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The Power of Natural Chinese Medicine, Ginger and Ginseng Root in an Organic Life

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Abstract

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) as an important component of complementary and alternative medicine, evolved over thousands of years. Ginger and its general compounds such as Fe, Mg, Ca, vitamin C, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, sesquiterpenes, paradols has long been used as an herbal medicine to treat various symptoms including vomiting, pain, cold symptoms and it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-tumor activities, anti-pyretic, anti-platelet, anti-tumourigenic, anti-hyperglycaemic, antioxidant anti-diabetic, anti-clotting and analgesic properties, cardiotonic, cytotoxic. It has been widely used for arthritis, cramps, sprains, sore throats, rheumatism, muscular aches, pains, vomiting, constipation, indigestion, hypertension, dementia, fever and infectious diseases. Ginger leaves have also been used for food flavouring in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Pharmacological activities of ginseng extracts are effects on the central nervous system; antipsychotic action; tranquilizing effects; protection from stress ulcers; increase of gastrointestinal motility; anti-fatigue action; endocrinological effects; enhancement of sexual behaviour; acceleration of metabolism; or synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, RNA and proteins. In Traditional Chinese Medicine, ginseng can help to maintain a healthy immune system. The obtained findings suggest potential of ginger extract as an additive in the food and pharmaceutical industries to have on organic life.
Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 27 (1): 64-71, 2019
ISSN 1990-9233
© IDOSI Publications, 2019
DOI: 10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2019.64.71
Corresponding Author: Qi Cheng, Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081,
China andNitrogen Fixation Laboratory, Qi Institute, Building C4, No.555 Chuangye, Jiaxing 314000,
Zhejiang, China.
64
The Power of Natural Chinese Medicine,
Ginger and Ginseng Root in an Organic Life
Mohamad Hesam Shahrajabian, Wenli Sun and Qi Cheng
1,2 1,2 1,2
Biotechnology Research Institute,
1
Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
Nitrogen Fixation Laboratory, Qi Institute,
2
Building C4, No.555 Chuangye, Jiaxing 314000, Zhejiang, China
Abstract: Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) as an important component of complementary and alternative
medicine, evolved over thousands of years. Ginger and its general compounds such as Fe, Mg, Ca, vitamin C,
flavonoids, phenolic compounds, sesquiterpenes, paradols has long been used as an herbal medicine to treat
various symptoms including vomiting, pain, cold symptoms and it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory,
anti-apoptotic, anti-tumor activities, anti-pyretic, anti-platelet, anti-tumourigenic, anti-hyperglycaemic,
antioxidant anti-diabetic, anti-clotting and analgesic properties, cardiotonic, cytotoxic. It has been widely used
for arthritis, cramps, sprains, sore throats, rheumatism, muscular aches, pains, vomiting, constipation,
indigestion, hypertension, dementia, fever and infectious diseases. Ginger leaves have also been used for food
flavouring in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Pharmacological activities of ginseng extracts are effects on the
central nervous system; antipsychotic action; tranquilizing effects; protection from stress ulcers; increase of
gastrointestinal motility; anti-fatigue action; endocrinological effects; enhancement of sexual behaviour;
acceleration of metabolism; or synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, RNA and proteins. In Traditional Chinese
Medicine, ginseng can help to maintain a healthy immune system. The obtained findings suggest potential of
ginger extract as an additive in the food and pharmaceutical industries to have on organic life.
Key words: Ginger Ginseng Traditional Chinese Medicine Organic Life
INTRODUCTION [7] also revealed that ginger in Traditional Chinese
Ginger Potential Health Benefits and Pharmacological to warm the body and treat cold extremities, improves a
Uses in TCM and Modern Medicine Industry: Traditional weak and tardy pulse, address a pale complexion and
Chinese Medicine (TCM) originates in ancient China strengthen the body after blood loss. In Traditional
with a 5000-year history. Rooted in ancient Eastern Chinese Medicine as herbal therapy against several
philosophies such as Taoism, TCM focuses on a holistic cardiovascular diseases [8]. Based, on the historical usage
view between humans and nature [1, 2]. About 5000 of ginger as an antiemetic agent in the East Traditional
traditional remedies are available in China; they account Medicine. The antiemetic effect of ginger has been known
for approximately one fifth of the entire Chinese as a treatment method in traditional medicine especially
pharmaceutical market. Ginger has direct anti-microbial the Chinese and Iranian Medicine [9, 10]. Sharma [4]
activity and thus can be used in treatment of bacterial explained that many of herbs and plant extracts such as
infections [3]. In Traditional Chinese Medicine, it is ginger is based on what has been used as part of
employed in colic and in atonic dyspepsia and used as a Traditional Medicine Systems and there is a large body of
stimulant [4, 5]. Ginger is regarded as a Yang herb, which anecdotal evidence supporting their use and efficacy.
can decrease Yin and nourish the body [6]. Mishra et al. Some other researchers emphasized that ginger plays an
Medicine, characterized as spicy and hot and it is claimed
Middle-East J. Sci. Res., 27 (1): 64-71, 2019
65
important role in Ayurvedic, Chinese, Arabic and African powder in the therapy of common migraine attacks and its
traditional medicines used to treat headaches, nausea, similarity to the antiepileptic drug. Many studies have
colds, arthritis, rheumatism, muscular discomfort and reported that Ginger has useful effects to cancer
inflammation [11, 12]. Recently, ginger rhizomes are used prevention [33], also treatment of nausea and vomiting
in Traditional Medicine as therapy against several due to pregnancy and chemotherapy [34, 35]. Also, it has
cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension [13]. been reported that ginger lowers blood pressure through
Niksokhan et al. [14] reported that ginger has been used blockade of voltage dependent calcium channels [21].
in Traditional Medicine of Iran as an anti-edema drug and Adib Rad et al. [36] found that Ginger reduced menstrual
is used for the treatment of various diseases including pain and it is effective in relieving pain in girls with
nausea, gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory disorders, primary dysmenorrhea; moreover, Drozdoz et al. [37]
athero-sclerosis, migraine, depression, gastric ulcer, mentioned that Ginger is a safe drug with minimal side
cholesterol; and other benefits of ginger are reducing effects. Singara et al. [38] reported that ginger is an
pain, rheumatoid arthritis, anti-inflammatory and effective non pharmacological option for treating
antioxidant effects. Oludoyin and Adegoke [15] reported hyperemesis gravidarum with respect to the inherent
that ginger is a perennial plant with narrow, bright heterogeneity of the available studies. Gholampour et al.
green, grass-like leaves and it is cultivated in the tropics [39] found that ginger extract appears to exert protective
for its edible rhizomes and has been found to be useful for effects against ferrous sulphate-induced hepatic and renal
both culinary and medicinal purposes. Similarly, the toxicity by reducing lipid peroxidation and chelating iron.
medicinal uses of ginger are enormous such as exert Yilmaz et al. [5] found the positive effects of ginger in
anti- microbial, anti- nausea [16], anti-pyretic [17], folliculogenesis and implantation. They have also found
analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic [18, 19], that ginger may enhance implantation in rats in long term
anti-ulcer, antiemetic [20], cardio tonic, anti-hypertensive with low dose. In other studies, the favourable outcomes
[21], hypolipidemic [22], anti-platelet aggregation [23] have been reported on the positive effects of ginger on
effects in both laboratory animals and human subjects. male infertility and sperm indices [40]. Islam et al. [41]
Turmeric is one of the main ingredients for curry powder boiled ginger extracts can be used in food preparation as
and used as an alternative to medicine and can be made well as against pathogenic bacteria during active
into a drink to treat colds and stomach complaints [24]. infection. Viljoen et al. [42] suggested potential benefits
Furthermore, there are many studies that proved their of ginger in reducing nausea symptoms in pregnancy.
beneficial effects against the symptoms of diseases, They have found that ginger could be considered a
acting as anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour, anodyne, harmless and possibly effective alternative option for
neuronal cell protective, anti-fungal and anti-bacterial women suffering from nausea and vomiting during
agent [25]. Various ginger compounds and extracts have pregnancy (NVP). Yadav et al. [43] demonstrated that
been tested as anti-inflammatory agents, where the length ginger is one of the most commonly used spices and
of the side chains determines the level of the medicinal plants and it is effective to improve dietinduced
effectiveness [26]. But, a combination of ginger extracts is metabolic abnormalities, however the efficacy of ginger on
more effective in decreasing inflammatory mediators than the metabolic syndrome associated kidney injury remains
an individual compound [27]. The active ingredients in unknown. Gagnier et al.[44] provide an excellent
ginger are thought to reside in its volatile oils [28]. framework for the development of future trials that focus
The major ingredients in ginger oil are bisabolene, on providing satisfactory answers to issues relating to the
zingiberene and zingiberol [29]. Some other scientists efficacy of Z. officinale to ameliorate different types of
noted that the interest in ginger is endorsed to its several pain, as well as, dosing strategies, treatment duration,
biologically active compounds content such as gingerol, safety and cost effectiveness.
shogaols, gingerdiol, gingerdione, -zingiberene,
curcumin and -sesqui-phellandrene [30]. Ginger has been Ginseng Potential Health Benefits and Pharmacological
part of the folk medicine and popular nutraceuticals [26]. Uses in TCM and Modern Medicine Industry:
Ginger consists of a complex combination of biologically Panax ginseng (Giseng) is well-known herb in traditional
active constituents, of which compounds gingerols, Chinese medicine (TCM) [45]. In traditional Chinese
shogoals and paradols reportedly account for the medicine (TCM), it is believed that food and medicine
majority of its anti-cancer inflammatory properties [31]. come from the same origin but with different uses and
Maghbooli et al. [32] confirmed the efficiency of ginger applications [46, 47].
Middle-East J. Sci. Res., 27 (1): 64-71, 2019
66
Panax ginseng is constituted of organic (80%-90%) generated from processing such as ginsenosides Rg3 and
and inorganic substances (approximately 10%) and Rh2 [59]. As white ginseng and red ginseng possess
consists of a number of active constituents, such as different bioactivities and clinical purposes, discrimination
saponins or ginsenosides, carbohydrates, nitrogenous of the white one and the red one are very significant for
substances, phytosterol, essential oils, organic acids, quality control, standardizing the processing
amino acids, peptidoglycans, carbohydrate, nitrogen- procedures, as well as the effective and safe usage of
containing compounds, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and ginseng [60]. Horacek et al. [61]explained that red ginseng
other phenolic compounds [48, 49]. Ginsenosides are is steam-cured after harvesting, thereby producing a
classified into two main groups known as protopanaxadiol glossy reddish-brown color, then dried. Steaming the root
(PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT), based on the is believed to change its biochemical composition and to
hydroxylation pattern at C6 and attachment of sugar prevent the breakdown of bioactive ingredients and is
moieties [50]. Patel and Rauf [51] also mentioned therefore the preferred ginseng product. White ginseng is
antioxidant, anti-inflammation, anti-fatigue, anti-diabetic, peeled and dried after harvest. Enzymes in the ginseng
anti-tumor, immunomodulation, anti-obesity, root are assumed to break down bioactive constituents
cardioprotective, anti-microbial, neuroprotective and during drying, so that white ginseng contains fewer
aphrodisiac properties. They have presented the potential bioactive components than red ginseng [61]. During the
of ginseng as a complementary and alternative medicine steaming process, extensive conversion of original
(CAM). Ginseng polysaccharides are composed of ginsenosides in white ginseng to degradation compounds
starch-like glucan and pectin with pectin accounting for in red ginseng was observed, leading to different
around 20% of water-soluble polysaccharides [52]. A lot ginsenoside profiles [62].
of studies have been conducted on the pharmacological Ginsenosides and phenolics in ginsengs are among
properties of Ginseng extract such as lipid-lowering, the most important health-beneficial compounds in Asian
anti-allergic, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, ginseng [63]. Kim et al. [64] noted that the main
hypoglycemis and anti-stress, anti-aging, anti-diabetic, ginsenosides are glycosides that contain an aglycone
anti-carcinogenic, anti-fatigue, anti-adhesive, anti- with a dammarane skeleton and include protopanaxadiol-
depressive, hypocholesterolemic and hypolipidemic, type saponins such as ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc and Rd,
hepatoprotective activities, immune-modulatory activities, as well as protopanaxatriol-type saponins such as
improving working memory and perceptual systems, ginsenosides Re and Rg1, constituting more than 80% of
stimulation and inhibition of central nervous system and the total ginsenosides. Ginseng effectively prevents liver
inhibiting the growth of tumor cells, especially in female injury, mainly through down regulation of oxidative stress
reproductive system [53-55]. Uluisik and Keskin [55] and inflammatory response [65]. Fatmawati et al. [66]
Panax ginseng root powder may be useful for hepatic also reported that P. ginseng might be an important herbal
damage and fibrosis associated with high cholesterol diet. medicine in preventing diabetic complications. Van
These beneficial effects of ginseng on liver enzymes Kampen et al. [67] discovered that ginseng extract maybe
attributed to its active components known as a potential neuroprotective therapy for the treatment of
ginsenosides. Lee and Rhee [56] reported that the Parkinson. Choi et al. [68] reported that Korean and
potential use of ginseng in the prevention and treatment Chinese ginseng reduced systolic and diastolic BP and
of chronic inflammatory diseases such as diabetes, red ginseng reduced headache symptoms. American
rheumatoid arthritis and allergic asthma. In TCM practice, ginseng showed anti-hypertensive effect on diastolic BP
White ginseng and red ginseng are used for different and reduced headache symptom. However, there was no
purposes; white ginseng is used to supply qi and promote statistical significance in the between-group analysis.
the production fluids of body fluids as well as enhance Lee et al. [69] demonstrated that ginseng effectively
physical fitness and disease resistance, while red ginseng reduces adipose tissue and prevents obesity in
has a warming effect and is used for boosting yang and diet-induced obese mice that this process may be
replenishing vital essence [57]. Xu et al. [58] reported that mediated in part through the anti-angiogenic actions of
both white and red ginseng is the most widely used in ginseng. Rocha et al. [70] found that P. ginseng is
clinical applications because of their considerable effective in the control of abdominal pain in irritable bowel
pharmacological activity. But, red ginseng exhibits more syndrome patients, analogous to trimebutin. Wang and
potential anticancer activity than white ginseng likely Ng [71] reported that the ribonuclease isolated from
because of the abundant amount of rare ginsenosides Chinese ginseng flowers; the root ribonuclease exhibits
Middle-East J. Sci. Res., 27 (1): 64-71, 2019
67
antifungal activity and inhibitory activity toward HIV-1 sacchardies such as monose, oligosaccharide,
reverse transcriptase. Shin and Yoon [72] demonstrated polysaccharide and pectin; vitamins and inorganic
that ginseng may be able to prevent obesity, substances; and many other useful ingredients. Several
hyperlipidemia and hepatic steatosis in men with pharmacological activities have been reported for ginseng
testosterone deficiency. Gray et al. [73] found that extracts including effects on the central nervous system;
ginseng protects against chromatin damage and thus antipsychotic action; tranquilizing effects; protection
maybe beneficial to reproductive fitness. Lee and Oh [74] from stress ulcers; increase of gastrointestinal motility;
revealed that when red ginseng is administered over long anti-fatigue action; endocrinological effects; enhancement
periods, age-related decline of learning and memory is of sexual behaviour; acceleration of metabolism; or
ameliorated through anti-inflammatory activity. synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, RNA and proteins.
Sharma and Goyal [75] also insist on potential role of The chemical compositions of white and red ginseng are
P. ginseng to become a pivotal chemo-preventive agent different, white ginseng and red ginseng are used for
that can reduce cancer in mammals. Hwang et al. [76] different purposes; white ginseng is used to promote the
concluded that P. ginseng can prevent aging by inhibiting production fluids of body fluids as well as enhance
wrinkle formation and increasing moisture in the human physical fitness and disease resistance, while red ginseng
skin. Park et al.[77] reported that Korean Red Ginseng has a warming effect and is used for replenishing vital
has beneficial effects on chronic liver disease, a condition essence. Herbal remedies and other nutraceuticals are
encompassing non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, alcoholic increasingly and extensively used by a substantial part of
liver disease, chronic viral hepatitis and hepatocellular the population. To sum up, treatment with natural herbal
carcinoma. medicine especially ginger and ginseng as non-synthetic
CONCLUSION
In order for Chinese medicine and in particular,
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medicine. Fresh ginger has been used for treatment of Agronomice in Moldova, 2: 43-52.
nausea, cold-induced disease, colic, asthma, cough, heart 2. Shahrajabian, M.H., S. Wenli and C. Qi, 2018. A
palpitation, swellings, dyspepsia, loss of appetency and review of Goji berry (Lycium barbarum) in traditional
rheumatism. Medicinal properties associated with ginger Chinese medicine as a promising organic superfood
are, anti-inflammatory properties, anti-thrombotic and superfruit in modern industry. Academia Journal
properties, cholesterol-lowering properties, blood of Medicinal Plants, 6: 437-445.
pressure-lowering properties, anti-microbial properties, 3. Tan, B.K.H. and J. Vanitha, 2004. Immunomodulatory
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element of glycosides; nitrogenous compounds such as pharmacopuncture improves cognitive impairment
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... Ginger is described as spicy and fiery in traditional Chinese medicine, and it is said to heat the body and medicate cold extremities, refine pale and sluggish pulses, direction pale complexions, and vigor the body after blood loss. Herbal therapy is used in traditional Chinese medicine to manage a variety of cardiovascular conditions (Shahrajabian et al., 2019b). ...
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Turmeric and Ginger's roots are associated with the Zingerbreaece family. Turmeric has carminative, stimulating, and fragrant properties, making it a moderate digestive. Curcumin is the active component of turmeric. Turmeric (Curcuma longa) has been broadly studied for its various pharmacological properties, as well as its potential role as an anticancer agent, antioxidant, and radio protector. Turmeric is believed to possess numerous medicinal benefits, such as enhancing the body's overall energy, reducing gas, eliminating worms, enhancing digestion, controlling menstruation, breaking down gallstones, and alleviating arthritis. Most drugs used in conventional and contemporary medical systems worldwide are derived from plants. On the other hand, changes made to the molecular structures of these medications are reducing their toxicity and side effects while increasing their biological function, selectivity, and ability for metabolism, absorption, distribution, and excretion. When curcumin is used medicinally, it treats a wide range of diseases, including hysteria, diabetes, indigestion, vomiting, smallpox chicken pox, asthma, cough, fever, anemia, eye disease, and hysteria. Curcumin, which a compound called bis desmethoxycurcumin, triethyl Curcumin, tetrahydro Curcumin, circumoral, circumoral, zingiberene, eugenol, turmeric, turmerones, and turmerones are only a few of the many phytoconstituents found in turmeric. Curcumin, the compound that provides curcumin its yellow color and much of its medicinal properties, is the most active of them. Ginger is also said to be a potent aphrodisiac. Wear and tear of the cell. Rich in vitamins and minerals, ginger also includes essential oil, starch, and oleoresin, which is made up of chemicals called gingerol and shegrohaol that have anti-inflammatory and antiemetic properties and quicken intestinal transit.
... Some plants, roots, and leaves have been widely used in medicine because these materials have compounds that can help with hypertension, diabetes, kidney problems, and cancerrelated problems, among others. [1][2][3]. On the other hand, they have also been used in the construction industry since it has been reported that the use of materials such as nopal mucilage [4], marble, walnut shells [5], and palm leaves [6], among others, manages to increase the mechanical properties of materials, such as resistance to compression, flexibility, durability, etc. In the synthesis of nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles (NPs), the use of natural materials has attracted attention in the scientific community because it is possible to In this study, the results of the green synthesis of ZnO NPs using dried boldo (Peumus boldus) leaves as a reducing and stabilizing agent are presented. ...
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The high demand for nanomaterials in the field of industry and science has forced researchers to develop new synthesis methods that are more efficient, economical, and environmentally friendly. At present, the application of green synthesis has taken a great advantage over conventional synthesis methods because it helps with the control of the characteristics and properties of the resulting nanomaterials. In this research, ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized by biosynthesis using dried boldo (Peumus boldus) leaves. The resulting biosynthesized NPs had a high purity, quasispherical shape with average sizes ranging from 15 to 30 nm and a band gap of ~2.8–3.1 eV. These NPs were used in the photocatalytic activity of three organic dyes. The results showed degradation of 100% methylene blue (MB) in 180 min, 92% methyl orange (MO) in 180 min, and 100% Rhodamine B (RhB) in 30 min of exposure. These results show that the Peumus boldus leaf extract is effective in the biosynthesis of ZnO NPs with good photocatalytic properties. Keywords: biosynthesis; Peumus boldus; organic pollutants; photocatalysis
... Therefore, natural compounds with fewer side effects and antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties possess, such as Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, Rosmarinus Officinalis, Curcuma longa Linn, Ginkgo biloba, Cinnamomum philippinense, Camellia sinensis, Ginseng, and Ginger might be capable of reducing heart tissue's damages or protective effects (8)(9)(10). Zingiber officinale (Ginger) has been used as a spice and medicinal plant for centuries (11). ...
... Compounds with antioxidant properties such as ascorbate can reduce drought stress damage by increasing the antioxidant capacity of the plant (Azooz et al., 2013). In this regard, Shahrajabian et al. (2019) showed in an experiment that ascorbic acid reduces electrical leakage in rice sprouts during drought stress. According to this experiment, feeding the roots with 1 mm ascorbic acid for one day reduces ion leakage from the root cells and thus tolerates drought stress. ...
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Evaluate the effect of ascorbic acid application and coexistence of Mycorrhiza fungus and Azospirillium on basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) under drought stress. This experiment was performed as a split factorial in a randomized complete block design with three replications in the crop year 2017-2018 in Shahriar, Iran. In this experiment, irrigation was the main factor in three levels, including drought stress based on 40-70-100 mm from the evaporation pan of class A. Biofertilizer including growth-promoting bacteria (Azospirillium) and mycorrhiza fungus in four levels, including a(Non-consumption) B (Seeds of growth-promoting bacteria (Azospirillium)) C (Consumption of mycorrhiza fungus as seeds) D (Concomitant use of growth-promoting bacteria Azospirillium with mycorrhiza fungi as seeds) and ascorbic acid in two levels of foliar application, including A (Absence Application of ascorbic acid) and B (Application of ascorbic acid (two days after irrigation treatment)) was considered as a factorial factor. The results showed that the highest biological yield was obtained in drought stress of 40 mm and application of biological fertilizers in the form of mycorrhiza application with an average of 3307.1 kg/ha, which was about 70% more than 100 mm evaporation stress and no application of biological fertilizer. The use of ascorbic acid under drought stress conditions improved by 10%, the essential oil using ascorbic acid evaporated under drought stress conditions of 100 mm. As a general conclusion, the use of ascorbic acid and Mycorrhiza + Azospirillium biological fertilizer improved the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of basil under drought stress.
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The irritable bowel syndrome is defined as the presence of continuing or recurrent abdominal pain and it is associated with altered bowel habit. Experimental studies with Panax ginseng C.A. Mey., Araliaceae, have demonstrated the antinociceptive action on calcium and sodium channels, as well as on primary sensory neurons. A clinical double-blind, randomized, prospective and experimental trial was conducted for sixty days, comparing the action of dry extract of P. ginseng (300 mg/day) with trimebutine (600 mg/day). Patients were assessed at four visits for abdominal pain, using the Likert scale, and adverse events. Twenty-four patients completed the study, being 87.5% female and mean age of 47.41 years. There was improvement in abdominal pain, through Likert scale values, in patients who used P. ginseng. This group started from a median basal of −5 to 2.5, 3 and 5 in the 1st, 4th and 8th weeks of treatment, respectively, with a statistically significant difference. Similar results were achieved in those patients who used trimebutine. The only adverse effect observed was the occurrence of headache in two patients (16.66%) in the group that used the herbal. The research suggests that P. ginseng was effective in the control of abdominal pain in irritable bowel syndrome patients, analogous to trimebutin, and may be used in future studies for a better evaluation of the obtained results.
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Background: Ginseng species having been used in various traditional herbal therapies for many years in worldwide. In recent years, hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia and obesity have become serious health problems. These are considered risk factor for metabolic and organic diseases such as atherosclerosis, fatty liver, diabetes. Therefore, prevention and treatment of these disorders are significant for ensuring comfortable and healthy life. It has been also stated that ginseng saponin suppressed liver enzyme increments caused by feeding with high cholesterol or fatty diet. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of ginseng on liver enzymes of rats fed cholesterol-rich diet.Materials, Methods & Results: In this study, 24 healthy adult male Wistar Albino rats were equally divided into three groups as control group (K), cholesterol group (C), and cholesterol + ginseng group (CG). The K group had ad libitum access to a standard rat diet for 40 days. The C and CG groups had ad libitum access to the same diet containing 5% cholesterol powder and 5% cholesterol + 1 g/kg Panax ginseng root powder, respectively, for 40 days. On the 40 th day of the study, blood samples were taken from 8 animals in each group. At the end of the study, plasma samples were analyzed for aspartase transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) levels. The data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Differences among the groups were determined by Duncan’s multiple range test. In this study, the results showed that AST, ALT, GGT levels in cholesterol group significantly increased compared to control group but these parameters in cholesterol + ginseng group significantly decreased with ginseng administration compared to cholesterol group (P < 0.05). There was no significant difference among the groups with regard to ALP level.Discussion: AST, ALT, GGT and ALP are considered to be the markers of organ disfunction, indicator of cellular damage, cell leakage and the loss of cell membrane integritiy in the liver, kidney, heart and other organs. It was investigated effect of ginseng on some hepatic enzymes in rats fed a high cholesterol diet. In this study, feeding with the diet for 40 days resulted in elevation AST, ALT, GGT compared control levels (P < 0.05). In some studies, using high cholesterol diet caused hepatic injury in animal and human models. The harmful effects of high cholesterol on liver have been attributed to hepatic fibrosis, lipid peroxidation, increased endogenous oxidative stress, inducing cellular damage and engendering hyperlipidemia. Increases in ALT, AST, GGT levels are thought to be due to oxidative stress related to hyperlipidemia in present study. In this study, treated with red Korean ginseng extract significantly prevented the elevations in AST, ALT, GGT levels (P < 0.05). The use of ginseng as an unconventional health treatment is gaining remarkable popularity among the people. It has been known that ginseng have assorted beneficial pharmacological effects and hypolipidemic, antidiabetic, antioxidative and immunostimulator effects have been stated among its pharmacological properties. These beneficial effects of ginseng on liver enzymes attributed to its active components known as ginsenosides. In the light of the findings, Panax ginseng root powder may be useful for hepatic damage and fibrosis associated with high cholesterol diet.
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Background Temperature is an essential condition in red ginseng processing. The pharmacological activities of red ginseng under different steam temperatures are significantly different. Methods In this study, an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry was developed to distinguish the red ginseng products that were steamed at high and low temperatures. Multivariate statistical analyses such as principal component analysis and supervised orthogonal partial least squared discrimination analysis were used to determine the influential components of the different samples. Results The results showed that different steamed red ginseng samples can be identified, and the characteristic components were 20-gluco-ginsenoside Rf, ginsenoside Re, ginsenoside Rg1, and malonyl-ginsenoside Rb1 in red ginseng steamed at low temperature. Meanwhile, the characteristic components in red ginseng steamed at high temperature were 20R-ginsenoside Rs3 and ginsenoside Rs4. Polar ginsenosides were abundant in red ginseng steamed at low temperature, whereas higher levels of less polar ginsenosides were detected in red ginseng steamed at high temperature. Conclusion This study makes the first time that differences between red ginseng steamed under different temperatures and their ginsenosides transformation have been observed systematically at the chemistry level. The results suggested that the identified chemical markers can be used to illustrate the transformation of ginsenosides in red ginseng processing.
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Cytochrome P450 genes as the one of the largest superfamily genes mediate a wide range of plant biochemical pathways. In this study, a full-length cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (CYP736B) cDNA was isolated and characterized from Panax ginseng. It was revealed that the deduced amino acid of PgCYP736B shares a high degree of sequence homology with CYP736A12 encoded by P. ginseng. Expression of PgCYP736B was differentially induced not only during a Pseudomonas syringae infection (7.7-fold) and wounding (47.3-fold) but also after exposure to salt (7.4-fold), cold (8.3-fold), and drought stress (3.24-fold). The gene transcription was highly affected by methyl jasmonate (476-fold) in the ginseng, suggesting that PgCYP736B was elicitor-responsive. Furthermore, we overexpressed the PgCYP736B gene in Arabidopsis and found that PgCYP736B is a transmembrane protein. Overexpression of PgCYP736B in Arabidopsis conferred enhanced resistance to salt stress via decreased H2O2 accumulation, increased carotenoid levels, and through abscisic acid biosynthesis gene expression. Our results suggest that the induction of ginsenoside biosynthetic pathway genes along with PgCYP736B by an exogenous supply of 10–100 μM of squalene most likely affects the metabolite profile of ginsenoside triterpenoid. Overall, our findings indicate that PgCYP736B protects ginseng from salt stress and may contribute to triterpenoid biosynthesis.
Article
Rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) and rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II) domains were isolated from ginseng pectin by alkali saponification and endo-polygalacturonase hydrolysis, then purified by anion-exchange and size-exclusion chromatography. Monoclonal antibody detection indicated that ginseng RG-I contained →4)-α-GalpA-(1→2)-α-Rhap-(1→ repeating units as backbone, with arabinan, galactan and type II arabinogalactan (AG-II) as side chains. The use of galactose- and arabinose-releasing enzymes, mass spectrometry analysis of the oligosaccharides generated by rhamnogalacturonan hydrolase, and glycosidic linkage analyses provided evidence that ginseng RG-I contains both single galactose-branched subunits and highly branched subunits with arabinan and AG-II side chains. RG-II was analyzed by sequential acid hydrolysis followed by mass spectrometry. Ginseng RG-II contains 9 galacturonic acid units as backbone. Side chain A is an octasaccharide with 0 ∼ 1 methyl ether group. Side chain B is a nonasaccharide with 0 ∼ 1 acetyl group. These results provide useful information for further investigation of structure-activity relationship of ginseng pectin.
Article
Here, time-decoupled comprehensive two-dimensional ultra-high liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled with an ion mobility (IM)-high resolution mass spectrometer (HRMS) was established and used to analyze ginsenosides from the main roots of white ginseng (WG) and red ginseng (RG), which enabled the separation of complex samples in four dimensions (2D-LC, ion mobility, and mass spectrometry). The incompatibility of mobile phases, dilution effect, and long analysis time, which are the main shortcomings of traditional comprehensive 2D-LC methods, were largely avoided in this newly established 2D-UHPLC method. The orthogonality of this system was 55%, and the peak capacity was 4392. Under the optimized 2D-UHPLC-IM-MS method, 201 ginsenosides were detected from white and red ginseng samples. Among them, 10 pairs of co-eluting isobaric ginseng saponins that were not resolved by 2D-UHPLC-HRMS were further resolved using 2D-UHPLC-IM-MS. In addition, 24 ginsenoside references were analyzed by UHPLC-IM-MS to obtain their collision cross section (CCS) values and ion mobility characteristics. Finally, the established new method combined with multivariate statistical analysis was successfully applied to differentiate WG and RG, and 9 ginsenosides were found to be the potential biomarkers by S-Plot and the values of max fold change, which could be used for classifying WG and RG samples. Overall, the obtained results demonstrate the applicability and potential of the established time-decoupled online comprehensive 2D-UHPLC-IM-MS system, and it will be extended to the analysis of other targeted or untargeted compounds, especially co-eluting isomers in more herbal extracts.
Article
A new and sensitive ultra fast liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-MS/MS) method was developed to evaluate the quality of Red ginseng (RG) and to find out its chemical markers by comparing with multi-batches of RG and white ginseng (WG). This innovative method could quantify sixty-six saponins and their six aglycones including 10 pairs of 20(S) and 20(R) epimers within 35 min simultaneously. All compounds could be determined in individual multiple-reaction monitoring channel without interference, and the optimized method was rapid, accurate, precise, reproducible and efficient. Using the orthogonal partial least squared discriminant analysis, ginsenosides Rg5, Rh4, Rk1, Rs4, F4, and 20(S)-Rg3 were found to be the characteristic components of RG, the six compounds should be suggested as quality control markers to distinguish RG from WG. These findings will be significant for standardizing the processing procedures of RG and ensuring the consistent quality, as well as consequently the efficacy of RG in clinical applications. Results will be helpful in providing crucial chemical profiles of RG.
Article
Panax ginseng extract (PGe) has been shown to possess immunomodulatory effects in healthy dairy cows at drying off and to trigger an adequate immune response to protect from an experimental intramammary infection (IMI) with Staphylococcus aureus in a murine model. S. aureus is one of the major pathogens isolated from bovine IMI; being capable to invade and survive within mammary epithelial cells. However, the precise mechanism by which PGe interacts with bovine mammary epithelial cells (MAC-T) and bovine macrophages in the course of a S. aureus infection remains unclear. We evaluated the effect of PGe on MAC-T cytokine response and on the internalization of S. aureus into MAC-T. In addition, we evaluated the effect of PGe on the phagocytic activity of macrophages isolated from bovine mammary secretions. Results shown that MAC-T cells TLR4 and NF-κB mRNA expression was not affected by PGe at all evaluated times. IL-6 mRNA expression and protein level and IL-4 protein level were significantly induced in MAC-T treated with 3 mg/ml of PGe. PGe at 3 mg/ml reduced significantly the internalization of two S. aureus strains in MAC-T. In addition, PGe did not affect the percentage of phagocytosis and the NO and ROS production of macrophages co-cultured with two strains of S. aureus. These results, obtained in in vitro models together with those obtained in in vivo previous studies carried out in bovines and mice can contribute to improve the understanding of the effects of PGe following inoculation in bovine mammary glands.
Article
Ginseng, an herbaceous plant, belonging to the family Araliaceae is a traditional medicinal herb. Also, it is emerging as a functional food and potent adjunct medicine. Saponin ginsenosides (protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol) are the signature phytochemicals of this plant. With the surfacing of scientific validations, ginseng is gaining unprecedented attention from consumers as well as researchers. As a number of drug-herb interaction-caused health issues have emerged, the medicinal relevance of this plant has been critically assessed here. In this regard, the recent publications on health benefits of ginseng have been extracted from NCBI and ScienceDirect database. The claimed antioxidant, anti-inflammation, anti-fatigue, antidiabetic, antitumor, immunomodulation, anti-obesity, cardioprotective, antimicrobial, neuroprotective and aphrodisiac properties have been analyzed. This review presents a fair assessment and insights on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) potential of this herb.
Article
Panax ginseng (Asian ginseng) and Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng) have been used as medicinal and functional herbal remedies worldwide. Different properties of P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius were confirmed not only in clinical findings, but also at cellular and molecular levels. The major pharmacological ingredients of P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius are the triterpene saponins known as ginsenosides. The P. ginseng roots contain a higher ratio of ginsenoside Rg1:Rb1 than that in P. quinquefolius. In ginseng plants, various ginsenosides are synthesized via three key reactions: cyclization, hydroxylation and glycosylation. To date, several genes including dammarenediol synthase (DS), protopanaxadiol synthase and protopanaxatriol synthase have been isolated in P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius. Although some glycosyltransferase genes have been isolated and identified association with ginsenoside synthesis in P. ginseng, little is known about the glycosylation mechanism in P. quinquefolius. In this paper, we cloned and identified a UDP-glycosyltransferase gene named Pq3-O-UGT2 from P. quinquefolius (GenBank accession No. KR106207). In vitro enzymatic activity experiments biochemically confirmed that Pq3-O-UGT2 catalyzed the glycosylation of Rh2 and F2 to produce Rg3 and Rd, and the chemical structure of the products were confirmed susing high performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC/ESI-MS). High sequence similarity between Pq3-O-UGT2 and PgUGT94Q2 indicated a close evolutionary relationship between P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius. Moreover, we established both P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius RNAi transgenic roots lines. RNA interference of Pq3-O-UGT2 and PgUGT94Q2 led to reduce levels of ginsenoside Rd, protopanaxadiol-type and total ginsenosides. Expression of key genes including protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol synthases was up-regulated in RNAi lines, while expression of dammarenediol synthase gene was not obviously increased. These results revealed that P. quinquefolius was more sensitive to the RNAi of Pq3-O-UGT2 and PgUGT94Q2 when compared with P. ginseng.