activities and dedicating class time to interactive and collaborative tasks. This systematic review synthesizes findings from seven peer-reviewed studies published between 2016 and 2024, selected through a PRISMA-guided search of ERIC, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar databases. The analysis highlights the flipped classroom’s effectiveness in enhancing EFL learners’ speaking, listening, and reading skills, fostering autonomy, and reducing language learning anxiety. Despite its benefits, challenges remain, including technological disparities, variations in student readiness, and insufficient teacher training. The review underscores the need for tailored professional development, equitable access to digital resources, and adaptive strategies to address these obstacles. Additionally, cultural and contextual factors significantly influence the model’s success, necessitating further exploration to optimize implementation in diverse educational settings. This systematic review contributes to the growing body of research on flipped classrooms, providing insights for educators and policymakers to enhance the efficacy of this approach. By addressing identified challenges and leveraging their advantages, the flipped classroom model offers a promising avenue for transforming EFL education and meeting the demands of 21st-century learners in a globalized world.
Flipped classroom, which combines online and face-to-face learning, is an innovative model. This study examined the 9th grade Turkish students' experiences learning English in a flipped classroom. Nineteen students from a high school in İzmir participated the study. A qualitative research design in the form of an intrinsic case study was used to explore the flipped classroom's effectiveness from the perspective of the 9th grade EFL students. Data were collected through student journals, teacher journals, and focus group interviews. The collected data was analysed by using thematic analysis. The results showed that the flipped classroom model enhanced the students' language skills, especially in speaking, and encouraged active participation, motivation, and collaboration. Most of the students found the model more time-efficient compared to traditional classroom. Furthermore, the students valued the flexibility of learning at their own pace but reported challenges such as adapting to the model, inadequate preparation, and internet connectivity issues
This study investigated the effectiveness of the flipped learning model, compared with the nonflipped learning model, in improving second/foreign language metacognitive listening awareness and perceived strategy use. For this purpose, 40 young adult learners studying English as a foreign language in two intact classes were selected. They were assigned into flipped and nonflipped groups, which received flipped and nonflipped instruction, respectively. A mixed‐methods embedded design was adopted. Data were gathered by employing the Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire and diaries. Analysis of covariance and thematic analysis revealed that the flipped model significantly fostered the learners' metacognitive awareness and strategy use in listening. Although the strategies related to planning and evaluation, person knowledge, directed attention, mental translation and problem solving were used in both groups, the flipped group demonstrated a greater tendency to use the metacognitive strategies requiring high‐order processes. Flipped learning can drive L2 students to become metacognitively strategic listeners.
This study examines the effects of metacognitive strategies on critical thinking skills and learner autonomy in argumentative writing among students in Indonesian Islamic boarding schools (Mambaus Sholihin Gresik, Amanatul Ummah Mojokerto, Al-Amin Prenduan Madura, and Al-Rosyid Bojonegoro). This study uses mixed methods; the research integrated quantitative data from pre-tests and post-tests with qualitative insights from interviews, questionnaires, and observations to evaluate the strategies' effectiveness. Qualitative findings revealed that applying metacognitive strategies in a four-week argumentative writing module involving goal setting, monitoring, and reflection effectively improved students' critical thinking skills, independence, and writing abilities in Indonesian Islamic boarding schools. Quantitative results indicated that metacognitive strategies significantly enhanced students' abilities to construct coherent arguments and manage the writing process independently (F = 1.540, Sig. = 0.014). However, the overall impact on critical thinking skills and learner autonomy was not statistically significant. Theoretically, the findings confirm that metacognitive strategies enhance analytical and evaluation skills, emphasise the need for contextual adjustments, support the role of peer feedback in boosting metacognitive awareness, and underscore the value of integrating local values to enhance student motivation and independence. Future research should explore the long-term effects, involve more boarding schools, and consider contextual factors such as teacher roles and integration into the Islamic boarding school environment.
Writing English academic writing is still the most specter constraint for all over Indonesian EFL college students. These is caused by the complexities of academic writing containing mechanics, vocabulary, content, organization, grammar and sentence structure, as well as writing steps; planing, drafting, editing, and revising which makes it challenges. Another reason why writing academic essay is challanges for students is that the characteristics of academic writing are clear, concise, focussed, structured and backed up by evidence. Its purpose is to aid the reader's understanding. It has a formal tone and style. Process Genre-Based Approach (PGBA) is a problem shooter offered to overcome the students’ problem. The purpose of the study was to determine whether the ability of the fourth semester students of Class D of the English Education Study Program of the Foreign Language Academy of Indonesian Development in writing English essays through the Application of the Process Genre-Based Approach (PGBA) would increase or not. The design of this research is pre-experimental-one group pretest posttest. The population is semester IV (even) students for the academic year 2021/2022. The research sample is class students who are determined by using the total sampling technique. Data collection techniques were carried out using tests: pretest (Pretest) and final test (Posttest). The treatment was carried out 6 times. The results of the data were analyzed statistically. The results showed that the posttest average score (70.7) was greater than the pretest average (55.67). This indicates that the semester students' ability to write English essays through the Application of the Process Genre-Based Approach (PGBA) increased. The results of this study are very useful for: (1) students to improve their essay writing skills; (2) teachers (lecturers) to add an approach to learning to write essays through PGBA with (a) preparation stages; (b) modeling and reinforcing; (c) planning; (d) joint construction; (e) independent constructing; and (f) revising. (3) English lecturers and teachers can conduct classroom action research using PGBA.
Cognitive engagement is an essential component in student learning. With the increase of more asynchronous virtual educational tools in classrooms, there is a need to understand how students are engaging with classroom content in these formats. Several studies have examined student and teacher perceptions of cognitive engagement in virtual discussion boards, but prior research has not analyzed the responses themselves. This study explores higher education students’ cognitive engagement when posting to asynchronous online discussions, investigating the levels and types of engagement for both written and video responses. Student responses were qualitatively coded based on themes that aligned with the ICAP framework of cognitive engagement. Descriptive and quantitative analyses were used to understand the types of cognitive engagement observed in online discussions, differences in video and written posts or when they had a choice in how to respond, and if patterns existed throughout the course. Results suggest that students do show deep levels of cognitive engagement in asynchronous discussions, in both written and video posts. Students exhibited deeper levels of cognitive engagement when they were given the choice in how to respond. There were no patterns over time in the course in cognitive engagement within students across the written and video posts. The structure and instructions of the prompts themselves may be important for eliciting deeper levels of responses. More explicit prompting for students to engage in deeper reflections or abstract thinking may help students engage with course content at a deeper level.
This literature review examines the impact of a flipped classroom based on self-directed learning theory on elementary school students' music learning. The research examines the characteristics of primary school students, the challenges they face in music learning, the application of self-directed learning theory in the classroom, and the benefits of implementing a flipped classroom model. The review includes 35 selected articles highlighting elementary students' curiosity, interest, and need for interactive and entertaining teaching methods. Challenges include a shallow understanding of music theory, memory and notation skills, collaboration, and emotional expression. The application of self-directed learning theory emphasizes supportive environments, goal setting, instruction, active participation, and assessment. The flipped classroom model provided personalized learning, more interaction, reflection, collaboration, and flexible time management. The study concluded that the model combining self-directed learning theory and the flipped classroom inspires enthusiasm, self-motivation, and a sense of achievement, while fostering independence, cooperation, creativity, and all-around development, thus improving students' music learning. Further research is needed to explore effective strategies and adaptations for successful implementation and to assess the impact of this approach on the music curriculum. The implementation of a flipped classroom based on self-directed learning theory not only enriches primary music education by providing students with engaging and effective learning experiences but also holds the potential to reshape the broader landscape of music education, influencing teaching methodologies and curriculum design across the discipline.
Bu çalışmada, aktif öğrenme etkinlikleriyle “Madde ve Isı” ünitesi kapsamında yapılan ters yüz sınıf (TYS) modelinin öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına ve üstbilişsel farkındalıklarına etkisini incelemek ayrıca uygulamaya yönelik öğrencilerin görüşlerini belirlemek amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma 2021-2022 eğitim-öğretim yılı ikinci döneminde Ankara’daki bir devlet okulunda 6. sınıf olan 2 şube deney grubu (n=55), 2 şube kontrol grubu (n=50) olmak üzere, toplam 105 öğrenciyle yapılmıştır. Deney grubuna TYS modeli uygulanmış, kontrol grubunda mevcut öğretim programına göre dersler yürütülmüştür. Çalışmada karma yöntem desenlerinden açımlayıcı sıralı desen kullanılmıştır. Çalışmada nicel kısımda yarı deneysel deneme modeli olan ön test- son test kontrol gruplu model kullanılmış olup veri toplama aracı olarak “6. Sınıf Madde ve Isı Başarı Testi ve Çocuklar İçin Üstbilişsel Farkındalık Ölçeği” uygulanmıştır. Araştırmanın nitel boyutunda deney grubu öğrencilerinin TYS uygulamasına yönelik görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla durum çalışmasından yararlanılmıştır. Çalışmanın nicel verileri SPSS-23 programı ile analiz edilmiştir. Nitel veriler ise betimsel analizle açıklanmıştır. Araştırmada elde edilen verilerden TYS modelinin öğrencilerin başarısını ve üstbilişsel farkındalıklarını deney grubu lehine arttırdığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Ayrıca öğrencilerin TYS modeline ilişkin genel olarak olumlu görüş bildirdikleri ve TYS modelinin öğretimin etkililiği bakımından öğrencilere önemli katkılar sağladığı görülmüştür. Çalışmada TYS modelinin başarılı bir şekilde uygulanabilmesi için öğrencilerin teknolojik araç ve internet erişimine sahip olmaları ve öğrencilerin videoları izleyip ön öğrenmelerini yaparak sınıfa gelmeleri gerektiği önerilmiştir.
Zusammenfassung
Während der Covid-19-Pandemie bestand die Herausforderung, Inhalte des DaZ-Moduls online und asynchron an die heterogene Studierendenschaft zu vermitteln. Aus diesem Grund mussten Lernumgebungen entwickelt werden, die es den Studierenden ermöglichten, selbstständig zu lernen, und zwar auf eine Art und Weise, die auch das Engagement und damit ein vertieftes Lernen fördert. Lernpfade (LPs), eine Kombination aus internetbasierten, sequenzierten Lerninhalten und Selbstlernaufgaben, ermöglichen das Lernen nach individuellem Tempo und individueller Tiefe und bieten automatisierte Tests zur Überprüfung des eigenen Lernprozesses. Es zeigt sich jedoch, dass unterschiedliche Studierende bei der selbstständigen Arbeit mit digitalen Lernpfaden unterschiedlich erfolgreich sind. Daraus ergeben sich folgende Fragen: Wie setzen sich die Studierenden mit den digitalen Inhalten auseinander, welche Lernmöglichkeiten nehmen die Studierenden wahr und wie nutzen sie diese? In der durchgeführten Studie wurden Aussagen der Studierenden darüber untersucht, wie sie einen Lernpfad bearbeitet haben und warum sie einen bestimmten Ansatz gewählt haben. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass der Erfolg des Kurses in hohem Maße davon abhängt, inwieweit die Studierenden ihre selbstregulierenden Lernfähigkeiten aktivieren konnten.
This study seeks to identify the level of learning motivation and English language
learning strategies and investigates the correlation between learning motivation and language learning strategies used by form six students in Kota Kinabalu in preparation for MUET. A total of 306 form six students in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah were randomly selected as the study sample.
This research employs a questionnaire with a Likert scale 1 to 5 and a Likert scale 1 to 6 that is divided into three parts: demographic information, learning motivation and language learning strategies. This paper adopts SPSS 28.0 to conduct descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation statistics analysis. Based on the findings, the overall motivation level of form six students is high (mean=5.02). The main learning motivation is socio-cultural (mean=5.27) followed by knowledge motivation (mean=5.20). The use of language learning strategies is at a moderate
level (mean=3.35). Metacognitive strategy (mean=3.70) is the most used strategy followed by social strategy (mean=3.51). A positive correlation at a moderate level between motivation and language learning is detected. The highest positive correlation is between metacognitive strategies and knowledge motivation (r=.519). The findings contribute to research in this field of study and have practical implications for language educators and students.
With latent profile analysis (LPA), this study identified motivation profiles of rural English learners in China based on expectancy-value theory (EVT). The construct validity of the extracted latent profiles was verified by their association with learning strategy use and English achievement. A total of 2,433 Chi-nese rural students completed English achievement test and online questionnaire measuring self-efficacy, intrinsic value, utility value, English learning strategy, and demographic information. The LPA results demonstrated that a model with four latent profiles adequately represented the data, naming rural English learners with "high expectancy and high value", "low expectancy and medium value", "medium expectancy and low value", and "low expectancy and low value", respectively. Four subgroups showed significant differences in strategy use and English achievement. Rural learners with "high expectancy and high value" used the most cognitive and metacognitive strategies, and scored highest in English test, followed by those with "low expectancy and medium value", "medium expectancy and low value", and "low expectancy and low value". This study is consistent with the situated nature of motivation and provides new insights into English instruction in rural areas.
Flipped learning, a well-established method in science education, sees its impact further amplified when coupled with the active control of self-regulated learners over their learning and metacognitive processes. In this study, a self-regulated flipped learning approach was designed and tested with the intention of enhancing the science learning performance of middle school students. A quasi-experimental design was employed involving middle school students from a science course in Turkey, with the aim to examine the impacts of the approach on students' academic achievements, attitudes, self-regulation levels, and motivations. The experimental group consisted of 29 students (14 male, 15 female) in the self-regulated flipped class, while the control group comprised 30 students (13 male, 17 female) who received traditional flipped learning instruction. In total, 59 eighth-grade students participated in the four-week study. Data were collected through achievement tests, attitude scales, self-regulated learning scales, and motivation scales. The results reveal that the experimental group outperformed the control group in terms of academic achievement, attitudes, self-regulated learning, and motivation. These findings can provide valuable insights and practical implications for educators and researchers in the fields of educational technology and science education.
This chapter explores the educational changes and new trends that emerged after the COVID-19 pandemic with a brief review of how education looked like before it. The pandemic forced schools and educational institutions to adapt to new modes of teaching and learning, including online and remote learning. This chapter examines how these changes affected education, including curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy. It also explores the role of technology in education and the importance of digital literacy skills. Finally, it highlights the future trends that we need to watch for.
As innovative and effective approaches, gamification and flipped classroom have been widely applied in foreign languages teaching and learning, but little studies were conducted about gamification applying in flipped classrooms to assist the learning of Romanian language. To fill this gap, it was necessary to search for effective ways to find innovative solutions. Implementation of gamification in flipped classrooms can increase students' motivation towards in-class activities and towards Romanian language learning. The purpose of this article is to provide a practical and theoretical framework for integrating gamification in flipped Romanian language courses and use mobile applications such as (Kahoot! and Quizizz) for in-class activities, which can help in supporting with Romanian language learning by concentrating on various perspectives to apply the flipped classroom, in-class activities, gamification, and mobile applications in the educational context.
This paper examines the connection between student self-evaluation strategies and autonomy development in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom. To this end, 18 students enrolled in a phonetics class participated in a constructivist-based action research plan. Using different autonomy-oriented instruments, students set their learning goals and self-assessment strategies to foster learner autonomy and evaluated their learning experiences at the end of the semester. The study adopted a triangulation mixed methods design, where quantitative results were used concurrently with the qualitative data. Findings suggest clear-cut connections between self-evaluation strategies and the development of learner autonomy in the context of EFL. El presente estudio explora la relación entre la autoevaluación del estudiante y el desarrollo de la autonomía en el aula de inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL, por sus siglas en inglés). Para este fin, 18 estudiantes matriculados en un curso de fonética del idioma inglés participaron en un proyecto de investigación-acción, el cual se basó en los principios de la pedagogía constructivista. Por medio de distintos instrumentos para potenciar la autonomía, los estudiantes se fijaron metas de aprendizaje y estrategias de autoevaluación, y evaluaron la experiencia de llevar un plan semanal y un diario mediante una lista de cotejo. Se utilizó el diseño de métodos mixtos de triangulación, en el cual se interpolaron datos cuantitativodescriptivos con información cuantitativo-explicativa. Los hallazgos revelan una clara relación entre las estrategias de autoevaluación como la aquí implementada y el desarrollo de la autonomía en el aprendizaje en EFL. Asimismo, estos sugieren implicaciones tanto teóricas como prácticas en la enseñanza-aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras.
In flipped classrooms, lectures, which are normally delivered in-class, are assigned as homework in the form of videos, and assignments that were traditionally assigned as homework, are done as learning activities in class. It was hypothesized that the effectiveness of the flipped model hinges on a student’s desire and ability to adopt a self-directed learning style. The purpose of this study was twofold; it aimed at examining the relationship between two variables—students’ perceptions of the flipped model and their self-regulated learning (SRL) behaviors—and the impact that these variables have on achievement in a flipped class. For the study, 76 participants from a flipped introductory biology course were asked about their SRL strategy use and perceptions of the flipped model. SRL strategy use was measured using a modified version of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ; Wolters et al. 2005), while the flipped perceptions survey was newly derived. Student letter grades were collected as a measure of achievement. Through regression analysis, it was found that students’ perceptions of the flipped model positively predict students’ use of several types of SRL strategies. However, the data did not indicate a relationship between student perceptions and achievement, neither directly nor indirectly, through SRL strategy use. Results suggest that flipped classrooms demonstrate their successes in the active learning sessions through constructivist teaching methods. Video lectures hold an important role in flipped classes, however, students may need to practice SRL skills to become more self-directed and effectively learn from them.
Through the beginning of the millennium, the education environments have witnessed the introduction of information technologies and new pedagogies. Especially, the extensive use of Internet technologies as well as the networked learning made it possible to design and utilize new generation learning environments that are realistic, authentic, and engaging. By means of educational developments, alternative content delivery techniques or technologies have been implemented into the teaching environments throughout the years. In an effort to capitalize on the advantages of instructional delivery modalities and minimize the disadvantages, scholars started to combine the most functional elements of the instruction in these learning environments and that is universally called as 'Blended Learning'. Although the blended learning as an instruction model has an increasing interest in the field of higher education, it is still in its infancy. The definitions of blended learning in the literature needs to be clarified or collocated for the readers, who would like to deal with blended learning in any level of instruction. Therefore, this chapter reviews the recent literature on blended and online learning and juxtaposes the definitions of the blended learning as well as the types of blended learning instruction that took place in the higher education environments.
The present study is an off-shoot of a larger project, in which a significant statistical relationship was observed between learner variables of a large sample (n=1440) of Chinese Learners of English as a Foreign Language and their reported use of Language Learning Strategies. In this article, we report the use of a combination of metacognitive strategies, namely selective attention, organisational planning and self-management in two different learning contexts (in-class and out-of-class) as an investigation of the perceived usefulness of this combination in these contexts. An analysis of the listening and speaking tasks that students face both in and outside the classroom revealed considerable variation, notably with more use of the metacognitive strategies reported for speaking and listening when both were undertaken out-of-class. In addition, variation was reported along gender lines. These outcomes are elaborated with implications for the teaching and learning of speaking and listening of English in China.
The idea of a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) has attracted a lot of media attention in the last couple of years. MOOCs have been used mostly as stand-alone, online courses without credits. However, some researchers, teachers, colleges, and universities have attempted to utilize MOOCs in blended format in traditional classroom settings. This paper reviews some recent experiments in the context of current trends in MOOCs by examining methodologies utilized in blended MOOCs in a face-to-face environment. This paper further discusses the preliminary findings related to its effectiveness of learning outcomes and its impact on students and instructors in blended MOOCs format. The review of blended MOOCs in classrooms assists to form the emerging consensus on integrating MOOCs in conventional classroom settings, while highlighting potential opportunities and challenges one might face when implementing MOOCs in similar or entirely different contexts.
Flipped classrooms have the potential to improve student learning and metacognitive skills as a result of increased time for active learning and group work and student control over pacing, when compared with traditional lecture-based courses. We are currently running a 4-year controlled study to examine the impact of flipping an Introductory Differential Equations course at Harvey Mudd College. In particular, we compare flipped instruction with an interactive lecture with elements of active learning rather than a traditional lecture. The first two years of this study showed no differences in learning, metacognitive, or affective gains between the control and flipped sections. We believe that contextual factors, such as a strong group-work culture at Harvey Mudd College, contribute to the similar performance of both sections. Additionally, to maintain a rigorous experimental design, we maintained identical content across the control and flipped section; relaxing this requirement in a non-study setting would allow us to take further advantage of educational opportunities afforded by flipping, and may therefore improve student learning.
Instruction in English is a priority around the globe, but instructional methodologies have not always kept pace with the changing needs of students. To explore the benefits of the flipped classroom model for learners of English as a Foreign Language, the researchers used flipped learning and Wen’s Output-driven/Input-enabled model to design a holistic oral training course that included extensive online written and verbal communication for the learning of a wide range of English idioms. The participants were 48 sophomore English-majors in two required English Oral Training classes. A within-subjects research design exposed all participants to learning English idioms by flipped learning, using the LINE smartphone app, and by conventional instruction. A mixed research method was employed, using multiple sources of data collection, including pre- and post-tests on idioms, two questionnaires (“Perception of Flipped Learning Experience” and “Technology Acceptance Model”), the teachers’ in-class observations, and semi-structured focus-group interviews. The results revealed that the theory-based flipped instruction using online written and oral interaction not only enhanced the participants’ motivation, making them more active in using idioms in class, but also significantly improved their idiomatic knowledge, indicating that the flipped learning was successful in achieving the instructional goals of the class. The authors present insights into the impact of theory-based flipped learning on motivation and idiomatic acquisition; student impressions of the online platform used, LINE; and offer recommendations for practice.
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In flipped-class pedagogy, students prepare themselves at home before lectures, often by watching short video clips of the course contents. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of flipped classes on motivation and learning strategies in higher education using a controlled, pre- and posttest approach. The same students were followed in a traditional course and in a course in which flipped classes were substituted for part of the traditional lectures. On the basis of the validated Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ), we found that flipped-class pedagogy enhanced the MSLQ components critical thinking, task value, and peer learning. However, the effects of flipped classes were not long-lasting. We therefore propose repeated use of flipped classes in a curriculum to make effects on metacognition and collaborative-learning strategies sustainable.
© 2015 E. A. van Vliet et al. CBE—Life Sciences Education © 2015 The American Society for Cell Biology. This article is distributed by The American Society for Cell Biology under license from the author(s). It is available to the public under an Attribution–Noncommercial–Share Alike 3.0 Unported Creative Commons License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0).
Recent research highlights the importance of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive skills in learning. This chapter reviews some of the recent literature on metacognition in learning and describes some methods of helping students acquire strategic metacognitive knowledge and executive management skills to improve their learning. Topics focused on include reading metacognition, graphic organizers, modeling, self-assessment, self-questioning, and thinking aloud, all of which can be used across content domains.
This article reports on an empirical study that examines the nature of cognitive strategies (comprehending, retrieval and memory strategies) and metacognitive strategies (planning, monitoring and evaluating strategies) and their direct and indirect relationships to English as a foreign language (EFL) reading test performance, employing the structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. The study was carried out at a government university in Thailand in which 358 students took a reading comprehension test and immediately after completing it, answered a questionnaire on their strategy use. The SEM results show that: (1) memory and retrieval strategies facilitated EFL reading test performance via comprehending strategies; (2) monitoring strategies performed an executive function on memory strategies, whereas evaluating strategies regulated retrieval strategies; (3) planning strategies did not directly regulate memory, retrieval or comprehending strategies, but instead regulated these cognitive strategies via monitoring and evaluating strategies; and (4) only comprehending strategies were found to directly influence EFL reading test performance.
This paper examines the concept of languaging (Swain, 2006) in the context of form-focused instruction and its role as an important tool for Brazilian foreign language learners, both at advanced level and at elementary level, if linguistic precision is the target. Supported by the Vygotskian sociocultural theory of mind (Vygotsky, 1978) and based on studies developed by Swain (2006) in the Canadian context and by Vidal (2003) in the Brazilian scenario, both with advanced learners, the paper shows how Brazilian learners of English of different levels of proficiency and from different instructional realities benefit from languaging _ the process of making meaning and shaping knowledge and experience through target-language use. A qualitative analysis of both collaborative dialogue and corrective feedback provide evidence for the claim. It is suggested that form-focused instruction via conscious reflection on language use seems to be a very attractive pedagogical resource to help learners EFL to develop their interlanguage further as well as it serves language learning.
As a response to the call for technology enhanced, student-centered learning environments, the flipped classroom approach has drawn much attention from both the research and practice communities. Despite over fifteen years of flipped classroom implementation, design principles have been minimally elaborated upon in relation to diverse disciplinary contexts. Focusing on this gap, we engaged in a mixed methods study that examined three instances of the flipped classroom across unique disciplines and to extract specific design principles. Three instructors and 115 students enrolled in three separate classes in fall 2012 participated in the study. Building upon the Revised Community of Inquiry Framework, we developed a flipped classroom design framework and identified nine design principles.
The purpose of this research was to explore how technology can be used to teach technological skills and to determine what benefit flipping the classroom might have for students taking an introductory-level college course on spreadsheets in terms of student achievement and satisfaction with the class. A pretest posttest quasi-experimental mixed methods design was utilized to determine any differences in student achievement that might be associated with the instructional approach being used. In addition, the scalability of each approach was evaluated along with students’ perceptions of these approaches to determine the affect each intervention might have on a student’s motivation to learn. The simulation-based instruction tested in this study was found to be an extremely scalable solution but less effective than the regular classroom and flipped classroom approaches in terms of student learning. While students did demonstrate learning gains, the process focus of the simulation’s instruction and assessments frustrated students and decreased their motivation to learn. Students’ attitudes towards the topic, their willingness to refer the course to others, and the likelihood that they would take another course like this were considerably lower than those of students in the flipped or regular classroom situations. The results of this study support the conclusion that a technology enhanced flipped classroom was both effective and scalable; it better facilitated learning than the simulation-based training and students found this approach to be more motivating in that it allowed for greater differentiation of instruction.
Studies suggest that young children are quite limited in their knowledge about cognitive phenomena—or in their metacognition—and do relatively little monitoring of their own memory, comprehension, and other cognitive enterprises. Metacognitive knowledge is one's stored knowledge or beliefs about oneself and others as cognitive agents, about tasks, about actions or strategies, and about how all these interact to affect the outcomes of any sort of intellectual enterprise. Metacognitive experiences are conscious cognitive or affective experiences that occur during the enterprise and concern any aspect of it—often, how well it is going. Research is needed to describe and explain spontaneous developmental acquisitions in this area and find effective ways of teaching metacognitive knowledge and cognitive monitoring skills. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article describes the development and validation of a new self-report instrument, the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory, which is designed to assess adolescent and adult readers' metacognitive awareness and perceived use of reading strategies while reading academic or school-related materials. There were 3 strategy subscales or factors: Global Reading Strategies, Problem-Solving Strategies, and Support Reading Strategies. The reliability and factorial validity of the scale were demonstrated. After a brief review of the literature, the development and validation of the instrument are described, and its psychometric properties are discussed. In addition, directions for administering and scoring the instrument are provided, and suggestions for interpreting the results obtained are offered. Finally, the scales' implications for reading research and instruction are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Children's understanding of their own cognitive skills, or metacognition, has been hypothesized to play a major role in learning and development. In this study, we examine the developing relation between children's metacognition and reading comprehension. Children in third- and fifth-grade classes were given an experimental curriculum, Informed Strategies for Learning (ISL), designed to increase their awareness and use of effective reading strategies. In both grades, children in experimental classes made significant gains in metacognition and the use of reading strategies compared with children in control classes. The multivariate profiles of reading skills derived from the developmental analyses helped to identify subgroups of children who responded differently to the metacognitive instruction. Although there were specific aptitude-by-treatment interactions, there was a general trend for metacognition and strategic reading to become more congruent from 8 to 10 years of age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study was an effort to investigate the effects of flipped learning on EFL (English as a foreign language) learners’ L2 speaking, L2 listening, and out-of-class participation and engagement with course materials and activities. To this end, 67 freshmen English students from two universities in Iran were assigned into one of the three groups: structured flipped learning, semi-structured flipped learning, and conventional learning groups. In the semi-structured flipped learning group, the participants cooperated with each other to choose their course materials, while in the structured flipped learning group, the materials were selected by the teacher. Telegram instant messaging was selected as the online platform for the participants in the structured and semi-structured flipped learning groups to perform the preparatory work in a collaborative manner. To elicit the required data, the participants were given a listening test, a speaking test, Learning Experience Questionnaire (LEQ), and four open-ended questions. The results revealed that flipped learning can help EFL learners improve their L2 speaking and listening and be more engaged with materials and activities outside of class. The author presents insights into how flipped learning can increase the quality of language learning and teaching and offers recommendations and implications for practice.
The aim of the study is to examine undergraduate students’ awareness of metacognition, the metacognitive strategies they use in their learning and their learning performance in pre-class asynchronous activity in a flipped classroom. The sample consisted of 47 undergraduate students. Eleven students were not included in this study since they did not participate in all quizzes and most of the metacognitive strategy activities. Metacognitive Awareness Inventory and Metacognitive Strategies Evaluation Activities were used as data collection tools. The results showed that Computer Education and Instructional Technology students’ metacognitive awareness was at a high level and their metacognitive strategy levels and learning performances differed weekly. Post hoc results indicated no difference between metacognitive strategy and learning performance in the first three weeks. However, the results of the first 3 weeks differed from those of the 4th and 5th weeks. In addition, our regression analysis result indicated that using metacognitive strategies predicted 80% of students’ learning performance. This rate shows the importance of using metacognitive strategies for the learning process in pre-class asynchronous activity in the flipped classroom.
Writing proficiency is heavily based on acquisition and development of self-regulation and transcription skills. The present study examined the effects of combining transcription training with a self-regulation intervention (self-regulated strategy development [SRSD]) in Grade 2 (ages 7-8). Forty-three students receiving self-regulation plus transcription (SRSD+TR) intervention were compared with 37 students receiving a self-regulation only (SRSD only) intervention and 39 students receiving the standard language arts curriculum. Compared with control instruction, SRSD instruction-with or without transcription training-resulted in more complex plans; longer, better, and more complete stories; and the effects transferred to story written recall. Transcription training produced an incremental effect on students' composing skills. In particular, the SRSD+TR intervention increased handwriting fluency, spelling accuracy for inconsistent words, planning and story completeness, writing fluency, clause length, and burst length. Compared with the SRSD-only intervention, the SRSD+TR intervention was particularly effective in raising the writing quality of poorer writers. This pattern of findings suggests that students benefit from writing instruction coupling self-regulation and transcription training from very early on. This seems to be a promising instructional approach not only to ameliorate all students' writing ability and prevent future writing problems but also to minimize struggling writers' difficulties and support them in mastering writing.
This paper describes a structured attempt to integrate the flipped classroom model into a senior-level course at the higher education level. This study's purpose is to examine and compare the impact of flipped classrooms versus non-flipped as a means to contribute to the growing line of research on flipped teaching through an evaluation of both methods’ academic outcomes, along with students’ perceptions for their learning experience. Adopting action research principles, this study uses student grades, weekly e-journal entries, guided final journal entries, and focus group interviews as data collection tools. No significant difference were found to exist between mean scores for flipped and non-flipped groups regarding midterms and final e-portfolio, but flipped students received significantly higher essay scores compared to the non-flipped. Analysis of qualitative data led to 48 codes under five main categories: content delivery, instructor presence, learner presence, learning environment, and learning experience. Results indicate largely positive perceptions and satisfying learning experiences.
Programing is difficult for beginners because they need to learn the new language of computers. Developing software, especially complex software, is bound to result in problems, frustration, and the need to think in new ways. Identifying the learning behavior behind programing by way of empirical studies can help beginners learn more easily. In this study, a flipped classroom combined with the blended learning mode was adopted by switching the in-class instructional time and the out-of-class edX lecture time. The research laboratory developed a system that collected the teacher and students discussion activities when adopting problem-solving strategies in online discussion. The participants were 44 third-year college students from the computer science course of a university in northern Taiwan. The experiment was from 30th March to 4th May in 2015. A total of 120 initial comments were collected, along with 401 responding comments. These 521 comments were coded according to the problem-solving steps as posing questions, offering solutions, discussion, and sharing conclusions. The inter-rater reliability of the two coders reached a kappa value of 0.81. The results indicated that the flipped classroom combined with the problem-solving strategy was more effective than the previous problem-solving behavior sequence.
The current study explores the nature and relationships among test takers’
performance appraisals, appraisal calibration, and reported cognitive and
metacognitive strategy use in a language test situation. Performance
appraisals are executive processes of strategic competence for judging
test performance (e.g., evaluating the correctness or appropriateness of 10
responses to given test tasks). Appraisal calibration denotes a perfect
match between appraisal confidence and actual test performance. 294
English as a foreign language (EFL) students took an English test, which
was designed to measure four language areas (listening, grammar, voca-
bulary, and reading). The students reported their level of appraisal confi- 15
dence immediately after answering each test question. At the end of the
test, they were asked to report their overall appraisal confidence and
perceived cognitive and metacognitive strategy use in the test. First, it
was found that test takers were not well calibrated in all test sections.
Second, test takers’ appraisal confidence could predict just above one 20
third of the test performance variance. Third, test takers tended to be
underconfident in easy questions but overconfident in difficult questions.
Fourth, appraisal calibration was not strongly related to reported metacognitive
strategy use. The implications of the study in light of strategic
competence research and recommendations for further research are 25
discussed.
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This study surveyed 387 middle school 7th – graders' flipped learning readiness in their English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) classrooms and explored the effects of personal characteristics on their readiness levels. These personal characteristics included gender, the availability of outside-school support and resources, foreign language beliefs, perceptions of their English teachers, and how they use the Internet. Through factor analysis, flipped learning readiness consists of five dimensions: learner control and self-directed learning, technology self-efficacy, motivation for learning, in-class communication self-efficacy, and doing previews. It was found that personal characteristics and individual circumstances, including language beliefs, student perceptions of teacher characteristics, the availability of outside-school support and resources, learning performance, study time and net-surfing time, can make a difference to the levels of the readiness dimensions. These findings may shed light on the middle schoolers' flipped learning readiness in EFL classrooms and provide insights for teachers wanting to incorporate individualized instruction in the flipped classroom.
The authors discuss the application of the flipped classroom model to the redesign of an introduction to management course at a highly diverse, urban, Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business–accredited U.S. university. The author assessed the impact of a flipped classroom versus a lecture class on grades. Compared to the prior lecture class taught by the same instructor using the same text and tests, results indicate that grades on all three exams were higher, and grades on two of three exams were significantly higher.
Peer instruction flipped learning blends the concepts of flipped classroom and peer instruction in order to maximize the strengths of both techniques. Peer Instruction, a student-centered learning approach developed by Eric Mazur of Harvard University, engages students in the learning process through small group discussions. Flipped classroom, credited largely to Jon Bergmann and Aaron Sams, reverses the roles of traditional lecture and "homework" in order to maximize student learning. This chapter discusses the research on peer instruction and flipped learning, the details of implementing the peer instruction flipped learning model, and the benefits of using a peer instruction flipped learning model. This chapter also details one high school's experiences with these strategies.
Flipped learning is a pedagogy that emphasizes higher levels of learning by inverting the traditional in-class faculty lecture and information-discovery phase with the typical out-of-class student practice phase through homework activities. In this chapter, the author shares experiences in creating and implementing flipped learning using traditional textbook reading out of class and active learning strategies in class. The initial experience of flipped learning led the author to determine that university students require preparation for flipped learning, especially when students are required to read the textbook as out-of-class preparation and to engage in collaborative activities in class. The purpose of this chapter is to provide strategies for preparing university students for flipped learning. A brief review of the literature related to flipped learning and a look at the author's initial flipped learning experience are reviewed to provide support for the need for student preparation.
Children's understanding of their own cognitive skills, or metacognition, has been hypothesized to play a major role in learning and development. In this study, we examine the developing relation between children's metacognition and reading comprehension. Children in third- and fifth-grade classes were given an experimental curriculum, Informed Strategies for Learning (ISL), designed to increase their awareness and use of effective reading strategies. In both grades, children in experimental classes made significant gains in metacognition and the use of reading strategies compared with children in control classes. The multivariate profiles of reading skills derived from the developmental analyses helped to identify subgroups of children who responded differently to the metacognitive instruction. Although there were specific aptitude-by-treatment interactions, there was a general trend for metacognition and strategic reading to become more congruent from 8 to 10 years of age.
This study investigates the relationships between test takers’ metacognitive and cognitive strategy use through a questionnaire and their test performance on an English as a Foreign Language reading test. A total of 593 Chinese college test takers responded to a 38-item metacognitive and cognitive strategy questionnaire and a 50-item reading test. The data were randomly split into two samples (N = 296 and N = 297). Based on relevant literature, three models (i.e., unitary, higher order, and correlated) of strategy use and test performance were hypothesized and tested to identify the baseline model. Further, cross-validation analyses were conducted. The results supported the invariance of factor loadings, measurement error variances, structural regression coefficients, and factor variances for the unitary model. It was found that college test takers’ strategy use affected their lexico-grammatical reading ability significantly. Findings from this study provide empirical and validating evidence for Bachman and Palmer's (2010) model of strategic competence.
This paper describes a structured attempt to integrate flip teaching into language classrooms using a WebQuest active learning strategy. The purpose of this study is to examine the possible impacts of flipping the classroom on English language learners’ academic performance, learning attitudes, and participation levels. Adopting a quasi-experimental design, three different formats for flip teaching were developed in this study. The results indicate that the structured and semi-structured flip lessons were more effective instructional designs than the non-flip lessons. With a varying extent, both the structured and semi-structured flip lessons helped the students attain better learning outcomes, develop better attitudes toward their learning experiences, and devote more effort in the learning process. Given the positive results, this paper concludes with a call for more research into this promising pedagogy to contribute to its knowledge base across disciplines.
Abstract The flipped classroom is a pedagogical model in which the typical lecture and homework elements of a course are reversed. The following tips outline the steps involved in making a successful transition to a flipped classroom approach. The tips are based on the available literature alongside the author's experience of using the approach in a medical education setting. Flipping a classroom has a number of potential benefits, for example increased educator-student interaction, but must be planned and implemented carefully to support effective learning.
Think-aloud protocols, a version of verbal report in which participants state their thoughts and behaviors, have become increasingly popular as a means of studying the comprehension processes of native English speakers. The study reported in this article used think-alouds to examine the comprehension strategies used by college-level students—both native speakers of English and nonnative speakers—enrolled in remedial reading classes as they read material from a college textbook. “Poor” readers (those who had failed the college's reading proficiency test) were chosen for study because they are the ones at whom college remedial reading programs are aimed. Furthermore, their use of comprehension strategies has not attained the degree of automaticity found in fluent readers. Thus, they may be more aware of how they solve the problems they encounter as they read. Some of the strategies used by the ESL and native-speaking readers in the study are described. Strategy use is related to measures of memory and comprehension and to academic performance, and implications for teaching are discussed.
This paper is a report of a study to examine the influence of demographic, learning involvement and learning performance variables on metacognition of undergraduate nursing students in a blended learning environment. A cross-sectional, correlational survey design was adopted. Ninety-nine students invited to participate in the study were enrolled in a professional nursing ethics course at a public nursing college. The blended learning intervention is basically an assimilation of classroom learning and online learning. Simple linear regression showed significant associations between frequency of online dialogues, the Case Analysis Attitude Scale scores, the Case Analysis Self Evaluation Scale scores, the Blended Learning Satisfaction Scale scores, and Metacognition Scale scores. Multiple linear regression indicated that frequency of online dialogues, the Case Analysis Self Evaluation Scale and the Blended Learning Satisfaction Scale were significant independent predictors of metacognition. Overall, the model accounted for almost half of the variance in metacognition. The blended learning module developed in this study proved successful in the end as a catalyst for the exercising of metacognitive abilities by the sample of nursing students. Learners are able to develop metacognitive ability in comprehension, argumentation, reasoning and various forms of higher order thinking through the blended learning process.
This paper illustrates the comprehension-monitoring process used by first and second language readers of English as they read expository prose. The think-aloud protocols of 25 college freshmen were collected. Sixteen (8 L1 and 8 L2 readers) were classified as proficient, 9 as nonproficient (3 L1 and 6 L2 readers). The monitoring process is discussed with respect to two specific problems: one involving a search for a referent, the other, a vocabulary problem. Three phases and six specific steps are defined: evaluation phase (problem recognition and problem source identification), action phase (strategic plan and action/solution attempt), and checking phase (check and revision). The responses indicated that monitoring was most thorough with the referent problem when the problem was explicitly signaled. The process was somewhat truncated with the vocabulary problem. Proficient L2 readers performed similarly to proficient L1 readers; less proficient L2 readers performed similarly to less proficient L1 readers. Although the general trends shown in L1 research were supported, there were some discrepancies in developmental trends. Caution is advised in applying the results of L1 research to L2 readers.
Scholars and practitioners have reported the positive outcomes of a flipped, or inverted, approach to instruction (Baker, 2000; Lage, Platt, & Treglia, 2000; Bergmann, 2011; Wright, 2011; Pearson, 2012; Butt, 2012; Bates, 2012). While many of the reports are anecdotal, the sheer number of instructors that have reported successful implementation of the strategy provides some evidence of its powerful use as an instructional method. This study provides a detailed case in which one approach of the Flipped Classroom Model of Instruction was applied in two classes at California State University Northridge. Student reports suggest that the approach provided an engaging learning experience, was effective in helping students learn the content, and increased self-efficacy in their ability to learn independently. Additionally, challenges and potential solutions to those challenges are discussed.
This study examines the role of self-regulated learning (SRL) in facilitating students' shifts to more sophisticated mental models of the circulatory system as indicated by both performance and process data. We began with Winne and colleagues' information processing model of SRL (Winne, 2001; Winne & Hadwin, 1998) and used it to examine how students regulated their own learning when using a hypermedia environment to learn about the circulatory system. Undergraduate students (N = 24) were trained to use a hypermedia environment to learn about the circulatory system. Pretest, posttest, and verbal protocol data were collected to measure the shifts in conceptual understanding (from pretest to posttest) and the SRL variables associated with shifts in conceptual understanding. We used a median split to divide the sample into two groups of learners—high-jumpers and low-jumpers (i.e., students who either showed large gains in conceptual understanding or showed relatively little or no gain in their conceptual understanding). Findings revealed that the high-jumpers shifted an average of 4.5 mental models, while the low-jumpers had an average shift of less than one mental model from pretest to posttest. The verbal protocol data were coded for various self-regulating variables to examine which SRL variables differentiated the low-jumpers from the high-jumpers. High-jumpers were much better at
This article reports on an investigation into the relationship of test-takers’ use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies to the EFL (English as a foreign language) reading test performance. The study employed both quantitative and qualitative data analyses. The 384 students enrolled in a fundamental English course at a Thai university took an 85-item, multiple-choice reading comprehension achievement test, followed by a cognitive-metacognitive questionnaire on how they thought while completing the test. Eight of these students (4 highly successful and 4 unsuccessful)were selected for retrospective interviews. The results suggested that (1) the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies had a positive relationship to the reading test performance; and (2) highly successful test-takers reported significantly higher metacognitive strategy use than the moderately successful ones who in turn reported higher use of these strategies than the unsuccessful test-takers. Discussion of the findings and implications for further research are articulated.
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The past three decades have seen a growing body of research into language learner metacognitive knowledge, strategy use, and the relationship between them. However, the correlation between knowledge about strategies and strategy use in ESL listening and speaking has not been explored. This study investigates 278 Singaporean students’ knowledge and use of 40 listening and speaking strategies, and the relationship between these two variables. Distinctions were made among use-focused and form-focused learning strategies, comprehension strategies and communication strategies. The results showed that the students tended to believe in the usefulness of all four groups of strategies but seemed more often to use use-focused ones. Of the 40 strategies, 32 were perceived as useful by half the students, whereas only 13 were reported as used frequently. The discrepancy indicates that, while the students were generally aware of the usefulness of the strategies, they were not yet conscious and confident strategy users. There seems to be a need to increase their repertoire of strategies. Correlations were found between perceptions of the usefulness and perceived use of the strategies. The paper ends by considering teaching implications and future research.
This article attempts to bridge the apparent gap between L2 listening theory and practice by examining the effect of two tasks designed to teach students how to listen. This small-scale study involved two groups of students (N=41) registered in the second semester of a beginner-level French as a Second Language course. Students completed each task and then reflected on its usefulness in facilitating comprehension and its effectiveness in raising their awareness of the listening process. Students reacted positively to both listening tasks and provided suggestions for improving the second task. Student responses highlighted the benefit of predictions, the usefulness of discussion with a partner, and the motivational effect of focusing attention on the process as well as the product of listening. This study illustrates the potential of applying current knowledge about developing metacognitive processes and metacognitive knowledge in L2 listening pedagogy.
High among the many purposes of education is the conjecture that higher-levels of cognitive activity are important to learning and intellectual development. One of the most exciting educational implications is the leverage that one may expect by enhancing learning at the cognitive and metacognitive levels. Despite the relatively rich history in both cognition and metacognition, no consensus has emerged as to the nature of higher-level knowledge. The present study aimed to know more about: (1) the nature of metacognition, and to characterize facets of higher-level metacognitive thought; (2) the process by which individuals change their metacognitive capacities with experience; and (3) the role of pedagogical practices in facilitating changes in metacognition. Six cohorts of elementary students (grades 1-6 participated in this naturalistic study across three academic years. Analysis of the data supports the following claims. First, metacognition is within the capabilities of young (school age) children. Second, children's metacognitive ability is multifaceted in nature, it can be probed and teased apart. Third, changes in metacognitive sophistication can be gained by actively engaging in the process. Fourth, changes in metacognitive ability and conceptual understanding may be more closely linked to the individual student's epistemological stance. (Contains 102 references.) (Author)
This digest examines the role metacognition can play in the teaching and learning of a second language. Understanding and controlling cognitive processes may be one of the most essential skills that classroom teachers can help second language learners develop. Rather than focus students' attention solely on learning the language, second language teachers can help students learn to think about what happens during the language learning process, which will lead to the development of stronger learning skills. The digest highlights a model of metacognition that is made up of five primary components: preparing and planning for learning, selecting and using learning strategies, monitoring strategy use, orchestrating various strategies, and evaluating strategy use and learning. Also discussed is the interaction of metacognitive skills. (VWL)