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The Principle of Equitable Access in the Age of Mega-Constellations
Abstract
The principle of equitable access was introduced by the International Telecommunications Union to ensure that every nation, spacefaring or not, would have the possibility, at any time, to have access to space and to the necessary spectrum to communicate to and from satellites, without creating or receiving interferences to and from others. The principle applies specifically to the orbital slots and spectrum allocation procedures for the geosynchronous orbits belt, from where broadcasting has been conducted since the 1960s. Such principle does not have, instead, a direct enforcement in the allocation procedures for satellites in non-geosynchronous orbits. Given today’s increasing number of satellites proposed and launched, in particular as part of (mega-)constellations, and given the increasing concerns related to overcrowded low Earth orbits, this should be the right time to raise the issue on starting enforcing the principle in all orbits, before non-yet-spacefaring nations find themselves incredibly thwarted in launching one or more satellites, let alone fairly competing with space powers and spacefaring corporations. Opening the debate might be worth the effort, even just as a reminder that space is province of all mankind.
... The advent of these mega-constellations may thus introduce new risks to space sustainability, including those associated with space debris and radiofrequency interference (Johnson, 2020), which is likely to be followed by a surge in chain-reaction collisions-commonly referred to as the "Kessler syndrome"-and a series of regulatory matters that remain unresolved. These factors appear as barriers to both equitable access to in-orbit resources and the profits accrued from their utilization (Cappella, 2019;Virgili et al., 2016). There is also the potential for spectrum scarcity: while radiation is essentially limitless, the amount of information a given spectrum can convey is contingent upon the technological capabilities at hand (Rivière, 2019). ...
The evolution of the Internet has transformed the world, representing a continuously expanding revolution driven by technological and infrastructural developments. With the advent of Web 4.0, both new opportunities and challenges have progressively emerged. One of the most promising technologies of this novel era is the metaverse, which holds enormous potential, particularly in the fields of education and medicine. However, such an evolution risks exacerbating social problems and discrimination, as the increasing reliance on advanced technologies for fundamental, daily tasks can intensify the current digital divide. This phenomenon occurs when people lack access to necessary technologies due to economic, social, or geographical barriers. The purpose of this study is to examine the concept of “digital divide” in relation to the metaverse and explore potential future-proof solutions offered by the integration of large constellations of satellites, commonly referred to as “mega-constellations,” in the Internet infrastructure to contribute to bridging the digital divide.
... However, the prevalent "first come, first served" policy for allotting orbital slots and frequencies has raised concerns. As developing countries strive to launch their satellites using innovative technologies, they may find that the GEO is already saturated (Cappella 2019). In this regard, Article 44 emphasizes the special character of zones such as the GEO, stressing that radio frequencies and satellite orbits are restricted natural wealth, which should be used with reason, effectiveness, and economy. ...
The advent of low Earth orbit (LEO) mega satellite constellations to accelerate high-speed internet worldwide represents a new technological advancement. However, this development raises concerns regarding militarization, orbital debris, environmental protection, and their effects on space tourism. Despite these challenges, existing space law treaties have not addressed these issues. This article highlights the gaps in current treaties and emphasizes the need for advancements to mitigate emerging challenges and ensure long-term solutions. This study explores the legal challenges associated with possible smashes flanked by existing satellites in orbit and newly launched satellites as part of mega-constellations, which could jeopardize mission safety and threaten the sustainability of space activities. It also analyzes the significant issues related to space debris, particularly given the anticipated increase in satellite constellations in LEO over the coming decades. The increase in small satellites with shorter lifespans is likely to contribute to greater debris generation. Finally, these findings suggest the need for a suitable international legal structure to facilitate the efficient deployment and operation of satellite techniques.
... In order to ensure equitable access for all states, the ITU RR 2016, after the WRC 2015, provided a measure stating that all filings for orbital slots must be accompanied by coordinated efforts considering the potential stakeholders' activities actively or passively impacted by the proposed satellite [28]. These coordinated efforts ensure that the satellite operator takes measures to refrain from causing radio interference to other satellites in orbit [109] for a period of up to seven years [28]. These measures, although pledged to cater to the radio astronomy needs of astronomers, have proven insufficient due to the prevalent congestion in both the LEO and MEO, causing major interference and thus inhibiting equitable access [110]. ...
In the 21st century, mega-constellations and interconnected satellite constellations deployed at various orbital altitudes, such as LEO, MEO, and GEO, with low Earth orbits (LEOs) being the most commonly used, have emerged as a trend, aiming to enhance the productivity and reduce the costs in space service delivery. The UNOOSA has noted the uncertainty in the exact number of satellites but conducted simulations based on a substantial sample, projecting a significant increase from the 2075 satellites recorded in orbit in 2018. This surge in the launch of mega-constellations poses profound challenges to existing international space laws, originally formulated with limited consideration for private space actors, who are increasingly engaging in space activities, particularly with the cost-effective utilization of mega-constellations. This study critically analyzes the compatibility of mega-constellations with the current international space laws by examining the applicability of mega-constellations concerning equitable access and the non-appropriation principle, addressing their potential occupation of substantial orbital spaces during activities, and analyzing whether the acquisition of orbital slot licenses violates these two principles. Following an in-depth analysis, this study proposes recommendations to amend the existing laws, aiming to resolve ambiguities and address emerging challenges. Recognizing the time-consuming process of amending international space laws, this study suggests practical recommendations for supplementary rules of the road, prompting reflection on the potential obsolescence of the current international space laws in the face of evolving space activities.
... The satellite industry is predicted to expand further and continue to be important in many industries such as communications, defense and climate monitoring [13,103]. As more satellites are launched, strategically advantageous and low radiation orbits such as low Earth orbit (LEO) will become increasingly cluttered [104]. Therefore, different orbits such as middle Earth orbits (MEO) and highly elliptical orbits (HEO) will be looked at due to their availability and also the specific benefits they can provide. ...
Ultra-thin photovoltaics (<100 nm) have shown an intrinsic tolerance to radiation-induced damage which makes them a potentially advantageous power source for spacecraft which need to withstand harsh environments outside Earth’s atmosphere. In the ultra-thin regime, high transmission losses can be mitigated by integrating light management structures with nanoscale features. A new type of ultra-thin single-junction GaAs solar cell was designed using drift-diffusion simulations with an 80 nm absorber layer thickness and optimised passivation layers. In particular, the use of InGaP as the front surface passivation layer, instead of the more widely used AlGaAs, produced optimal front surface passivation and performance despite being a direct band-gap semiconductor. The annealed n-type contact was optimised using a transmission line measurement study to minimise series resistance at the metal-semiconductor interface while avoiding excess diffusion of Au into the active layers of the device which degrades shunt resistance. Periodic metal-dielectric nanostructures were simulated and optimised for light management in 80 nm devices using rigorous coupled-wave analysis. Displacement Talbot lithography (DTL) was used for the first time in a photovoltaic application to produce these nanostructures. DTL is a non-contact, wafer-scale interference lithography technique that produces periodic features with excellent uniformity over significant topography in a single exposure. A hexagonal array of Ag pillars in a SiN layer was patterned on the back surface of the ultra-thin devices to increase the optical path length of photons through the active layers. A wafer lift-off process using an epoxy bond and substrate etch back technique was developed to remove the devices from their growth wafers. This lifted-off design produced an AM0 short circuit current of 15.35 mA/cm² and an AM0 efficiency of 9.08%, a 68% increase over the planar on-wafer equivalent. Optical simulations confirmed the contributions of Fabry-Perot and waveguide modes to this current increase. Simulated fabrication and design improvements showed a feasible pathway to 16% AM0 efficiency. Planar on and off-wafer 80 nm ultra-thin devices were then exposed to 68 MeV and 3 MeV proton radiation to test their resilience in the space environment. Irradiation results for on-wafer devices have shown boosted absorption of light compared to previous 80 nm onwafer ultra-thin designs in the literature. Maximum power values for off-wafer devices with integrated back surface planar mirror also exceeded cells that are two orders of magnitude thicker from 3×10¹¹ p⁺/cm², the lowest 3 MeV proton fluence that was tested. Devices with 3500 nm thickness produced just 53% of pre-exposure short circuit current at an equivalent fluence of 7.21×10¹² p⁺/cm². However, there was no degradation in short-circuit current for 80 nm devices up to 2×10¹⁴ p⁺/cm² . Time-resolved cathodoluminescence analysis was carried out on radiation damaged devices and was used to correlate the onset of short circuit current degradation with the point when extrapolated carrier lifetime drops below the calculated time for carriers to traverse the junction. This is the first evidence in the literature that suggests the intrinsic radiation tolerance of ultra-thin cells is due to carrier lifetimes remaining long in relation to junction traverse time even after radiation-induced defects are introduced.
... By the time developing countries are able to build the advanced technologies necessary to construct and launch satellites, the GEO would have been overcrowded at the ITU and in space. 58 The special status of the GEO is embedded in Article 44(2) of the ITU Constitution, which provides that all member states should understand that the spectrum of radio frequencies and satellite orbits, including GEOs, are limited natural resources that must be used nationally, efficiently, and economically according to the ITU Constitution. Additionally, the Preamble to the Radio Regulations identifies the same principles. ...
... providing real-time telemetry during the arrival-phase of NASA's InSight Mars Lander. Several miniaturized satellite constellations for technology demonstration, and Earth observation, and positioning, and data relay purposes have been developed [18][19][20][21] and launched [8,22,23]. At the time of writing, scientists and engineers have even begun to develop CubeSat-based interferometers and composite space telescopes [13] that could outperform even the largest conventional space-observatories, and there are plan to use Nanosatellites even for gravitational-wave measurement [15]. ...
Miniaturized satellites enable a variety space missions which were in the past infeasible, impractical or uneconomical with traditionally-designed heavier spacecraft. Especially CubeSats can be launched and manufactured rapidly at low cost from commercial components, even in academic environments. However, due to their low reliability and brief lifetime, they are usually not considered suitable for life- and safety-critical services, complex multi-phased solar-system-exploration missions, and missions with a longer duration.
Commercial electronics are key to satellite miniaturization, but also responsible for their low reliability: Until 2019, there existed no reliable or fault-tolerant computer architectures suitable for very small satellites. To overcome this deficit, a novel on-board-computer architecture is described in this thesis. Robustness is assured without resorting to radiation hardening, but through software measures implemented within a robust-by-design multiprocessor-system-on-chip. This fault-tolerant architecture is component-wise simple and can dynamically adapt to changing performance requirements throughout a mission. It can support graceful aging by exploiting FPGA-reconfiguration and mixed-criticality.
Experimentally, we achieve 1.94W power consumption at 300Mhz with a Xilinx Kintex Ultrascale+ proof-of-concept, which is well within the powerbudget range of current 2U CubeSats. To our knowledge, this is the first COTS-based, reproducible on-board-computer architecture that can offer strong fault coverage even for small CubeSats.
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