ArticlePDF Available

Abstract and Figures

Jerusalem artichoke ( Helianthus tuberosus ) and chicory ( Cichorium intybus ) are valuable pharmaceutical raw materials on account of their high content of inulin, a natural prebiotic. Inulin-rich plants are also increasingly employed in the formulation of cosmetic products. The paper presents the biological properties of aqueous and aqueous-ethanolic extracts of Jerusalem artichoke and chicory. The extracts have been found to have a high free radical scavenging ability, with the most beneficial antioxidant properties being observed for the aqueous-ethanolic extract of Jerusalem artichoke. Inulin isolated from both plant types is a safe and non-toxic raw material. Inulin added to model body wash gel formulations markedly reduces their potential to cause skin irritation and sensitization.
Content may be subject to copyright.
44 Pol. J. Chem. Tech., Vol. 21, No. 1, 2019
Inulin as an effectiveness and safe ingredient in cosmetics
Zo a Nizioł-Łukaszewska1, Tomasz Bujak1*, Tomasz Wasilewski2, Edyta Szmuc1
1Departmet of Cosmetics and Pharmaceutical Products Technology, University of Information Technology and Management
in Rzeszow, Kielnarowa 386a, Tyczyn 36-020, Poland
2Department of Chemistry, University of Technology and Humanities in Radom, Chrobrego 27, Radom 26-600, Poland
*Corresponding author: e-mail: tomaszsbujak@gmail.com
Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus) and chicory (Cichorium intybus) are valuable pharmaceutical raw materi-
als on account of their high content of inulin, a natural prebiotic. Inulin-rich plants are also increasingly employed
in the formulation of cosmetic products. The paper presents the biological properties of aqueous and aqueous-
ethanolic extracts of Jerusalem artichoke and chicory. The extracts have been found to have a high free radical
scavenging ability, with the most bene cial antioxidant properties being observed for the aqueous-ethanolic extract
of Jerusalem artichoke. Inulin isolated from both plant types is a safe and non-toxic raw material. Inulin added
to model body wash gel formulations markedly reduces their potential to cause skin irritation and sensitization.
Keywords: Inulin, Jerusalem artichoke, Helianthus tuberosus, chicory, Cichorium intybus.
INTRODUCTION
Cosmetic industry is currently one of the most rapidly
growing sectors both in Poland and across the world.
Plant-based cosmetic raw materials play a very important
role on account of their content of biologically active
ingredients with a broad spectrum of action, safety of
use and easy availability. Consequently, they have a wide
range of bene ts. Plant-based raw materials have rich
chemical compositions, which makes them appropriate
for a variety of applications. For example, they are suit-
able for consumers of different age and with various
skin types, and for the primary or adjunctive treatment
of dermatological diseases1, 2.
One of the plant-based raw materials with applications
in cosmetology is inulin. The ingredient can be obta-
ined, among other sources, from Jerusalem artichoke
(also called topinambour, Helianthus tuberosus L.) and
common chicory (Cichorium intybus L.)3.
Chemically, inulin is an unbranched polysaccharide
belonging to the class of fructans. It is composed of
30–35 fructose units linked by β-1,2-glycosidic bonds4–8.
The bene ts of inulin in the cosmetic industry include
its antimicrobial protective effect on the skin and mucous
membranes due to prebiotic properties, i.e. promotion
of healthy bacterial ora6–9. Inulin and its surfactant
derivatives can be used for the production of antibacte-
rial soaps which are effective in removing gram-positive
and gram-negative bacteria and viruses10–13. Fructans,
including inulin, have also found cosmetic applications
in hair shampoo production. An advantage of fructans
and their derivatives used as shampoo ingredients is that
they make it possible to eliminate ionic surface-active
agents from shampoo formulations, which has a bene cial
impact on the natural environment6–8, 14–17.
Furthermore, inulin is used as a stabilizer in cosmetic
emulsions and detergents. It is suitable as a base for
powders and sprinkles, and as a nutritious ingredient in
cosmetics3–9, 14–16. According to18 nanoemulsions produced
with inulin-based systems are described. In combination
with fatty acids, inulin forms safe surface-active ingre-
dients which do not cause any skin irritation. For the
purpose of producing stable O/W emulsions, inulin is
usually used at low concentrations, ranging from 0.2 to
1 wt%. In the formulation of nanoemulsions, on the
other hand, the concentrations of this surface-active
agent should preferably be higher, i.e. 8 wt% of the
weight of the oil phase used.
The present paper is an attempt to assess the antioxi-
dant properties of aqueous and aqueous-ethanolic extracts
of Jerusalem artichoke and chicory. Inulin isolated from
the two plants was used as a body wash gels ingredient.
It was applied in the cosmetic formulations at varying
concentrations: 1, 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 wt%. The skin ir-
ritation potential of the formulated body wash gels and
the effect of isolated inulin on broblasts were evaluated.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Chemicals
Antioxidant activity tests were conducted
using: DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, Sig-
ma Aldrich), ABTS (2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzo-
thiazoline-6-sulphonic acid, Sigma Aldrich),
4-(dimetyloamino)benzaldehyde (Sigma Aldrich), ethyl
alcohol (Heneywell), di-potassium hydrogen phosphate
pure p.a. (Chempur), potassium dihydrogen phosphate
pure p.a. (POCH Gliwice). Resazurin R7017 (Sigma
Aldrich),Human skin broblasts BJ (ATCC®CRL-2522)
and Eagle’s Essential Minimum Medium (EMEM) with
L-glutamine were purchased from ATCC.Foetal bovine
serum (FBS) was purchased from Invitrogen. Measu-
rements of the irritant potential were carried out with:
zein from corn (Sigma Aldrich), sulfuric acid (98%,
Chempur), copper sulphate penthahydrate (Chempur),
potassium sulphate (Chempur), sodium hydroxide
(Chempur), Tashiro indicator (Chempur). All reagents
were analytical grade.
Model washing systems were prepared from: sodium
dodecyl sulphate (SLS, Sigma Aldrich), cocamido-
propylbetaine (Dehyton PK, Basf), lauryl glucoside
(Plantacare 1200, Basf), sodiumchloride (Chempur),
citric acid (Chempur), sodium benzoate and potassium
sorbate (Chempur).
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology, 21, 1, 44—49, 10.2478/pjct-2019-0008
Pol. J. Chem. Tech., Vol. 21, No. 1, 2019 45
Extract production
Jerusalem artichoke and common chicory extracts
were obtained using the method of continuous solvent
extraction in a Soxhlet extractor. The extract was prepa-
red from 10 g of ground common chicory root and 10 g
of ground Jerusalem artichoke tuber. As the extraction
solvents, istilled water with ethanol and pure distilled
water were used. In the aqueous-ethanolic extract the
weight ratio of ethanol to water was 70:30. The process
of extraction was conducted for 2 hours from the start
of boiling of the solvent contained in a ask. Next, the
extract thus obtained was passed through lters made
of Whatman lter paper No. 1. The nished extract
was stored in the refrigerator at a temperature of 4oC.
Isolation of inulin
Inulin extraction was performed using 50 g of Jerusalem
artichoke tuber and 50 g of commonchicory root. The
raw materials were blended and extracted with use of 300
mL of distilled water and 0.45 g of salt at 80oC for 45
minutes. Following ltration, the ltrates were extracted
with ethyl alcohol overnight and centrifuged for about
30 minutes (5000 rpm). The precipitate was washed
with ethyl alcohol and dried at a temperature of 50oC.
DPPH radical scavenging activity
DPPH radical scavenging by extracts was performed
according to19 with23 modi cation. 1 mL of extract or
appropriate solvent was mixed with1 mL 25 mM DPPH
solution in 96 wt% ethanol. Following 40 min incubation
at room temperature the absorbance of the sample was
measured at λ = 515 nm using AquaMate spectrophoto-
meter (Thermo Scienti c). 96 wt% ethanol was used as
a blank sample. All samples were analyzed in triplicates.
The percentage of DPPHscavenging was calculated for
each sample based on the equation:
% of DPPH scavenging = [1 – (As/Ac)] x 100%
where: As – absorbance of the sample; Ac – absorbance
of the control sample (DPPH solution).
ABTS•+ radical scavenging activity
Scavenging of ABTS•+ free radical was evaluated ac-
cording to20 with21 modi cation. The scavenging reaction
is based on decolourisation of the green ABTS radical
cation (ABTS•+). To prepare the ABTS•+ solution 19.5
mg ABTS and 3.3 mg potassium persulphate was mixed
with 7 mL of phosphate buffer pH = 7.4 and dissolved
for 16 hours in darkness. The solution was diluted to
reach the absorbance at λ = 414 nm around 1.0. 20 μL
of extracts or appropriate solvent was mixed with 980
μL diluted ABTS•+ solution and incubated for 10 min.
The decrease in ABTS•+ absorbance was measured at λ
= 414 nm using AquaMate spectrophotometer (Thermo
Scienti c), using distilled water as a blank. All samples
were analyzed in triplicates The percentage of ABTS•+
scavenging was calculated based on the equation:
% of ABTS•+scavenging = [(1 – (As/Ac)] x 100
where: As – absorbance of the sample; Ac – absorbance
of the control sample (ABTS•+ solution).
Formulations of the model body cleaning gels
On the basis of literature reports and our own experi-
ments prototype formulation of the body cleaning gels
were developed. The model formula are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Model body wash gel formulation
The formulations of model body wash cosmetics
contained a total of 11.3 wt% of surfactants. Three
surfactants, Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (8.0 wt%), Lauryl
Glucoside (1.5 wt%) and Cocamidopropyl Betaine (1.8
wt%), were selected on the basis of their most wide-
spread use in body wash cosmetics. In addition, the
formulation also contained citric acid (pH regulator),
potassium sorbate (preservative, 0.4 wt%) and sodium
chloride (NaCl, viscosity regulator). The variable para-
meter in the composition of analyzed samples was the
type of isolated inulin. An additive-free sample was also
used in the study as a reference (baseline) sample. The
technology of formulating model cosmetics involved dis-
solution in water ingredients in the sequence speci ed in
the formulation, and mixed using the mechanical stirrer
(mechanical stirrer ChemLand O20).
Zein test
Irritant potential of the model washing gels was measu-
red using zein test. In the surfactants solution zein protein
is denatured and then is solubilized in the solution. This
process simulates the behavior of surfactants in relation
to the skin proteins. To 40 mL of the samples solution
(10 wt%) was added 2 ± 0.05 g of zein from corn. The
solutions with zein were shaken on a shaker with water
bath (60 min at 35oC). The solutions were ltered on
Whatman No. 1 lters and then centrifuged at 5000 rpm
for 10 min. The nitrogen content in the solutions was
determined by Kjeldahl method. 1 mL of the ltrate
was mineralized in sulphuric acid (98 wt%) containing
copper sulphate pentahydrate and potassium sulphate.
After mineralization the solution was transferred (with
50 mL of MiliQ water) into the ask of the Wagner–Par-
nas apparatus. 20 mL of sodium hydroxide solution (25
wt%) was added. The released ammonia was distilled
with steam. Ammonia was bound by sulfuric acid (5 mL
of 0.05 M H2SO4) in the receiver of the Wagner–Parnas
apparatus. The unbound sulfuric acid was titrated with
0.1 M sodium hydroxide. Tashiro solution was used as
an indicator. The zein number (ZN) was calculated from
the equation:
ZN = (10 V1) · 100 · 0.7 (mg N/100 mL)
where V1 is the volume (mL) of sodium hydroxide used
for titration of the sample.
The nal result was the arithmetic mean of ve inde-
pendent measurements.
46 Pol. J. Chem. Tech., Vol. 21, No. 1, 2019
Resazurin assay
Cell proliferation/metabolism was assessed by resazurin
assay. The assay was performed using a model of BJ
human skin broblasts (ATCC CRL-2522). The cells
were cultured in EMEM (Eagle’s Minimum Essential
Medium) with an addition of 10 wt% FBS (Foetal Bo-
vine Serum). Resazurin R7017 – 1 g (Sigma Aldrich)
was used in the assay. The cells were seeded into 96-
well plates. Isolated inulin were diluted in the range of
1 mg mL–1 to 5 mg mL–1. Next, the culture medium
was substituted for the isolated inulin at appropriate
dilutions. The control cells were cultured in EMEM with
1 wt% FBS. Absorbance was measured after 24 hours
at the wavelength of λ = 570 nm, using the microplate
reader FilterMax F5 (Molecular Devices).
DISCUSSION
Plant substances are an abundant source of primary
and secondary metabolites. A large proportion of these
compounds have antioxidant properties and are used
both as carriers and active ingredients in cosmetic for-
mulations. In addition, these compounds play a very
important role in preventing cell damage induced by
free radicals22–25. Reactive oxygen species may contribute
to the development of oxidative stress which ultimately
leads to cell metabolism disorders and peroxidation of
cell membrane lipids23, 26. Free radicals also afect amino
acids and proteins by changing their chemical structure,
leading to mitochondrial DNA damage, elastin degrada-
tion or changes in collagen structure. As a result, modi-
ed proteins become inactivated and accumulate in cells,
accelerating their ageing. The effects of free radicals in
carbohydrates include, among others, depolymerisation
of hyaluronic acid which is responsible for proper skin
hydration23–28.
Oxidative stress, and an increased number of free
radicals which is associated with it, play a part in accel-
erating the ageing process, but they may also contribute
signi cantly to the development of diseases including
atopic dermatitis28, acne29 or psoriasis30.
Cosmetics enriched with antioxidant substances are
more readily absorbed by the human skin and less liable
to cause skin allergy and sensitization than products based
on synthetic ingredients31. In addition, they restrict the
processes of oxidation of substances contained in cos-
metics, e.g. fragrances. In this way, they may potentially
extend the stability of cosmetic products33.
The group of plants that are rich in active substances
and have potential applications in the cosmetic in-
dustry includes, among others, Jerusalem artichoke
(topinambour) (Helianthus tuberosus L.) or common
chicory (Cichorium intybus L.). The plants are rich in phe-
nolic compounds including phenolic acids or avonoids.
Common chicory root contains chicoric acid, and chlo-
rogenic or isocholorogenic acid33–36. Jerusalem artichoke
tubers contain primarily derivatives of hydroxybenzoic and
hydroxycinnamic acids, which constitute approximately
16% of their dry matter content8. Moreover, the two
plants are valuable sources of vitamins, among others
C and E and B-group vitamins including thiamine and
ribo avin. According to36, the average content of vitamin
C in Jerusalem artichoke tubers is 7.6 mg 100 g–1, and
in chicory root it is 5.2 mg 100 g–1.
However, the most abundant dry matter components of
the two plants are carbohydrates, particularly polysaccha-
ride fructans, chie y inulin3–6. As37 claim, the antioxidant
activity can also be attributed to polysaccharides which
scavenge the superoxide radical anion, hydroxyl radical
or hydrogen peroxide.
The present study has assessed the antioxidant activ-
ity of ethanol-aqueous and aqueous extracts obtained
from common chicory and Jerusalem artichoke. The
antioxidant activity of the extracts under study was as-
sessed using the DPPH• and ABTS•+ methods. The
analyses were carried out within the concentration range
of 0.3–10 mg mL–1 and showed all the extracts under
study to have an ability to neutralize reactive oxygen
species depending on their concentration. According on
the DPPH method, the highest antioxidant activity was
determined for the aqueous-ethanolic extract of Jeru-
salem artichoke. At the concentration of 10 mg mL–1,
the free radical scavenging ability was equal to 80%.
The values noted for the aqueous-ethanolic extract of
common chicory were lower at all measurement points.
At the concentration of 10 mg mL–1, the free radical
neutralizing ability was 71%. The values determined for
the aqueous extracts were lower than those obtained
for the aqueous-ethanolic extracts – both in the case
of common chicory and Jerusalem artichoke. The low-
est values were observed for the aqueous solution of
Jerusalem artichoke at the concentrations of 5 and 10
mg mL–1. At the remaining concentrations, the lowest
ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species was found for
the aqueous extract of common chicory (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. % of DPPH scavenging (E-ethanol, W+E+H –
water+ethanol+Helianthus tuberosus, W+H – wa-
ter+Helianthus tuberosus, W+E+C – water+etha-
nol+Cichorium intybus, W+C – water+Cichorium
intybus
The extracts obtained from common chicory and Jeru-
salem artichoke were characterized by a lower ability to
neutralize the ABTS•+ radical than the DPPH radical.
Similarly to DPPH scavenging, the highest antioxidant ac-
tivity was shown for the aqueous-ethanolic extract derived
from Jerusalem artichoke. At the highest concentration
studied (10 mg mL–1), the free radical scavenging ability
was 64% and decreased gradually along with increasing
dilutions. The aqueous-ethanolic solution obtained from
common chicory had a free radical scavenging ability that
was lower comparing to the aqueous-ethanolic extract
derived from Jerusalem artichoke. The lowest values
Pol. J. Chem. Tech., Vol. 21, No. 1, 2019 47
were noted for the aqueous extract of common chicory
at all measurement points (Fig. 2).
samples tested, the highest increase in cell metabolism
was found for inulin isolated from Helianthus tuberosus
L. at a concentration of 5 mg mL–1. The highest de-
crease in relation to the control sample was shown after
the addition of inulin derived from common chicory at
a concentration of 2.5 mg mL–1. Based on the studies
it can be concluded that inulin added to a cosmetic for-
mulation at a concentration of 5 mg mL–1 should not
exhibit any skin irritation activity, and should bene cially
affect the proliferation of broblasts. Similar conclusions
were drawn by34–35, who demonstrated that an addition of
fructans had a bene cial effect on broblast stimulation
and keratinocyte proliferation.
Figure 2. % of ABTS scavenging (E-ethanol, W+E+H – wate-
r+ethanol+Helianthus tuberosus, W+H – water+He-
lianthus tuberosus, W+E+C – water+ethanol+Ci-
chorium intybus, W+C -water+Cichorium intybus
Figure 3. Inulin content isolated from Cichorium intybus L.
and Helianthus tuberosus L
Figure 5. Irritant potential of model body wash gels conta-
ining inulin isolated from Cichorium intybus L. and
Helianthus tuberosus L.
Figure 4. In uence of inulin isolated from Cichorium intybus
L. and Helianthus tuberosus L. on cell viability
The tests evaluating the ability of aqueous-ethanolic
extracts of Jerusalem artichoke and common chicory to
scavenge the DPPH and ABTS•+ radicals also involved
inulin isolation from the extracts. The compound was
then added to a cosmetic formulation. The content of
inulin in plants usually ranges from 5 to 12%, which
remains in agreement to the literature. The content
of inulin isolated from Helianthus tuberosus. has been
found to vary from 3 to 15%38. According to3 Jerusalem
artichoke contains about 52% of inulin in its tubers, and
from common chicory (Cichorium intybus) containing
approximately 44% of inulin. The present study found
the percentage content of inulin in Cichorium intybus
to be 12%, and in Helianthus tuberosus – 18% (Fig. 3).
The next stage of the study involved evaluating the
effect of inulin isolated from Jerusalem artichoke and
common chicory on the metabolism of human dermal
broblasts. The analysis was based on the resazurin
assay which is a quick and sensitive method for asses-
sing proliferation and cytotoxicity in vitro. In response
to the reduction of culture medium by living cells, the
dye was observed to change colour from blue to red39–40.
The analyses were carried out within the concentration
range of 1–5 mg mL–1 (Fig. 4). The study demonstra-
ted that inulin isolated from Cichorium intybus L. and
Helianthus tuberosus L. at the highest test concentration
(5 mg mL–1) had a bene cial effect on increasing cell
proliferation compared to the control sample. Out of all
As the next stage of the reported study, an attempt
was made to apply isolated inulin in the formulations of
model body wash gels. The gels thus obtained, enriched
with inulin, were subjected to skin interaction tests aimed
at evaluating their potential to cause skin irritation (zein
value), allergy and sensitization (patch test). The gure
presents results of skin irritation potential measurements
performed for the gels containing inulin derived from
Jerusalem artichoke and chicory.
The risk of skin irritations is one of the greatest di-
sadvantages associated with using body wash cosmetics.
Their skin irritation potential is due to the presence of
surfactants in the formulation. Surfactants may interact
with the skin surface proteins, cause their denaturation
and ultimately wash them away from the skin. The skin
irritation potential of body wash gels depends primarily
on the type of washing agents used in the formulation.
The most severe skin irritation effect is attributable to
48 Pol. J. Chem. Tech., Vol. 21, No. 1, 2019
anionic surfactants (e.g. Sodium Lauryl Sulfate, Sodium
Laureth Sulfate) which can interact with proteins via
strong ionic bonds. Consequently, anionic surfactants
have a relatively strong ability to elute and denatura-
te the skin surface proteins, which may result in skin
irritation and impairment of skin function as a barrier
preventing water loss (increase of transepidermal water
loss, TEWL) or penetration of pathogens. A markedly
lower skin irritation potential is found for nonionic sur-
factants which are linked to proteins by weak hydrogen
bonds. Another factor impacting on the skin irritation
potential of body wash gels is the concentration of
surfactants which determines the form in which surfac-
tants are found in solutions. Before reaching the critical
micelle concentration (CMC) surfactants in the form of
individual molecules (monomers) demonstrate the most
pronounced skin irritation ability, which is due to the
small size of individual molecules, their high mobility and
markedly higher capacity to penetrate through the epi-
dermal barrier into the skin. Lower skin irritation ability
is associated with micelles arising in solutions after the
CMC is exceeded. This is caused by the fact that they
are larger in size, which prevents them from permeating
deeply into the skin. Surfactant concentrations used in
body wash gels exceed the CMC, however on account
of the possibility of releasing monomeric molecules due
to ongoing disintegration of thermodynamically unstable
micelles, the presence of micelles does not completely
eliminate the possibility of skin irritations. The litera-
ture data show that the skin irritation potential can be
reduced for example by introducing into the system
substances having an ability to reduce the CMC, increase
the number of aggregations (amount of micelle-building
monomers) or enhance the size and stability of micelles.
Such compounds include polymers, hydrolyzed proteins,
proteins, some plant extracts and electrolytes. A reduction
in the skin irritation potential can also be achieved by
using mixtures of different types of surfactants in the
formulations of body wash cosmetics41–48. As the results of
zein value measurements (Fig. 5 ) indicate, the addition
of inulin to the formulations of body wash gels (based
on a mixture of anionic and nonionic surfactants) con-
tributes to a signi cant decrease in their skin irritation
potential. Compared to the inulin-free baseline sample
(zein value approximately 300 mgN/100 mL), inulin-
-containing gels are characterized by an approximately
40% lower skin irritation potential. However, the studies
did not demonstrate a signi cant in uence of inulin
concentration on the zein value (which is equal to ap-
proximately 180 mgN/100 mL within the concentration
range of 1–10%) or any impact of the plant type from
which inulin was isolated. A review of the literature
shows that surfactant systems with an addition of sugar
substances have not been thoroughly studied to date.
What follows from scanty literature reports44–47 is that
an addition of carbohydrates, such as glucose, fructose,
saccharose or maltose, has an effect on increasing the
number of aggregations in the micelles of both ionic
(Sodium Lauryl Sulphate) and nonionic surfactants (oxy-
ethylated derivatives), and lowers their CMC, which can
also be the cause of the drop in zein value associated
with inulin, which is a polysaccharide.
CONCLUSION
The aqueous and aqueous-ethanolic extracts of Helianthus
tuberosus and Cichoriumintybus show a high free radical
scavenging ability. More bene cial antioxidant properties,
both with respect to the ABTS and DPPH radicals, were
shown in both cases for the aqueous-ethanolic extracts.
A comparison of both plants revealed that a more potent
antioxidant capacity was associated with the Jerusalem
artichoke extract. At the highest concentration studied (10
mg/mL), the DPPH radical scavenging ability determined
for the aqueous-ethanolic extract of Jerusalem artichoke
was about 80%, and the ABTS radical scavenging ability
was approximately 60%. For the corresponding chicory
extract the values were about 75 and 50%, respectively. In
aqueous extracts the values were approximately 20–30%
lower. The plants under analysis are characterized by
a high content of inulin. Using extraction processes, 18
and 12%aof inulin was obtained from Helianthus tuberosus
and Cichorium intybus, respectively. Cytotoxicity tests sho-
wed that both inulin isolated from Cichorium intybus and
Helianthus tuberosus, at a concentration of 5 mg/mL, had
a bene cial effect on increasing cell proliferation compared
to the control sample. Inulin isolated from both plants
under analysis can be applied in body wash formulations
without any problems, as it becomes completely dissolved,
producing clear and stable solutions. Tests determining the
skin irritation potential of model body wash gels showed
inulin to contribute to a marked decrease in that parameter.
Following the addition of inulin, the zein value decreases
by approximately 40% compared to the baseline sample,
however the concentration of inulin was not found to have
a signi cant effect on the ndings. What is more, there was
no signi cant difference with respect to the skin irritation
potential between the gels containing inulin derived from
Cichorium intybus and Helianthus tuberosus. The ndings
of the study show that both extracts of Cichorium intybus
and Helianthus tuberosus, and inulin isolated from them,
can be used as a valuable multifunctional ingredient of
body wash cosmetics.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Elser, P. & Maibach, H. (2000). Cosmeceuticals and
Active Cosmetics. New York, USA: Taylor & Francis Group.
2. Barel, M. & Paye, M. (2014). Handbook of Cosmetic
Science and Technology, 4th ed. Boca Raton, USA: 2014.
Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 353–365.
3. Kiełtyka-Dadasiewicz, A. Sawicka, B. Bienia, B. & Kro-
chmal-Marczak, B. (2014). Inulin as Product a Food, Feed,
Pharmaceutical, Cosmetic and Energy. Polish J. Commodity
Sci. 1, 18–26.
4. Saengthongpinit, W. & Sajanantakul, T. (2005). In uence
of harvest time and storage temperature on characteristics of
inulin from Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) tubers.
Postharvest Biol. Technol. 37, 93–100. DOI: doi.org/10.1016/j.
postharvbio.2005.03.004.
5. Franck, A. (2002). Technological functionality of inulin
and oligofructose. Br. L. Nutr. 87, 287–291. DOI: doi.org/10.1079/
BJN/2002550.
6. Chyc, M. & Ogonowski, J. (2014). Jerusalem artichoke
as a valuable raw materal, especially for food, pharmaceutical
and cosmetics industries. Wiad. Chem. 68, 7–8.
7. Sobolewska S., Grela E.R., & Skomiał J. (2012). Inuli-
na i jej oddziaływanie u ludzi i zwierząt. In A. Czech & R.
Klebaniuk (Eds.), The use of ax and inulin in nutrition and
Pol. J. Chem. Tech., Vol. 21, No. 1, 2019 49
food production. Lublin, Poland: Stowarzyszenie Rozwoju
Regionalnego i Lokalnego „Progress”, 65–88. (in Polish).
8. Skiba, D. & Sawicka, B. (2016). Słonecznik bulwiasty (He-
lianthustuberosusL.) jako źródło substancji biologicznie czynnych
o potencjale kosmetycznym. In A. Kiełtyka-Dadasiewicz (Eds.),
Rośliny w nowoczesnej kosmetologii. Lublin, Poland: Wydawni-
ctwo Akademickie Wyższej Szkoły Społeczno-Przyrodniczej w
Lublinie, 65–76. (in Polish).
9. Mutanda, T., Mokoena, M. P., Olaniran, O., Wilhelmi,
B.S. & Whiteley, C.G. (2014). Microbial enzymatic production
and applications of short-chain fructooligosaccharides and
inulooligosaccharides: Recent advances and current perspecti-
ves. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 41, 893–906, DOI: 10.1007/
s10295-014-1452-1.
10. Vijin, I. & Smeekens, S. (1999). Fructan more than
a reserve carbohydrate? Plant Physiol. 120, 351–359.
11. Anwar, M. A., Kralj, S., Van der Maarel, M. J. & Dijkhu-
izen, L. (2008). The probiotic Lactobacillus johnsonii NCC 533
produces high molecular-mass inulin from sucrose by using an
inulosucrase enzyme. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74, 3426–3433,
DOI: 10.1128/AEM.00377-08.
12. Bot, A., Erle, U., Vreeker, R. & Agterof, W.G.M. (2014).
In uence of crystallization conditions on the large deformation
rheology of inulin gels. Food Hydrocolloids. 18 (4), 547–556,
DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2003.09.003.
13. Lingyun, W., Jianhua, W., Xiaodong, Z., Da, T., Yalin, Y.,
Chenggang, C., Tianhua, F. & Fan, Z. (2007). Studies on the
extracting technical conditions of inulin from Jerusalem articho-
ke tubers. J. Food Eng. 79, 1087–1093, DOI:doi.org/10.1016/j.
jfoodeng.2006.03.028.
14. Chi, Z.M., Zhang, T., Cao, T.S., Liu, X.Y., Cui, W. &
Zhao, C.H. (2011). Biotechnological potential of inulin for
bioprocesses. Bioresour. Technol. 102, 4295–4303, DOI: doi.
org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.12.086.
15. Rossi, M., Corradini, C., Amaretti, A., Nicolini, M.,
Pompei, A., Zanoni, S. & Matteuzzi, D. (2005). Fermentation
of fructooligosaccharides and inulin by bi dobacteria: a compa-
rative study of pure and fecal cultures. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
71, 6150–6158, DOI: 10.1128/AEM.71.10.6150-6158.2005.
16. Roberfroid, M.B. (1998). Prebiotics and synbiotics:
concepts and nutritional properties. Br. J. Nutr. 80, 197–202.
17. Roberfroid, M.B., van Loo, J.A.E. & Gibson, G.R. (1998).
The bi dogenic nature of chicory inulin and its hydrolysis
products. J. Nutr. 128, 11–19.
18. Schroeder, G. (2010). Nanotechnologia, kosmetyki chemia
supramolekularna. Kostrzyn, Poland: Publisher Cursiva.
19. Brand-Williamis, W., Cuvelier, M. & Berset, C. (1995)
Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity.
LWT Food Sci. Technol. 28, 25–30. DOI: 10.1016/S0023-
6438(95)80008-5.
20. Re, R., Pellegrini, N., Protegente, A., Pannala, A., Yang,
M. & Rice-Evans, C. (1999). Antioxidant activity applying and
improved ABTS radical cation decolorization assay. Free Radic.
Biol. Med. 26, 1231–1237, DOI: 10.1016/S0891-5849(98)00315-3.
21. Bartosz, G. (2003). Total antioxidant capacity. Elsevier
Science (USA).
22. Draelos, Z.D. & Dover, J.S. (2011). Kosmeceutyki, 2nd
ed. Wrocław, Poland: Elsevier Urban & Partner. 182–185.
23. Bartosz, G. (2004). Druga twarz tlenu. Wolne rodniki w
przyrodzie. Warszawa, Poland: Wydaw. Nauk. PWN. (in Polish)
24. Lupo, M.P. (2001). Antioxidants and vitamins in cosmetics,
Clin. Dermatol. 19 (4), 467–473.
25. Katsube, T., Tabata, H., Ohta, Y., Yamasaki, Y., Anuurad,
E., Shiwaku, K. & Yamane, Y. (2004). Screening for antioxidant
activity in edible plant products: Comparison of low-density
lipoprotein oxidation assay, DPPH radical scavenging assay and
Folin-Ciocalteu assay. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52 (8), 2391–2396,
DOI: 10.1021/jf035372g.
26. Potargowicz, E. & Szerszenowicz, E. (2006). Vegetal
polyphenols in cosmetics, Pol. J. Cosmetol. 9 (2), 70–76.
27. Linton, S., Davies, M.J. & Dean, R.T. (2001). Protein
oxidation and ageing. Exp. Gerontol. 36 (9), 1503–1518.
28. Evans, M.D., Dizdaroglu, M. & Cooke, S. (2004). Oxidati-
ve DNA damage and disease: induction, repair and signi cance.
Mutat. Res. 567 (1), 1–61, DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2003.11.001.
29. Briganti, S. & Picardo, M. (2003). Antioxidant activity,
lipid peroxidation and skin diseases. What’s new. J. Eur. Acad.
Dermatol.Venereol. 17 (6), 663–669, DOI: 10.1046/j.1468-
-3083.2003.00751.x.
30. Relhan, V., Gupta, S.K., Dayal, S., Pandey, R. & Lal, H.
(2002). Blood thiols and malondialdehyde levels in psoriasis. J. Der-
matol. 29 (7), 399–403, DOI: 10.1111/j.1346-8138.2002.tb00293.x.
31. Jędrzejko, K. & Wolszczyk, W. (2006). Naturalne, krajowe
zasoby surowców roślinnych o właściwościach kosmetycznych
– możliwości ich wykorzystania w przemyśle kosmetycznym
i obrocie międzynarodowym. Herba Polonica. 52 (3), 33–34.
(in Polish).
32. Mielczarek, C. & Brzezińska, E. (2000). Flavonoids in
cosmetics and cosmetology. Part 1. Biological properties of
avonoids. Pol. J. Cosmetol. 1, 11–12.
33. Kohlmünzer, S. (2013). Farmakognozja. Warszawa, Poland:
Wydawnictwo Lekarskie PZWL. (in Polish).
34. Kim,Y., Faqih, M.N. & Wang, S. (2001). Factors affecting
gel formation of inulin. Carbohydrate Polimers. 46, 135–145,
DOI: 10.1016/S0144-8617(00)00296-4.
35. Kim, K.H., Chung, C.B., Kim, Y.H., Kim, K.S., Han,
C.S. & Kim, C.H. (2005). Cosmeceutical properties of levan
produced by Zymomonasmobilis. J. Cosmet. Sci. 56, 395–406,
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2494.2006.00314_2.x.
36. Cieślik, E. & Gębusia, A. (2010). Topinambur (Helian-
thustuberosus L.) – bulwa o właściwościach prozdrowotnych.
Postępy Nauk Rol. 3, 91–103. (in Polish).
37. Liu, C., Wang, A. & Li, Y. (2010). Determination of an-
tioxidation of polysaccharides in Tussilagofarfara. The Chinese
J. Modern Appl. Pharmacy. 28(10), 886–889.
38. Deneva, A., Petkova, N., Ivanov, I., Sirakov, B., Vranche-
va, R. & Pavlova, A. (2014). Determination of biologically active
substances in taproot of common chicory (Cichoriumintybus
L.). Scienti c Bulletin. Series F. Biotechnologies. 18, 124–129.
39. O’Brien, J., Wilson, I., Orton, T. & Pognan, F. (2000).
Investigation of the Alamar Blue (resazurin) uorescent dye
for the assessment of mammalian cell cytotoxicity. Eur. J. Bio-
chem. 267, 5421–5426, DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.2000.01606.x.
40. Kwack, K. & Lynch, R.G. (2000). A New Non-radioac-
tive Method for IL-2 Bioassay. Mol. Cells. 5, 575–578, DOI:
10.1007/s10059-000-0575-6.
41. Bujak, T., Wasilewski, T. & Nizioł-Łukaszewska, Z. (2015).
Role of macromolecules in the safety of use of body wash
cosmetics. Colloids Surf. B. 1 (135), 497–503, DOI: 10.1016/j.
colsurfb.2015.07.051.
42. Farn, R. J. (2006). Chemistry and Technology of Surfac-
tants. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
43. Rosen, M.J. (2006). Surfactants and Interfacial Pheno-
mena. 3rd ed. New York, USA: John Wiley& Sons.
44. Abe, M. & Scamehorn, J.F. (2005). Mixed Surfactant
Systems. 2nd ed. New York, USA: Marcel Dekker.
45. Nielsen, G.D., Nielsen, J.B., Andersen, K.E. & Gran-
djean, P. (2000). Effect of industrial detergents on the barrier
function of human skin. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health. 6(2),
138–142, DOI: 10.1179/oeh.2000.6.2.138.
46. Faucher, J.A. & Goddard, E.D. (1978). Interaction of
keratinous substrates with sodium lauryl sulfate. I. Sorption.
J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 29, 323–337.
47. Moore, P.N., Puvvada, S. & Blankschtein, D.J. (2003).
Challenging the surfactant monomer skin penetration model:
penetration of sodium dodecyl sulfate micelles into the epi-
dermis. J. Cosmet. Sci. 54, 29–49.
48. McFadden, J.P., Holloway, D.B., Whittle, E.G. & Basket-
ter, D.A. (2000). Benzalkonium chloride neutralizes the irritant
effect of sodium lauryl sulfate. Contact Dermatitis. 43, 264–266.
... The moderate average degree of polymerization and its availability made thi ysaccharide of interest for human health [16]. Thus, inulin has been utilized as either tional food [17] in the cosmetic industry [18] or for biomedical applications [19]. The maceutical and physiological implications of inulin have been reviewed [20]. ...
... The moderate average degree of polymerization and its availability made this polysaccharide of interest for human health [16]. Thus, inulin has been utilized as either functional food [17] in the cosmetic industry [18] or for biomedical applications [19]. The pharmaceutical and physiological implications of inulin have been reviewed [20]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The genus Cichorium (Asteraceae) that originates from the Mediterranean area consists of six species (Cichorium intybus, Cichorium frisee, Cichorium endivia, Cichorium grouse, Cichorium chico and Cichorium pumilum). Cichorium intybus L., commonly known as chicory, has a rich history of being known as a medicinal plant and coffee substitute. A variety of key constituents in chicory play important roles as antioxidant agents. The herb is also used as a forage plant for animals. This review highlights the bioactive composition of C. intybus L. and summarizes the antioxidant activity associated with the presence of inulin, caffeic acid derivatives, ferrulic acid, caftaric acid, chicoric acid, chlorogenic and isochlorogenic acids, dicaffeoyl tartaric acid, sugars, proteins, hydroxycoumarins, flavonoids and sesquiterpene lactones. It also covers the plant’s occurrence, agriculture improvement, natural biosynthesis, geographical distribution and waste valorization.
... This can lessen redness, irritation, and aging symptoms. According to studies, probiotics and inulin may aid in the restoration of UV-damaged skin by encouraging the skin's natural defense mechanism, beta-defensin synthesis (Nizioł-Łukaszewska et al. 2019). Inulin, a naturally occurring polysaccharide, has a variety of applications in cosmetics due to its positive characteristics. ...
Chapter
Inulin is frequently utilized in cosmetics and personal care products due to its numerous applications and possible health advantages. Inulin extracts from plants like Jerusalem artichoke and chicory have been found to have antimicrobial effects, making them useful as natural preservatives in cosmetic formulations. Inulin is known for its ability to attract moisture and maintain skin hydration; inulin also forms a protective layer on the skin, leaving it smooth and supple. Its prebiotic properties nourish beneficial bacteria in the skin microbiome, promoting a balanced flora that can reduce redness, irritation, and signs of aging. Studies suggest that in combination with probiotics, inulin aids in the repair of UV-damaged skin by stimulating natural defense mechanisms. Due to its diverse functions, inulin gained its position in skincare and cosmetics products, where it is praised for improving the look and health of the skin. Chemical modifications, such acetylation, can also be applied to inulin to create derivatives with improved functioning for cosmetic purposes. These altered inulins can be employed to stabilize the dispersions of other cosmetic substances or as vehicles for the delivery of active compounds. However, inulin’s versatility, natural origins, and favorable biological qualities make it a desirable component in the production of safe and effective cosmetic and personal care products.
... 또한, 이눌린의 효능으로 혈중 지질 저하, 혈청 콜레스테롤 감소, 혈당 강하 및 장 질환 예방 등의 효능이 있는 것으로 알려져 있다 [5]. 화장품 산업에서의 이눌린은 효과적이고 안전한 식물 유래 성분으로 프리바이오틱 특성을 가지며 피부와 점막에 항균 보호 효과를 통해 유익한 균들을 활성화하고 항산화 효과를 가져 피부 보습 및 주름 개선 등의 많은 유익한 효과를 가진다 [6] [7]. 피부는 외부 환경과 직접적으로 접하고 있어 몸을 외부의 불순물로부터 보호하는 장벽 역할을 한다 [8]. ...
... In addition, proteins have antimicrobial and anticancer properties and protect against Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases (Bakku et al. 2022). Owing to their high content of nutrients and minerals, JA tubers are considered a valuable raw material for food processing (Zhang et al. 2021) as well as the cosmetic (Niziol-Lukaszewska et al. 2019) and pharmaceutical industries (Yang et al. 2015); they are also used as animal feed (Pinar et al. 2021). JA tubers are also a raw material for the production of bioethanol (Bhagia et al. 2017). ...
... Successful inulin surfactant derivatives from the cleaning industry have made their way into the cosmetic arena as suggested by Nizioł-Łukaszewska et al. (2019). One of these is PolyFructol Plus from Mibelle AG Biochemistry. ...
Article
In recent years, inulin has gained much attention as a promising multifunctional natural biopolymer with numerous applications in drug delivery, prebiotics, and therapeutics. It reveals a multifaceted biopolymer with transformative implications by elucidating the intricate interplay between inulin and the host, microbiome, and therapeutic agents. Their flexible structure, exceptional targetability, biocompatibility, inherent ability to control release behavior, tunable degradation kinetics, and protective ability make them outstanding carriers in healthcare and biomedicine. USFDA has approved Inulin as a nutritional dietary supplement for infants. The possible applications of inulin in biomedicine research inspired by nature are presented. The therapeutic potential of inulin goes beyond its role in prebiotics and drug delivery. Recently, significant research efforts have been made towards inulin's anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties for their potential applications in treating various chronic diseases. Moreover, its ability to reduce inflammation and modulate immune responses opens new avenues for treating conditions such as autoimmune disorders and gastrointestinal ailments. This review will attempt to illustrate the inulin's numerous and interconnected roles, shedding light on its critical contributions to the advancement of healthcare and biomedicine and its recent advancement in therapeutics, and conclude by taking valuable insights into the prospects and opportunities of inulin.
Article
Background: Recently, there has been a significant increase in the application of prebiotics in cosmetic products. Thus, this investigation aims to create two mild shampoo compositions, containing inulin; a distinguished prebiotic, and a reference shampoo. As a further step, the efficacy of formulations against strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteria, as well as mixed cultures of these two bacteria, was assessed. Materials and Methods: After formulation development, physicochemical (physical appearance, pH, percentage of solid contents, viscosity, density and stability studies) and biological evaluations (challenge test, MIC (Minimum inhibition concentration), MBC (Minimum Bactericidal Concentration) were carried out. Results: The results showed that the hair and body shampoo formulas displayed good stability and maintained their physicochemical properties under different conditions over time. Furthermore, they were microbiologically safe according to the challenge test and instrumental analysis. Microbial assays indicated that Shampoo-A promoted the growth of Staphylococcus epidermidis while inhibiting the growth of Staphylococcus aureus in the presence of prebiotic active, whereas Shampoo-B inhibited the growth of both bacteria. Conclusions: Although further research is required to declare the microbiome-related claims, the development of these products holds promise for positive effects on skin health and microbiome.
Article
Demand on natural products that contain biological ingredients mimicking growth factors and cytokines made natural polysaccharides popular in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Levan is the β-(2-6) linked, nontoxic, biocompatible, water-soluble, film former fructan polymer that has diverse applications in pharmacy and cosmeceutical industries with its moisturizing, whitening, anti-irritant, anti-aging and slimming activities. Driven by the limited reports on few structurally similar levan polymers, this study presents the first systematic investigation on the effects of structurally different extremophilic Halomonas levan polysaccharides on human skin epidermis cells. In-vitro experiments with microbially produced linear Halomonas levan (HL), its hydrolyzed, (hHL) and sulfonated (ShHL) derivatives as well as enzymatically produced branched levan (EL) revealed increased keratinocyte and fibroblast proliferation (113-118 %), improved skin barrier function through induced expressions of involucrin (2.0 and 6.43 fold changes for HL and EL) and filaggrin (1.74 and 3.89 fold changes for hHL and ShHL) genes and increased type I collagen (2.63 for ShHL) and hyaluronan synthase 3 (1.41 for HL) gene expressions together with fast wound healing ability within 24 h (100 %, HL) on 2D wound models clearly showed that HL and its derivatives have high potential to be used as natural active ingredients in cosmeceutical and skin regenerating formulations.
Chapter
Full-text available
Natural resources, to which include extracts from tubers, leaves and stems of Jerusalem artichoke as well inulin, used as a stabilizer of emulsion forms of cosmetics and detergents and as a substrate for dustings and powders are an invaluable source of cosmetic active substances. Vitamin C, which are rich in tubers of H. tuberosus, stimulates the penetration of nutrients from the skin into the bloodstream, facilitates regeneration and collagen production. Also accelerates the formation of collagen and proteoglycans tissue, that is: proteins, acting as scaffolding, which is responsible for skin elasticity and so is considered to be anti-aging factor. In the case of dry skin vitamin C contained in tubers promotes the synthesis of lipids are responsible for skin hydration and in the case of oily skin reduces the production of sebum. The richness and variety of biologically active compounds determines their valuable and highly desirable cosmetic properties. These components also enrich the skin with biologically active substances, acting cleansing and tending, protective and curative, and consequently - beautifying and revitalizing. Thus, the addition of components to the cosmetics artichoke is a response to the growing needs of consumers.
Article
Full-text available
The industrial production of short-chain fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and inulooligosaccharides is expanding rapidly due to the pharmaceutical importance of these compounds. These compounds, concisely termed prebiotics, have biofunctional properties and hence health benefits if consumed in recommended dosages. Prebiotics can be produced enzymatically from sucrose elongation or via enzymatic hydrolysis of inulin by exoinulinases and endoinulinases acting alone or synergistically. Exoinulinases cleave the non-reducing β-(2, 1) end of inulin-releasing fructose while endoinulinases act on the internal linkages randomly to release inulotrioses (F3), inulotetraoses (F4) and inulopentaoses (F5) as major products. Fructosyltransferases act by cleaving a sucrose molecule and then transferring the liberated fructose molecule to an acceptor molecule such as sucrose or another oligosaccharide to elongate the short-chain fructooligosaccharide. The FOS produced by the action of fructosyltransferases are 1-kestose (GF2), nystose (GF3) and fructofuranosyl nystose (GF4). The production of high yields of oligosaccharides of specific chain length from simple raw materials such as inulin and sucrose is a technical challenge. This paper critically explores recent research trends in the production and application of short-chain oligosaccharides. Inulin and enzyme sources for the production of prebiotics are discussed. The mechanism of FOS chain elongation and also the health benefits associated with prebiotics consumption are discussed in detail.
Article
A method for the screening of antioxidant activity is reported as a decolorization assay applicable to both lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidants, including flavonoids, hydroxycinnamates, carotenoids, and plasma antioxidants. The pre-formed radical monocation of 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS*+) is generated by oxidation of ABTS with potassium persulfate and is reduced in the presence of such hydrogen-donating antioxidants. The influences of both the concentration of antioxidant and duration of reaction on the inhibition of the radical cation absorption are taken into account when determining the antioxidant activity. This assay clearly improves the original TEAC assay (the ferryl myoglobin/ABTS assay) for the determination of antioxidant activity in a number of ways. First, the chemistry involves the direct generation of the ABTS radical monocation with no involvement of an intermediary radical. Second, it is a decolorization assay; thus the radical cation is pre-formed prior to addition of antioxidant test systems, rather than the generation of the radical taking place continually in the presence of the antioxidant. Hence the results obtained with the improved system may not always be directly comparable with those obtained using the original TEAC assay. Third, it is applicable to both aqueous and lipophilic systems.
Article
One of the most challenging problems related to the use of surfactants in body wash cosmetics is their potential to cause skin irritations. Surfactants can bind with proteins, remove lipids from the epidermal surface, contribute to the disorganization of liquid crystal structures in the intercellular lipids, and interact with living skin cells. These processes can lead to skin irritations and allergic reactions, and impair the epidermal barrier function. The present study is an attempt to assess the effect of polymers and hydrolysed proteins present in the formulations of model body wash cosmetics on product properties. Special attention was given to the safety of use of this product type. The study examined three macromolecules: polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), hydrolysed wheat protein (HWP) and polyvinylpyrrolidone/hydrolysed wheat protein crosspolymer (PVP/HWP). The addition of the substances under study was found to improve the foaming properties of body wash cosmetics, increase their stability during storage, and contribute significantly to an improvement in the safety of product use by reducing the irritant potential. The strongest ability to reduce the skin irritation potential was determined for the formula enriched with the PVP/HWP crosspolymer. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Article
Synopsis Use was made of radiotagged SODIUM LAURYL SULFATE (SLS) to determine its sorption by skin and hair. In the initial stages uptake is linear in square root of time, indicative of a diffusion process. The uptakes determined by radiotagged SLS were successfully correlated with data from a simple gravimetric method and showed that the latter procedure can be used satisfactorily under certain conditions when radiotagged com- pounds are not available. The influence of some additives on the SORPTION of SLS was studied. Salt increases the sorption, while nonionic SURFACTANTS (which are not themselves sorbed) substantially depress it. Finally, the relation of the sorbed SLS to water of hydration of KERATIN is examined. It is con- cluded that most, if not all, the sorbed material is bound to keratin, rather than existing in an "internal" solu- tion.
Article
The large-deformation rheology of inulin gels was investigated and interpreted in terms of solubility, crystallisation, and aggregation data. The gels are characterised by a strong overshoot peak in the stress–strain curve, characteristic for (non-plastic) work softening behaviour. More concentrated inulin gels tend to be firmer but are also less plastic. It is hypothesised that inulin molecules depositing during the later stages of the crystallisation/gelation process contribute most to the overshoot peak in the stress–strain curve.