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Work Values in the United States: Age, Period, and Generational Differences
Abstract
This article examines how processes of aging, generational shifts, and changes over historical time periods shape differences in work values in the United States. Our analyses of data from the General Social Survey and the International Social Survey Program show that changes over historical time periods are most consistently responsible for differences in work values. In particular, during recent periods, Americans tend to place greater importance on jobs that provide security, high income, and opportunities for advancement; this is consistent with a narrative that these job rewards have become more difficult to attain recently and are thus more problematic for workers. Some differences in work values are also attributable to aging or life course processes, especially the greater importance placed on high income during the mid-life years when family responsibilities are generally greatest. By contrast, we find few differences in work values among members of different generations or cohorts. We also find that people from less advantaged social origins and those with greater labor market resources are more likely to value economic rewards. © 2018 by The American Academy of Political and Social Science.
... Values in job satisfaction were established as work values and rewards by, [41], in 1977 who tested job satisfaction to each of these values: intrinsic (internal enjoyment of the task and growth through learning), convenience (external enjoyment of the workplace and working conditions), co-workers (pleasant, friendly company), resource adequacy (includes mentoring and physical resources) and career opportunities. [42], revisited these values four decades later finding that 'changes over historical time periods are most consistently responsible for differences in work values in the United States. Now predominantly employed in service industries including multinational corporations, Americans focus on job security, high income, and advancement, as these factors become more elusive. ...
... The affective variables first established by psychologists for mid-century American manufacturers endured far longer (at least in one instance) than their originators imagined. [42], stated that the changing nature of employment as depicted by, [62], in 2017, had now put the values of ongoing employment, advancement, and income, higher on the values scale for employee cohorts raising families and those working towards retirement. According to the Office of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2018, part-time (atypical work) of 'less than 30 hours' per week is the norm for over 35% of Dutch, and around 25% of Japanese, Indonesians, Australians, and Swiss, well up from low parttime rates for past generations, [63]. ...
... Mid-age workers raising families needed promotions and higher income and were, therefore, less committed to organizations that did not deliver, [52], [61]. Older workers finally left or retired, but were in no hurry to do so, building up their funds and superannuation for retirementor not, [42]. ...
Purpose –Employees’ willingness to continue working for their firm may be related to their length of service. This is of particular concern in Saudi Arabia where Vision 2030’s objectives include the Saudization (hiring of Saudi Nationals on a quota basis) of the private sector and where women are just beginning to enter the labor market in great numbers despite traditionally having a particularly low labor market participation rate. The research question of this study is: “Who is more satisfied and what are the preferences for long and short-term employees in Saudi Arabia?”.
... Sociologists argue that people's responses to their jobs reflect the broader cultural narratives and ideologies of the time (Kalleberg, 2009;Kalleberg & Marsden, 2013, 2019. From this perspective, an individual's sense of satisfaction from their job may not only be shaped by a sense of whether a job has desired characteristics, but also by the particular socio-temporal lens through which this match is then interpreted (Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019). In this vein, our research concerns how employees on average derive satisfaction from their jobs, comparing across the past several decades. ...
... Moreover, much of the discussion of changes in the societal conceptualization of work has centered on the United States (e.g., Fullerton & Wallace, 2007). Similar to other research (Hollister, 2011;Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019), we focus on year as a macro-level variable encompassing the societal-level trends in how people view work (see also Johns, 2006). 1 ...
... 1 It is important to distinguish time as a within-person construct (e.g., aging) versus time as a macro-level societal construct. Our focus (like Hollister, 2011;Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019;Fullerton & Wallace, 2007) is on the latter, whereby time captures societal change in norms and expectations. Historical context could be a specific event (e.g., see Frone's 2017 comparison of responses to large-scale surveys pre and post the Great Recession), or it could reflect general trends over time capturing how societal norms and values has shifted to a confluence of events and trends. ...
Against the backdrop of large-scale changes in work over the past few decades, both business leaders and academics have speculated that employees’ job satisfaction is increasingly tied to the extent to which their jobs meet their desires for meaning and other reinforcers. However, empirical evidence has not yet been brought to bear on these arguments. In order to provide insights into potential socio-temporal changes in how employees derive job satisfaction from job characteristics, we analyzed repeated large-scale population surveys in the United States to examine the impact of fit between desiring and receiving job characteristics on job satisfaction across four time points (1989, 1998, 2006, and 2016). Moderated polynomial regression analyses indicated that employees in more recent years experience greater dissatisfaction by deficiencies in intrinsically-rewarding job characteristics. We interpret these findings against broader discussions of the changing employment narrative theorized to have occurred in the United States over the past several decades.
... Sociologists argue that people's responses to their jobs reflect the broader cultural narratives and ideologies of the time (Kalleberg, 2009;Kalleberg & Marsden, 2013, 2019. From this perspective, an individual's sense of satisfaction from their job may not only be shaped by a sense of whether a job has desired characteristics, but also by the particular socio-temporal lens through which this match is then interpreted (Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019). In this vein, our research concerns how employees on average derive satisfaction from their jobs, comparing across the past several decades. ...
... Moreover, much of the discussion of changes in the societal conceptualization of work has centered on the United States (e.g., Fullerton & Wallace, 2007). Similar to other research (Hollister, 2011;Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019), we focus on year as a macro-level variable encompassing the societal-level trends in how people view work (see also Johns, 2006). 1 ...
... 1 It is important to distinguish time as a within-person construct (e.g., aging) versus time as a macro-level societal construct. Our focus (like Hollister, 2011;Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019;Fullerton & Wallace, 2007) is on the latter, whereby time captures societal change in norms and expectations. Historical context could be a specific event (e.g., see Frone's 2017 comparison of responses to large-scale surveys pre and post the Great Recession), or it could reflect general trends over time capturing how societal norms and values has shifted to a confluence of events and trends. ...
Against the backdrop of large-scale changes in work over the past few decades, both business leaders and academics have speculated that employees’ job satisfaction is increasingly tied to the extent to which their jobs meet their desires for meaning and other reinforcers. However, empirical evidence has not yet been brought to bear on these arguments. In order to provide insights into potential socio-temporal changes in how employees derive job satisfaction from job characteristics, we analyzed repeated large-scale population surveys in the United States to examine the impact of fit between desiring and receiving job characteristics on job satisfaction across four time points (1989, 1998, 2006, and 2016). Moderated polynomial regression analyses indicated that employees in more recent years experience greater dissatisfaction by deficiencies in intrinsically-rewarding job characteristics. We interpret these findings against broader discussions of the changing employment narrative theorized to have occurred in the United States over the past several decades.
... Work values represent what individuals deem crucial in their work and careers (Gabrielova and Buchko, 2021), impacting their choices and actions in their professional lives (Kuron et al., 2015). Various factors influence these values, including age, life course (Kalleberg and Marsden, 2019), socioeconomic status, gender, education level (Warr, 2008) and cultural background (Papavasileiou and Lyons, 2015). Additionally, the existing research highlights generational membership as another significant factor in shaping these work values (Rani and Samuel, 2016), with generational cohorts often sharing values based on collective ideals, beliefs and mindsets (Lyons and Kuron, 2014). ...
... Recent studies further exemplify this inconsistency. For example, in the realm of work values research, Kalleberg and Marsden (2019) offer contrasting findings compared to Rani and Samuel (2016) and Tan and Chin (2023), who observed generational differences. Similarly, Tan and Chin (2023) identified generational distinctions when examining workplace attitudes, whereas Cucina et al. (2018) reported conflicting results. ...
Purpose
This paper aims to provide readers with a comprehensive overview of the current state of the millennial literature, highlighting the significance and challenges of millennial professionals, their reported high turnover and the various recommendations designed to engage and retain them.
Design/methodology/approach
An integrated review approach was applied to synthesise contemporary peer-reviewed articles, supplemented by legacy and grey literature and relevant book chapters, to comprehensively explore and construct a cohesive overview of the current research on the millennial workforce.
Findings
Within the wealth of available information, examining the various studies on millennial turnover reveals diverse theories, evidence and opportunities for advancement, underscoring the necessity for more robust empirical studies. The investigation identified three overarching retention strategy themes: (1) intergenerational conflict management, (2) workplace adaptations and (3) solutions rooted in a protean career orientation. In alignment with protean career concepts, coaching shows promise as an underexplored option.
Practical implications
This article holds practical significance by offering researchers a comprehensive and cohesive overview of the millennial literature. Additionally, it gives organisations a novel perspective on the crucial role coaching can play in engaging and retaining millennial employees.
Originality/value
The increased focus on retaining millennial workers in recent decades has spurred a proliferation of articles and books on this subject. However, this body of research remains fragmented, lacking an overview that provides a clear picture of its current state. This review aims to bridge this gap.
... Importantly, these studies point to the formal organization of work, management practices (Hackman and Oldham 1976), and marketplaces (Sallaz 2009) being the key enablers, fostering self-determination and self-development by eliciting workers' subjective reflections on meaning-making practices (Laaser and Karlsson 2022). In essence, Kalleberg and Marsden (2019) talked about the objective conditions enabling individual meaning-making, which the authors understand as ''opportunities to exercise individual or subjective autonomy and skills'' (p. 45; italics added). ...
... Platforms might not recognize freelancers' skills, for example, banning those not meeting its criteria based on client reviews and/or other metrics (Frenken et al. 2020). Hence, the manner in which platforms, in their relationship with freelancers, establish objective autonomy by providing opportunities for freelancers to demonstrate their skills, likely influences freelancers' subjective perspectives on the meaning-making practices involved (Kalleberg and Marsden 2019;Laarsen and Karlsson 2022). ...
This article delves into freelancers’ ‘effort-bargain’ experiences within platform work, where effort is exchanged for income. The study of experiences enables us to understand how freelancer-platform relationships evolve based on freelancers’ skills. Drawing on 63 interviews across four platforms within the online labor market (OLM), we present a theoretical framework explaining a ‘skill-driven continuum’ in such relationships. At the one extreme (cooperation), freelancers experience the ‘effort-bargain’ as recognition exchange, facilitated by non-competitive, regular transactions allowing them to monetize their skills. At the other extreme (exploitation), freelancers experience their skills going unrecognized due to competitive bidding for casual gigs. While freelancers with specialized skills are sometimes able to disintermediate, thereby retaining recognition by claiming autonomy and monetary gains, those with generalized skills may resort to gaming, seeking to gain recognition by boosting their ratings. We provide insights into freelancers’ ‘effort-bargain’ experiences by meanings of skill-recognition and -exchange.
... Bărbații sunt mai predispuși decât femeile să spună că ar continua să muncească. (Kalleberg, 2019). Și pentru 70% dintre toți europenii munca reprezintă un aspect esențial al vieții (europeanvaluesstudy.eu). ...
... Aceste date susțin ideea potrivit căreia oamenii dau sens muncii în funcție de mediul social în care se află, normele și culturile sociale, nevoi și dispozițiile individuale diferite, precum și oportunitățile de a obține recompense economice și non-economice din locuri de muncă (Kalleberg, and Marsden, 2019). ...
By reviewing the literature that addressed the evolution of the working phenomenon, the study synthesizes the meanings and content of work over time. We have analysed the attitudes of four existing generations in the labour market-the Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y and Generation Z. After examining the similarities and differences in how generations value work, we have noticed differences in the attitudes towards work and its existential role. Rezumat: Prin revizuirea unui corp de literatură care a abordat evoluția fenomenului muncă studiul sintetizează semnificațiile și conținutul muncii de-a lungul vremii. Sunt analizate atitudinile a patru generații existente pe piața muncii-Baby Boomers, Generația X și Generația Y și Generația Z. Examinarea asemănărilor și diferențelor privind modul în care generațiile valorizează munca, arată diferențe privind atitudinile față de muncă și rolul existențial al acesteia. Introducere Dezvoltarea umanității și a tehnologiilor a schimbat atât natura și conținutul muncii, cât și atitudinile față de aceasta. Dacă în societățile vânători-culegători munca servea supraviețuirii, odată cu apariția monedei munca a devenit valoare percepută. Există tot mai multe dovezi că natura muncii evoluează odată cu apariția de noi forme, cum ar fi inovația deschisă și crowdsourcing, freelancing și gig economy, inteligența artificială și robotica (Fayard, 2021). Sociologii susțin că fiecare generație formează valori comune și atitudini specifice, diferite de cele ale altor generații. Primele sunt un produs al schimbărilor socio-culturale cheie și al evenimentelor politice care au avut loc în anii critici de dezvoltare pentru acea grupă de vârstă (Mannheim, 1952), cum ar fi războaiele și consecințele războaielor, apariția noilor tehnologii, schimbarea modelelor familiale, recesiunile economice, piața muncii. Dezbaterile despre evoluția conținutului muncii și atitudinile exprimate de
... Studies conducted in different countries have shown that generations significantly differ in values. They point out that the transformation of generations' mentality affected personal values [3; 6], family and gender values [7; 8], managerial values [9; 10], labor/work values [11][12][13][14][15], civic values [16], political and economic values [17], patriotic values [18], cultural values [19]. Researchers have found significant evidence of generational differences in values. ...
... However, the studies have a number of limitations. First, most of them use foreign samples: Australia [6; 22], the USA [13], Turkey [3], Africa [12], Central and Eastern Europe [9; 17], China [8; 15; 23]. Only a small number of studies focus on the analysis of generational values in the post-Soviet space [20] and in some regions of Russia (Yakutia [7], the Volga region [18], the Central region [11], the Southern Russia [24]). ...
The article presents the values of generations living in different regions of North-West Russia. The research identified changes in the values of generations over the period of 2009–2018. The first stage was conducted in 2009, the second one in 2018. The study involved 769 people (288 men and 481 women) aged 16-83 living in Arkhangelsk and Arkhangelsk region, St. Petersburg and Leningrad region. The theoretical and methodological basis of the study was a sociological approach to generations as well as socio-psychological interpretation of a generation as a large social group. We tested our hypothesis ether there are any differences in generational values and how they changed since 2009 in a Metropolis and Regional Centre. We studied values using the Russian version of Schwartz’s Value Survey adapted by V. Karandashev (Karandashev, 2004). Statistical analysis was carried out with the help of Statistica 10.0 software package. We calculated primary statistics and used the criteria analysis applying the Mann-Whitney criterion (Z). The results showed that: 1) values are a good indicator for monitoring the processes of social and individual change resulting from historical, social, and personal events; 2) value orientations of residents of a metropolis demonstrate relatively high stability; 3) values of older generations are more stable; 4) younger generations contribute most to the generational dynamics of values.
... In this chapter, we therefore argue that employees develop the mental schemas about their psychological contracts based on their broad range of formative experiences and propose how Gen Z cohort's formative experiences have an impact on their psychological contract (see Fig. 15.1). The concept of generational cohorts is deeply rooted in the literature of sociology (Mannheim, 1952), and several studies have shown that generational differences exist in people's values and life choices (Eyouna, Chen, Ayoun, & Khliefat, 2020;Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019). Moreover, within the scope of Human resource management, a wide plethora of research on generational differences has focused on work values and work attitudes of different generations (Lyons & Kuron, 2014;Parry & Urwin, 2011). ...
... Moreover, within the scope of Human resource management, a wide plethora of research on generational differences has focused on work values and work attitudes of different generations (Lyons & Kuron, 2014;Parry & Urwin, 2011). Still, in recent years, the research on generational differences in work values and work attitudes is flourishing (Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019). However, compared with work values, a more appropriate way of investigating generational responses to organizational cues is through the perspective of the psychological contract (Lub, Bal, Blomme, & Schalk, 2016). ...
The present chapter endeavors to map the psychological contract expectations of Gen Z members in a digital world context. Relied on theoretical underpinnings of psychological contract theory and generational cohort perspective, a conceptual framework is proposed representing the work expectations and preferences of Gen Z members. Gen Z members harbor high expectations in terms of workplace flexibility, learning and development opportunities, career advancement pathways, access to latest technologies, consistent feedback, work-life balance, and a social atmosphere. The conceptual framework of this study offers insights into the high expectations held by Gen Z members, which acts as a guiding mechanism for human resource managers to tailor generation-specific policies to tap the potential of this upcoming workforce segment.
... therefore argue that employees develop the mental schemas about their psychological contracts based on their broad range of formative experiences and propose how Gen Z cohort's formative experiences have an impact on their psychological contract (see Fig. 15.1). The concept of generational cohorts is deeply rooted in the literature of sociology , and several studies have shown that generational differences exist in people's values and life choices (Eyouna, Chen, Ayoun, & Khliefat, 2020;Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019). Moreover, within the scope of Human resource management, a wide plethora of research on generational differences has focused on work values and work attitudes of different generations (Lyons & Kuron, 2014;Parry & Urwin, 2011). ...
... Moreover, within the scope of Human resource management, a wide plethora of research on generational differences has focused on work values and work attitudes of different generations (Lyons & Kuron, 2014;Parry & Urwin, 2011). Still, in recent years, the research on generational differences in work values and work attitudes is flourishing (Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019). However, compared with work values, a more appropriate way of investigating generational responses to organizational cues is through the perspective of the psychological contract . ...
The definition of work has been significantly impacted by the rise of the open talent economy and a greater focus on outcome-based work design. These changes have led to a reconceptualisation of the psychological contract as organisations seek new ways of work to achieve sustainable success, whilst employees are expecting work design as part of an attractive employee value proposition. With the acceleration of the changing world of work it has become imperative to explore how organisations respond to the changing psychological contract. The chapter provides a high-level and speculative perspective on the trends that will impact the world of work over the coming years and positions these trends as changes to what we refer to as ‘work’.
... It is confirmed by results of much research. Transformation of mentality of generations affects personal values [3,6,7], family and gender values [8,9], managerial value [10,11], labor/work values [12,13,14,15,16], civic values [17], political and economic values [18], patriotic values [19]. Generalizing results of research, authors come to a conclusion that a new generation, and especially millennial are more focused on modern and individualistic values, appreciate external purposes more (money, glory) than internal ones (self-development, creativity) [5,2,6,13,20]. ...
... At the same time, the research given above have a number of limitations. First, most of them is executed on foreign samples: Australia [7,32], USA [15], Turkey [3,26], Africa [13], Central and Eastern Europe [10,18], China [9,16,23]. Only a small amount of works are devoted to the analysis of values of generations in the former Soviet Union [6] and in certain regions of Russia (Yakutia [8], the Volga region [19], the Central region [12], the Southern region [30], the Northwest region [33]). ...
In the article the communication problem between generations is considered in terms of differences of values. The authors generalize the results of research on the problem solved worldwide and provide data of an empirical research of differences in values of the Soviet, Transitional and Post-Soviet generations. At the same time values of the people identifying themselves with different generations are compared. 132 persons (72 women and 60 men) participated in the questionnaire. Sch. Schwartz's questionnaire is applied to studying values of people. Jonckheere-Terpstra test is used for mathematical data processing. Researchers confirmed a hypothesis that the existing differences in values of generations consist in a more impressed orientation of the senior generation to traditions and social norms, and more impressed orientation of the younger generation to the power and receiving pleasure. Results of the research confirm the universal trends in distinctions to values of generations consisting in stronger orientation of younger generations to values expressing interests of the individual and senior generations to values expressing interests of the group. Limitations and future research directions, possible implications of these results are also discussed.
... The positive association of high reward with cognitive function in our study may have relevance in current U.S. work environments, and advocates for further inquiry into workers' experiences of reward and cognitive health in the workplace. Trends of U.S. work values prior to the COVID-19 pandemic prioritized reward concepts of high income, high job security, and promotion opportunity, despite challenges to obtain these work rewards (Kalleberg and Marsden 2019). However, in the context of recent U.S. occupational shifts such as working from home, the high turnover phenomenon of the "Great Resignation" among workers, and economic changes, workplaces may further evaluate individual worker perceptions and organizational practices regarding the element of reward -including the components of finances, job security, and esteem, as demonstrated in the ERI model. ...
Purpose
This study aimed to examine longitudinal associations of workplace effort and reward with changes in cognitive function among United States workers.
Methods
Data from the national, population-based Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study with a 9-year follow-up were used. Validated workplace effort and reward scales were measured at baseline, and cognitive outcomes (including composite cognition, episodic memory, and executive functioning) were measured with the Brief Test of Adult Cognition by Telephone (BTACT) at baseline and follow-up. Multivariable linear regression analyses based on generalized estimating equations (GEE) examined the longitudinal associations under study.
Results
Among this worker sample of 1,399, after accounting for demographics, socioeconomics, lifestyle behaviors, health conditions, and job control, high reward at baseline was associated with increased composite cognition (regression coefficient: 0.118 [95% CI: 0.049, 0.187]), episodic memory (0.106 [0.024, 0.188]), and executive functioning (0.123 [0.055, 0.191]) during follow-up. The joint exposure of ‘high effort and high reward’ was also associated with increased composite cognition (0.130 [0.030, 0.231]), episodic memory (0.131 [0.012, 0.250]), and executive functioning (0.117 [0.017, 0.216]), while the combination of ‘low effort and high reward’ was associated with increased composite cognition (0.106 [0.009, 0.204]) and executive functioning (0.139 [0.042, 0.235]).
Conclusion
Findings suggest that workplace high reward is related to improved cognitive scores among United States workers. Future research should investigate larger cohorts over longer timespans and expand into disease outcomes such as dementia. If these findings emerge as causal, relevant workplace rewards to promote worker cognitive health should be considered.
... Work values determine individual attitudes towards a job and differ from generation to generation (Ye, 2015). Differences in values in work can be influenced by the social environment in which the individual is located (Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019). Changes in values that occur in Gen Z are caused by various unique and diverse experiences during their lives such as socio-economic changes, climate, globalization, to massive technological changes (Nabahani & Setyo Riyanto, 2020). ...
This study investigates career planning strategies for Generation Z in the post-COVID-19 pandemic era, emphasizing career theories and cultural and religious values. Through content analysis, the research reviews 8 articles on career planning grounded in cultural and religious values, alongside 10 articles on career theories and work values. The findings indicate that the career planning process encompasses self-understanding, understanding of career opportunities, planning, and career decision-making, which should integrate values such as faith, hard work, honesty, cooperation, and resilience. These values are represented in cultural heritage, including proverbs, poems, games, models, songs, rhymes, and advice. These insights significantly contribute to the study and practice of career planning in both formal and non-formal education settings.
... einen leichten Anstieg in beiden Gruppen über den Zeitraum 2020 bis 2023. Tabelle 2 zeigt den Anteil der Respondent:innen, die auch beim Gewinn oder Erbe einer großen Geldsumme weiterhin arbeiten gehen würden. Die sinkende Bereitschaft der Gruppe der über 35-Jährigen entspricht dabei den Erwartungen und den Ergebnissen aus bisherigen Studien (vgl.Kalleberg & Marsden 2019). Für ein differenzierteres Bild erfolgte eine weitere Auswertung mit einer feineren Aufgliederung der Altersgruppen für den Zeitpunkt Juni 2020. Diese bestätigt ebenfalls die sinkende Bereitschaft weiterzuarbeiten, wobei insbesondere ein starker Abfall bei der Gruppe der über 55-Jährigen zu beobachten ist (siehe Abbildung 1).Tabelle 2: ...
Die Arbeitseinstellungen junger Menschen werden im medialen Diskurs häufig pauschalisiert und mit fehlender Leistungsbereit- schaft sowie dem Wunsch nach mehr Freizeit verknüpft. Es wird ein Generationenkonflikt proklamiert und eine vermeintliche Unverein- barkeit zwischen Arbeitgeber- und Arbeitnehmer:innen skizziert. Doch kann ein solcher generationenbedingter Wandel des Arbeitsethos tatsächlich belegt werden? Der Beitrag nimmt sich dieser Frage an und untersucht mit Hilfe der Daten des Austrian Corona Panel Project (ACPP) die Arbeitswerte der österreichischen Bevölkerung auf mögliche Differenzen nach dem Alter.
... The construction of these value hierarchies is both determined by personal aspects and internalization. Research shows that age, family background, and sex have an influence on the values of people (Kalleberg and Marsden, 2019). Similarly, experiences related to certain events or professional and cultural development also influence the priority values of people (Suar and Khuntia, 2010). ...
Values are seen as important in both interorganizational networks and wicked problems. However, in both academia and practice the exact implications of these values remain unclear. In this article we examine the role of values in interorganizational networks dealing with wicked problems, by conducting a case study in a pregnancy and childbirth network. Our analysis identified both actor and network values, three value tensions among actors, and a variety of coping strategies to deal with these tensions. The findings indicate that value differentiation in networks should not be only seen as a problem, but also as an important ingredient for the achievement of network goals. Furthermore, our study revealed functional-structural and cognitive-cultural coping strategies to respond to value tensions among actors, applied by both the network administrative organization and the individual actors in the network. Lastly, we elaborate on the position and skill set of the network leader. We leverage these research results to formulate insights and recommendations for network practice.
... Second, this study only investigated the innovative behavior of millennial public employees. It did not consider the division of public employees into baby boomers, generation X, and generation Z (Denhardt et al., 2020), with different values, behavior, attitude, and motivation (Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019). Therefore, future studies should analyze public employees' innovative behavior and distinguish them into generational differences. ...
The connection between leadership styles and employees' innovative behavior has been widely investigated. However, none of the studies examine employees' organizational trust in the public sector. Based on the social exchange theory, this study fills the gap by examining the relationship between transformational and transactional leadership, organizational trust, and innovative behavior of millennial public employees. It also explored the effect of transformational and transactional leadership on innovative behavior mediated by organizational trust. A cross-sectional design was applied by distributing questionnaires to 320 public servants studying at the Universitas Indonesia to obtain their responses. The data were then analyzed using a partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The results showed that transformational and transactional leadership affect the innovative behavior of millennial public employees mediated by organizational trust. This study enriches the knowledge regarding innovative behavior and contributes to public human resources management by enhancing organizational trust.
... Pandemic. The pandemic of the COVID-19 coronavirus and new strains do not just interfere with the normal functioning of the school, they reveal the overall inconsistency of higher school that trains personnel for the agro-industrial complex with the requirements of modern society [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. Whatever versions are put forward regarding the causes of its ("COVID-19") occurrence, its appearance in itself is evidence of the weakness of human civilization in the face of planetary challenges. ...
The article analyzes the problems of modern higher school that trains personnel for the agro-industrial complex functioning, which were manifested by the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic, which with the 1st and 2nd World Wars, has become an event of a planetary scale, revealing not only the school problems, but also the societal problems of the entire global megasocium. It has generated a lot of discussions about creation of a new person type, a new educational space and universities without teachers. "Pedagogical relations" are a type of social relations with all the internal contradictions of society (political, economic, demographic, social, ethnic, religious, gender, etc.) and external contradictions of nature and man himself. The mental, existential and moral security of the individual is under threat. Such problems include the forced return to home schooling, transition to distance learning, which in turn has certain inconveniences for students and teachers. At the same time, attention is paid to such a social background as the growth of conditions for working remotely at home, alternating work at home with work in institutions. The factor of working at home allows family members, including students, not only to communicate more, but also to bring closer the learning process and material and spiritual production in the likely prospect.
... For example, Kalleberg and Marsden (2019 ) used the GSS to examine how processes of aging, generational shifts, and changes over historical time periods shaped di erences in work values in the United States. Using hierarchical logistic regression analyses, the authors found that changes over historical time periods are most consistently responsible for temporal di erences in work values. ...
... As society diversifies, individual values diversify, and efforts to realize individual values in family, school and work-life become bold (Burke et al., 2015). Today's organizations deal with many more diverse employees in relation to gender, age, race, nationality, and personal needs and interests (Heyns and Kerr, 2018;Jones et al., 2018;Kalleberg and Marsden, 2019). Each employee has distinct values and preferences as unique personal characteristics, and these differences influence an individual's work value (Park et al., 2020). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to identify latent classes of work values that influence the career choices of Korean workers through a person-centred approach. Because work values may be diverse in individuals, investigating the various combinations of those values will help understand individual's decisions to take, maintain and leave a job.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors used a total of 15,103 datasets collected at the national level in South Korea. Data were analyzed by using latent class analysis (LCA); a three-step approach was employed to address classification.
Findings
As the results of this study, Class 3, “seeking balanced work values rather than income,” presented the highest level of job satisfaction, whereas Class 1, “seeking job security and income,” exhibited the lowest.
Originality/value
Employing an assessment tool to identify the distinct combinations of work values that individuals possess and then providing them with appropriate training and development programs and customized Human Resource (HR) policies aligned with the classes will be essential tasks for HRD (Human Resource Development)/HRM (Human Resource Management) practitioners.
... Kalleberg a Mardsen 2019; Hajdu a Sik 2018), na individuální úrovni je souvislost vzdělání s orientací na vnitřní uspokojení z práce zřetelná (Gallie a Felstead 2012;Večerník 2019;Kittel et al. 2019). Výraznější orientace na jistotu zaměstnání a vysoký výdělek relativně vůči uspokojení z práce se jeví jako silně závislá na nižším sociálním statusu výchozí rodiny a nedostatku vlastních zdrojů k jeho překonávání během pracovního života, mezi něž se vzdělání řadí (Kalleberg a Mardsen 2019). S ohledem na to lze na vzdělání a na další formy kulturního kapitálu (Bourdieu a Passeron 1990) pohlížet jako na účinný nástroj k vzestupné socio-ekonomické mobilitě i u lidí pocházejících z nižších společenských vrstev (Šafr et al. 2012). ...
This paper deals with work values as an important factor in individual career decisions. It relies on data from the PIAAC survey and the follow-up SKILLS II survey. Using a sample of Czech men and women 20–45 years old, we examine the factors that affect the formation of orientations to work as compared with family, and the values of high salary and career progress as compared with intrinsic enjoyment of work. Our results show the significant positive influence of family background for men and of higher education, especially for women, on an orientation to a job and to enjoyment of its contents. The orientation of men toward achieving high earnings is strengthened by the need to ensure income for their families, especially raising children, while for women, work centrality and perceived career importance increases after long periods of unemployment. The results show the contribution of high educational achievement to closing the gaps between the work-family orientations of men and women, but also a return to traditional gender roles during periods of childcare. In the conclusion we indicate directions for further research to focus on the different consequences of experiences with unemployment for men and women and on the role of cognitive skills in work values that are not always analogically related to formal education.
... Our work also suggests new avenues for future research. Just to mention few, more work is needed to give support to the assumptions of cohort differences in value orientations against aging and period differences (e.g., Schwadel & Garneau 2014;Jaspers & Pieters, 2016;Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019). Additionally, it is not clear which is the relation between education and values support-ing nonviolent protest and democracy. ...
The literature considers nonviolent protests among the most important predictors of transitions towards democracy and democratic reforms. This study addresses the conditionsmaking countries more likely to experience nonviolent instead of violent forms of protest. While the literature emphasizes economic and political predictors of protest at the country level, we expand the study of nonviolent-vs-violent protest by incorporating cultural predictors. To do so, we use a newly developed time-pooled cross-sectional database covering an established set of orientations from the World Values Survey, known as “emancipative values”. Estimating the prevalence of these values at the country level as a time-varying predictor of nonviolent-vs-violent protests, we present the first comprehensively longitudinal analysis of the determinants of protests. Taking into account time-varying unobserved heterogeneity, persistence, the excess number of zeros and over-dispersion in protest event data, we find that emancipative values are a significant and positive predictor of the countries’ nonviolent protest levels, yet not violent protest levels.
... Following existing research in this area, we distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic work values (Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019;Kraaykamp et al., 2019). The ESS contains questions for both types of work values. ...
This paper analyzes whether and how work values differ between European Welfare
states and change over time. We proceed in three steps: First, we show that—despite
EU harmonization endeavors, for example, via the Europe 2020 strategy—work
values
still vary substantially between European countries and welfare regimes. Second,
by analyzing data from the European Social Survey 2004 and 2010, we show how
labor market policies, such as active and passive labor market policies, are associated
with work values and how overall levels of work values changed over this period.
Third, we discuss potential implications of the heterogeneity of work values for national
as well as European labor market policy making. Altogether we are able to
show that work values are substantially driven by the economic structure of a country
and its labor market policy making.
... Research indicates that generational mentalities are being transformed. This process affected personal (Marcus et al., 2017), family (Hu & Scott, 2016), managerial (Jonck et al., 2016) and labor (Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019) values. ...
... However, the evidence did point to minor effects of period and age. Kalleberg and Marsden [2019] also applied hierarchical age-period-cohort logistic regression to disentangle changes in the values of American workers between 1973 and 2016. They showed that the most widespread differences in work values were related to the historical periods during which people live, rather than to the effects of ageing or cohort differences. ...
The article investigates long-term trends in the work ethic in the Czech Republic and Slovakia from the perspective of modernisation theory. In particular, it examines whether the work ethic in the two culturally similar societies decreased during the years of growing material prosperity and whether this trend originated in intergenerational population replacement. The study uses data from three pooled waves of the European Values Study (EVS) covering the period 1999-2017 to which it applies the linear decomposition technique and multivariate statistical analysis. The results show that, even though the work ethic decreased in the Czech Republic and increased in Slovakia, intergenerational population replacement contributed to its weakening in both countries. Furthermore, the results indicate that the reason this process dominated the overall trend in the Czech Republic but not that in Slovakia may be the historical differences in levels of socioeconomic development and the different paces of population replacement. Finally, tentative evidence in favour of modernisation theory is presented, indicating that population replacement universally contributed to a decrease in the work ethic in all the other European countries with comparable EVS data.
... Hal ini memunculkan perasaan kecewa dan persepsi negatif di dalam diri karyawan atas pembelajaran yang ada di perusahaan.Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa persepsi karyawan terhadap organizational learning climate di dalam perusahaan dapat berubah seiring dengan lamanya karyawan bekerja di perusahaan. Hal tersebut dapat berkaitan dengan nilai kerja yang dimiliki oleh karyawan usia muda (generasi millennials), dimana pada usia ini karyawan memiliki prioritas yang lebih besar untuk pekerjaan yang memiliki keamanan, pendapatan tinggi, dan peluang untuk maju; serta karyawan usia millennials cenderung lebih memilih tugas pekerjaan yang dirasa menantang, sulit dicapai, dan memiliki standar tinggi(Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019). Penelitian yang dilakukan pada perusahaan penerbangan di China menunjukkan bahwa performa kerja karyawan menjadi meningkat, pengeluaran perusahaan berkurang, dan pemasukan keuntungan meningkat. ...
Perusahaan jasa transportasi udara merupakan bidang bisnis yang tidak umum dan membutuhkan karyawan dengan keterampilan khusus. Hal ini membuat kemungkinan yang mendapatkan karyawan dengan latar belakang dan pengalaman kerja yang sejalan menjadi terbatas. Oleh karena itu, perusahaan perlu mengembangkan strategi untuk membuat karyawan tetap dapat memenuhi tuntutan tugasnya, yaitu dengan menyediakan kesempatan belajar. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk melihat gambaran umum, profil, dan perbandingan organizational learning climate dengan demografis responden pada perusahaan jasa transportasi udara. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kuantitatif serta uji beda menggunakan The Dimensions of Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ) yang diadaptasi ke Bahasa Indonesia dan wawancara kepada beberapa karyawan. Data dikumpulkan dari 73 karyawan yang bekerja di perusahaan jasa penerbangan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa 53,42% responden memersepsikan organizational learning climate secara positif. Penelitian ini pun memperlihatkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan nilai organizational learning climate pada lama kerja yang berbeda. Hal ini mengartikan bahwa karyawan memiliki persepsi positif terhadap upaya yang telah dilakukan oleh perusahaan dalam menyediakan pembelajaran terkait tugas karyawan di perusahaan jasa transportasi udara ini, tetapi persepsi ini dapat berubah bergantung lamanya karyawan bekerja di perusahaan.Kata kunci: Organizational Learning Climate, Karyawan, Perusahaan Transportasi Udara ABSTRACT
... Moreover, parents' class position shapes the opportunity structure for their children, along with the values they bring to their parenting. Youth in lower socioeconomic status families develop stronger extrinsic values, emphasizing rewards gained from doing a job (e.g., income, advancement opportunities, prestige, security), whereas youth in higher socioeconomic status families internalize stronger intrinsic values, emphasizing the rewards inherent to work itself, such as expression of one's own interests and abilities, doing work that is meaningful, and opportunities for creativity and service to others (Johnson & Mortimer 2011;Kalleberg & Marsden, 2019;. ...
This study examines the transmission of work values from parents to children between mid-adolescence and early midlife. The authors propose that work-related values are transmitted from parents to children in two sequential and complementary processes stretched across adolescence and early adulthood. The first process of work value exposure and reception in the family context is captured by the socialization model. The second process is one of delayed value activation, long after initial socialization, when the young adult offspring engages with the demands and vicissitudes of their own emerging careers. The authors find evidence for family socialization in adolescence and also support for the delayed activation model during adulthood. Although parental values were measured more than two decades earlier, the authors find the strongest associations of parent and child values when the offspring were in their late 30s. In addition, parent–child value similarity is heightened when adult children navigate career uncertainty and change, consistent with a delayed activation process.
While labour markets struggle with issues of labour shortage, discourse in media and parts of the public deems a change in work values in young people towards idleness and an overly demanding attitude to be the cause of them. Even though previous research could not provide conclusive empirical evidence for these claims, it remains a trending media topic. Building upon this discrepancy I explore the relevance of age as an influencing factor for the meaningfulness and value(s) of work. Using the most recent round of data collection on work orientations of the Austrian Corona Panel Project (ACPP) data set from 2023, I thereby countercheck the mentioned popular claims and highlight the heterogeneity of younger age groups. This presentation introduces preliminary results on how age is only one of many influencing variables, which emphasizes the complexity of the topic and the need for a holistic view of (younger) workers and their values.
Despite decades of research, there is little empirical or theoretical consensus around how job insecurity shapes job performance. This article introduces an ecumenical, dynamic, and computational model of the job insecurity–job performance relationship. That is, rather than representing a single theoretical perspective on job insecurity effects, the model includes three key mechanisms through which job insecurity is theorized to impact performance—stress, social exchange, and job preservation motivation—and grounds these in a self-regulatory computational architecture. The model incorporates multiple, dynamic feedback loops that include job performance and job insecurity, as well as individual difference and contextual constructs to project the immediate, short-term, and long-term effects of changes to job security and other important variables. Simulations of the model demonstrate that a self-regulating representation of human information processing can produce effects consistent with the major propositions in the job insecurity literature. Moreover, interrupted time-series simulations of a new job insecurity threat reveal how, when, and why performance can stabilize above, near, or below baseline performance levels, sometimes for counterintuitive reasons. Additionally, the model shows how the frequently reported, cross-sectional, negative relationship between job insecurity and job performance can be explained by job performance’s influence on job insecurity. The results imply important considerations and directions for future job insecurity research and demonstrate the value of a formal, dynamic systems approach to theorizing.
Introduction
The objective of this study is to research personality trait differences across generations and the impact of age, gender and self-presentation on these traits.
Methods
A total of 82,147 applicants (aged 17–24) for aviation training (pilot, air traffic controller), born between 1965 and 2002, were divided into three cohorts (Generation X, Y, Z). We analysed data from the temperament structure scales (TSS) personality questionnaire, which was collected during selection procedures between 1987 and 2019. Generational differences were analysed by ANCOVAs with generation and gender as group factors, controlled by age and self-presentation (social desirability).
Results
Age had no significant impact, but we observed slight gender differences in emotional stability, vitality, empathy, and self-presentation across all generations. The generational differences found exhibited extremely small effect sizes, suggesting that applicants have become more extraverted, controlled (with lower aggression and higher rigidity), and inclined to present themselves in a more favourable manner.
Discussion
We discuss the implications of these findings for the aviation industry and the applicability of Generation theory in personality trait research.
Ideology is frequently discussed as an important factor in maintaining the current capitalist economic order. To date, however, descriptions of long-term changes in capitalist ideology remain mostly qualitative. By using computational methods (word embeddings) on two large corpora of historical English texts (Google books & Corpus of Historical American English), this article is the first to provide quantitative data on such long-term changes between 1850 and 1999. It thus tests three prominent claims found in the existing literature and presents the following main findings: 1) The rise of neoliberalism is represented by a weaking discourse on economic regulation rather than by an increase in liberal discourse. 2) Meritocratic values are promoted most intensely in times of high inequality. 3) Intrinsic work motivation becomes more important over time, but extrinsic motivation remains dominant. These findings have various theoretical and practical implications.
Purpose
The workspace has experienced several significant changes (shift in work culture) due to the Covid-19 pandemic thereby necessitating the need for a comparative assessment of differences that exist in work values and job quality of employees pre-covid 19 and “peri”-covid 19.
Design/methodology/approach
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21 was employed to conduct a correlation and T -test analysis from the quantitative data gathered from Ghanaian public and private sector employees.
Findings
The study found differences in what employees valued pre- and peri-covid era for job security, promotional opportunities, interesting work, using skills and experience, the usefulness of work to society and flexible work. During the pre-covid era, employees perceived autonomy, personal contact and stressful jobs, whereas promotional opportunities, good collegial relations and help to others were experienced peri-covid.
Research limitations/implications
Although the study tracked the work values and quality of employees, the respondents (pre-covid and peri-covid) were different. Responses here captured the views of formal sector workers only. These notwithstanding, the findings are important for explaining changes (work values and job quality) that occurred due to the pandemic. Future research might use a qualitative approach to understand reasons behind these changes.
Practical implications
Due to changes in the working space and the introduction of technology, stress has been impacted positively as employees need not commute frequently to work and work seems to have been simplified. It is therefore safe for organisations to retain changes to people management due to the pandemic.
Originality/value
To the best of my knowledge, this is the first study in the Ghanaian context comparing employees' values and job quality pre- and peri-covid.
In developed countries, education and career experimentation typically extends into people's twenties (Arnett, 2000, 2015; Mehta et al., 2020). Thus, people are not committing to a career path in which they can build expertise, take on increasing responsibilities, and climb an organizational ladder (Day et al., 2012) until they reach established adulthood, the period of development from 30 to 45. As the conceptualization of established adulthood is relatively new, little is known about career development during this period. As such, in the present study, we aimed to provide a better understanding of career development in established adulthood by interviewing participants (n = 100) aged 30-45 from across the United States about their career development. Some participants described Career Exploration in established adulthood, sharing how they were still searching for a good career fit, and how a sense of diminishing time related to how they explore career paths. Participants also described Career Stability in established adulthood, including feeling committed to a career path, noting that there were some drawbacks to this stability, but also benefits in terms of feeling confident in their roles. Finally, participants described Career Growth, and shared their experiences of climbing the career ladder as well as planning for the future and possible "second acts". Taken together, our results suggest that established adulthood, at least in the USA, brings some stability in terms of career paths and development but that it may also be a period of career reflection for some.
Purpose
This paper aims to examine work values among job seekers and how these values differ across experience and gender.
Design/methodology/approach
This study asked participants to rate the importance of various intrinsic and extrinsic work values on a five-point Likert scale. Responses were compared for 865 participants.
Findings
This study found that individuals differed in their ratings of work values based on experience. Individuals with more experience assigned greater importance to intrinsic job characteristics, while those with less experience assigned greater importance to extrinsic job characteristics. Findings further reveal differences in gender ratings of work values, with females assigning greater importance ratings to both intrinsic and extrinsic job characteristics as compared to males.
Research limitations/implications
Limitations of this study include that it drew its data exclusively from a sample of US respondents. Research investigating populations from other geographic regions within the same study may uncover important cross-national similarities/differences. Moreover, although this study examined experience and gender, it excluded other potentially important factors such as ethnicity. Future research should explore international samples and broaden its focus to include additional factors.
Practical implications
Organizations should be aware of how experience and gender shape work values to impact job choice and retention. They may wish to target their recruitment efforts toward certain groups to ensure alignment between candidates' work values and those of available positions.
Originality/value
This study improves on prior research by examining the dual impact of experience and gender in shaping work values.
Do work values affect attitudes and intentions regarding career development? Differentiating between work centrality, intrinsic and extrinsic work values, and using original survey data from German respondents, this study shows that these work values differ in their effect on career development. The empirical analysis examines three outcome dimensions which comprise the respondents’ willingness to: move within the same country or to a different country (mobility); lower expectations regarding earning or responsibility (rewards); learn new skills or participate in a retraining program (skills). The multinomial and logistic regression models show that higher scores for work centrality increase the odds of mobility and seeking less rewards. Intrinsic work values have a positive relationship with the mobility and the skills dimensions. Extrinsic work values have a negative relationship with the rewards dimension, but a positive one with the skills dimension.
Employers often recruit workers by invoking corporate social responsibility, organizational purpose, or other claims to a prosocial mission. In an era of substantial labor market inequality, commentators typically dismiss these claims as hypocritical: prosocial employers often turn out to be no more generous with low-wage workers than are other employers. In this article, we argue that prosocial commitments in fact inadvertently reduce earnings inequality, but through a different channel than generosity. Building on research on job values, we hypothesize that college graduates are more willing than nongraduates to sacrifice pay for prosocial impact. When employers appeal to prosocial values, they can thus disproportionately reduce pay for higher-educated workers. We test this theory with data on online U.S. job postings. We find that prosocial jobs requiring a college degree post lower pay than do standard postings with exactly the same job requirements; prosocial jobs that do not require a college degree, however, pay no differently from other low-education jobs. This gap reduces the aggregate college wage premium by around 5 percent. We present a variety of supplementary evidence using labor market data, worker survey responses, and a vignette experiment with hiring managers. The findings reveal an unintended consequence of employers’ embrace of prosocial values: it offsets macro-level inequality.
The edited volume Age and Work: Advances in Theory, Methods, and Practice presents a systematic collection of key advances in theory, methods, and practice regarding age(ing) and work. This cutting-edge collection breaks new ground by developing novel and useful theory, explaining underutilized but important methodological approaches, and suggesting original practical applications of emerging research topics.
The book begins with a prologue by the World Health Organization’s unit head for aging and health, an introduction on the topic by the editors, and an overview of past, current, and future workforce age trends. Subsequently, the frst main section outlines theoretical advances regarding alternative age constructs (e.g., subjective age), intersectionality of age with gender and social class, paradoxical age-related actions, generational identity, and integration of lifespan theories. The second section presents methodological advances regarding behavioral assessment, age at the team and organizational levels, longitudinal and diary methods, experiments and interventions, qualitative methods, and the use of archival data. The third section covers practical advances regarding age and job crafting, knowledge exchange, the work/nonwork interface, healthy aging, and absenteeism and presenteeism, and organizational meta-strategies for younger and older workers. The book concludes with an epilogue by an eminent scholar in age and work.
Written in a scientifc yet accessible manner, the book ofers a valuable resource for undergraduate and graduate students, academics in the felds of psychology and business, as well as practitioners working in the areas of human resource management and organizational development.
Theoretical and empirical contributions to meaningful work (MW) have flourished in the last two decades; investigating how the interplay of organizational factors with employee attitudes and experiences enables or denies MW. This paper reviews MW literature in the fields of management and organizational behaviour, political philosophy, the humanities and sociology with the aim of identifying and comparing conceptualizations of MW and how they relate to low‐skilled work. The review illustrates that a wide range of MW concepts either interpret low‐skilled work as bereft of essential sources for MW, or focus exclusively on workers’ innate drive to make meaningful experiences and thereby neglect the politics of working life. Making the point that low‐skilled work can also be meaningful, the paper develops a framework for low‐skilled work that has at its heart the interplay between the unique characteristics and dynamics of the labour process and workers’ agential responses. The framework rests on a combination of labour process analysis and industrial relations approaches, along with sociological concepts of agency. It develops three interdependent conceptual dimensions of core autonomy, respectful recognition and derived dignity that aim to capture MW in low‐skilled work settings. The framework contributes to vibrant debates in the MW literature by showcasing how meaningfulness emerges through bottom‐up collective and individual practices, relations and strategies that are reflective of the formal structures, demands and relations of low‐skilled work.
This paper discusses the evolution of the sociology of work in the United States in the post-World War II period. We conceptualize the sociology of work broadly, as the study of jobs and organizations as well as its links to social stratification and inequality, political economy, and worker power, among other topics. We identify eight major enduring themes: work organization and the labor process; labor markets and careers; professions and professional work; employment relations; meaning of work; unions and worker power; workplace stratification and inequality; and labor force diversity. For each theme, we summarize some of the main issues, research questions, and studies that have revealed important aspects of work in the United States. These themes are likely to continue to be significant topics in the sociology of work in the United States in coming years.
The article presents the results of the analysis of strategies to achieve wellbeing among Russian working youth. The analysis is based on the survey of 1121 respondents between 20 and 30 years old, living in Moscow and major cities of eight federal districts of Russia. The article describes the following five strategies. (1) “Familism” is a predominantly female strategy directed at attaining a work-life balance. It is characterized by high life satisfaction, low work and career satisfaction, as well as by low labor mobility. (2) “Rational consumerism” includes the economical use of family resources and savings activities. It reflects the predominance of materialistic values, an orientation towards a moderate and quiet life, and the absence of professional ambitions. (3) “Networking and entrepreneurship” is a pronounced achievementoriented strategy directed at the accumulation of social capital and entrepreneurial activity. The strategy is characterized by moral nihilism and by orientations towards personal responsibility and self-efficiency. (4) “Investing in professional development” is a work-centric strategy focused on increasing professional knowledge and the acquisition of new professional skills, together with increasing work efforts. This is a predominantly male strategy, more typical for respondents from Russian regions compared to Moscow. (5) “Civic activism” is a less frequently mentioned strategy directed at protecting one’s rights and participation in public and political life. It is common mainly for those living in Moscow. The analysis reveals that these five strategies are shaped by different combinations of the respondents’ individual characteristics, values and orientations, industry of employment, residency, and organizational practices. It was determined that some strategies are developed by the mechanism of accumulating advantages while others are predominantly compensatory in their nature.
Is the younger generation, including millennials and Generation Z, a driving force toward achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)? The younger generation is often described as more socially conscious and promotors of the SDGs than the older generation; however, little scientific evidence supports these assumptions and expectations. To fill this gap, this study aims to investigate (1) whether the younger cohorts are the pro-SDG generation who drive societies with their sustainable lifestyles to achieve SDGs more actively as compared to the older generations; further, this work elucidates (2) the job-seeking behavior of the younger generations. We recently conducted two online surveys in Japan and used different interdisciplinary methodologies. In Study 1, we estimated marginal generational differences in sustainable lifestyles using a nationally representative adult sample (n = 12,098). In Study 2, we elicited the job preferences of university students based on the SDG contributions of companies and expected income using conjoint survey experiment data (n = 668). Together, the current findings suggest that the younger generation is likely to be pro-SDGs.
This article examines the impact that unemployment and low-quality work conditions have on young adults’ work values. Academic theory suggests that harsher economic conditions will make people prize extrinsic work values (income, security) more and intrinsic work values (creative, independent working conditions, autonomy) less. We apply this reasoning to study young Europeans’ response to unemployment and low-quality work conditions, expecting that those who have these experiences will value extrinsic values more and intrinsic work values less than those who do not have these experiences. Using the CUPESSE dataset of 18- to 35-year-olds in eleven European countries, we do not find support for the effect of previous unemployment experience on intrinsic or extrinsic work values. However, when it comes to the effect of low-quality work conditions, there are mixed results. We find that one dimension of low-quality work conditions—overqualification—does have a positive effect on extrinsic work values. Further, we find that age has a moderating effect: unemployment and low-quality work conditions have a larger impact on the younger workers in our sample than their older counterparts. © 2019 by The American Academy of Political and Social Science.
Values guide our attitudes and behavior, but to what extent and how do individual values determine our overall well-being? Self-determination theory holds that particular types of values (i.e., intrinsic or extrinsic) matter most, but the person-environment fit perspective argues that any values can be beneficial as long as they align with values prevalent in one’s environment. The evidentiary support for these competing claims is inconclusive. We use the World Value Survey to see how these perspectives do in predicting life satisfaction, happiness, and health in youngsters aged 18 to 30 around the world. Our results generally confirm hypotheses derived from self-determination theory, showing that the type of values held by youngsters and the type of values prevailing in their environments account for significant variation in young peoples’ life satisfaction, happiness, and health. The pattern of evidence suggests that youngsters benefit from attaching greater importance to intrinsic values related to affiliation and community contribution rather than to extrinsic values that relate to financial success and accumulation of power. © 2019 by The American Academy of Political and Social Science.
Past experiences and expectations about the future shape how people think about work and welfare. Given the uncertainty many young people face when entering the labor market, we investigate whether 1) young peoples’ experiences of social mobility and 2) their future mobility expectations impact their attitudes regarding the meaning of work and welfare. Drawing on the concepts of self-interest and deservingness, we examine how both the experiences and expectations of intergenerational social mobility influence the ways in which young adults view the so-called moral dimension of work and welfare. Results of logistic regression analyses of around 11,000 young adults in eleven countries suggest that the relationship between mobility and individuals’ views on work and welfare varies depending on the dimension of mobility (economic and social origins, for example), with expected future mobility exerting a stronger effect on attitudes than past mobility experiences. We find that self-interest, not empathy with one’s social origins, appears to be the primary driver of these attitudes.
Age-Period-Cohort Analysis: New Models, Methods, and Empirical Applications is based on a decade of the authors’ collaborative work in age-period-cohort (APC) analysis. Within a single, consistent HAPC-GLMM statistical modeling framework, the authors synthesize APC models and methods for three research designs: age-by-time period tables of population rates or proportions, repeated cross-section sample surveys, and accelerated longitudinal panel studies. The authors show how the empirical application of the models to various problems leads to many fascinating findings on how outcome variables develop along the age, period, and cohort dimensions. The book makes two essential contributions to quantitative studies of time-related change. Through the introduction of the GLMM framework, it shows how innovative estimation methods and new model specifications can be used to tackle the "model identification problem" that has hampered the development and empirical application of APC analysis. The book also addresses the major criticism against APC analysis by explaining the use of new models within the GLMM framework to uncover mechanisms underlying age patterns and temporal trends. Encompassing both methodological expositions and empirical studies, this book explores the ways in which statistical models, methods, and research designs can be used to open new possibilities for APC analysis. It compares new and existing models and methods and provides useful guidelines on how to conduct APC analysis. For empirical illustrations, the text incorporates examples from a variety of disciplines, such as sociology, demography, and epidemiology. Along with details on empirical analyses, software and programs to estimate the models are available on the book’s web page.
Purpose
Differences among generations on a wide variety of outcomes are of increasing interest to organizations, practitioners, and researchers alike. The goal of this study was to quantitatively assess the research on generational differences in work-related attitudes and to provide guidance for future research and practice.
Design/Methodology/Approach
We conducted a meta-analysis of generational differences on three work-related criteria: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intent to turnover. Our review of published and unpublished research found 20 studies allowing for 18 generational pairwise comparisons across four generations (Traditionals, Baby Boomers, Generation Xers, and Millennials) on these outcomes using 19,961 total subjects.
Findings
Corrected mean differences for job satisfaction ranged from .02 to .25, for organizational commitment they ranged from −.22 to .46, and for intent to turnover the range was −.62 to .05. The pattern of results indicates that the relationships between generational membership and work-related outcomes are moderate to small, essentially zero in many cases.
Implications
The findings suggest that meaningful differences among generations probably do not exist on the work-related variables we examined and that the differences that appear to exist are likely attributable to factors other than generational membership. Given these results, targeted organizational interventions addressing generational differences may not be effective.
Originality/Value
This is the first known quantitative review of research on generational differences in the workplace.
The growth of precarious work since the 1970s has emerged as a core contemporary concern within politics, in the media, and among researchers. Uncertain and unpredictable work contrasts with the relative security that characterized the three decades following World War II. Precarious work constitutes a global challenge that has a wide range of consequences cutting across many areas of concern to sociologists. Hence, it is increasingly important to understand the new workplace arrangements that generate precarious work and worker insecurity. A focus on employment relations forms the foundation of theories of the institutions and structures that generate precarious work and the cultural and individual factors that influence people's responses to uncertainty. Sociologists are well-positioned to explain, offer insight, and provide input into public policy about such changes and the state of contemporary employment relations.
The study of age differences in job satisfaction is a useful focus for investigating the interplay among work, self, and family concepts as they produce changes in role outcomes during the life course. Using data from the 1972-73 Quality of Employment Survey as well as other data sets, we find that age is positively related to job satisfaction. A relatively substantial portion of these differences are explained by age variations in work values and job rewards. These findings are consistent with both cohort and job change explanations of age differences in job satisfaction. However, some of these age inequalities are not explicable on the basis of the variables in our model. Though some unknown portion of these age differences are undoubtedly due to compositional effects, we argue that they also partly reflect more general processes of aging and development.
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This paper attempts to develop a theory of job satisfaction which incorporates differences in work values and perceived job characteristics as key explanatory variables. It empirically examines the relationship between job satisfaction and the work values and job rewards associated with six dimensions of work--intrinsic, convenience, financial, relations with co-workers, career opportunities and resource adequacy. It is found that work values have independent effects on job satisfaction. The extent to which workers are able to obtain perceived job rewards is conceptualized to be a function of their degree of control over their employment situations. The paper also seeks to develop a framework which links the variation in the job satisfactions of workers to the factors that influence the degree of their control over the attainment of job rewards in American society. The analyses in this paper are based on data from the 1972-73 Quality of Employment Survey.
A need-satisfaction theoretical model has been ubiquitous in studies and writings on job attitudes and, by extension, motivation, job design, and other organizational performance improvement issues. An examination of such need models indicates that they are frequently formulated so as to be almost impossible to refute, and the research testing them has been beset with consistency and priming artifacts. Furthermore, available empirical data fails to support many of the crucial elements of need-satisfaction theories. An examination of the components of need-satisfaction models-needs, job characteristics, and job attitudes-indicates that all three have been incompletely considered. Need models may have persisted in part because of perceptual biases, their consistency with other theories of rational choice behavior, and because of what they seem to imply about human behavior. The models appear to deny, however, that people have the capacity to provide their own satisfactions by cognitively reconstructing situations.
Using data from a nationally representative panel study, I examine change and stability in job values across the young adult years. I find that on average, young people attach lessening importance to various job rewards during the transition to adulthood. In addition, job values become increasingly stable (individual differences are increasingly maintained) during young adulthood, though they continue to change as a function of the rewards received at work. I find no gender differences in the way job rewards shape values, although gender differences in job values exist.
Utilizing cross-sectional and panel data from the 1972-1973 and 1977 Quality of Employment surveys, this article investigates three explanations of age differences in work involvement. Differences in cohort and job characteristics appear to be more plausible determinants of differences in psychological involvement with a specific job, while overall subjective commitment to the labor force may be more influenced by developmental aging processes. However, the effects of age on the general work role may vary by gender and occupation, thus suggesting that the nature of developmental aging processes are partially a function of an individual's position in the social structure.
Two types of explanation for the generally high level of job satisfaction reported by workers holding manual or routine jobs are distinguished on the basis of the degree to which they emphasize the values and needs of such workers as opposed to relying upon the worker's accommodation to limited job opportunities. The former, "dispositional," approach involves theoretical assumptions compatible with a Durkheimian social theory; the "situational" approach is characteristic of a more Marxian set of theoretical assumptions. Data from a national sample of workers are analyzed to show that perceived intrinsic and extrinsic sources of satisfaction have powerful effects on overall job satisfaction irrespective of educational background and that intrinsic satisfaction is a powerful determinant of overall satisfaction among members of occupational groups, while extrinsic sources of satisfaction vary in importance among different groups. Entrinsic satisfaction is shown to be much more important as a determinant of overall satisfaction among unskilled, semiskilled, and clerical workers than it is among skilled and professional workers, a finding that is interpreted as reflecting the differential in opportunities for instrinsic satisfaction for instrinsic satisfaction associated with each group. More generally, the findings support the Marxian rather than the Durkheimian model.
This article examines changes in workers' work values for the period 1973-2006 using General Social Survey data. We assess the relative importance that workers assign to high income, as opposed to security, advancement, short hours and "importance and sense of accomplishment." The latter ranked highest throughout this period, but the relative priority placed on income and job security generally increased. We suggest that the rising relative rankings of earnings and job security reflect growing job, employability, and economic insecurity that workers generally experienced during this period, making these job characteristics generally more difficult to attain. Groups most vulnerable to job, employability, and economic insecurity-such as less educated workers and blacks-were most apt to place high importance on income and security. Differences in rankings between men and women, blacks and nonblacks, and college and high school graduates remained fairly stable over this period.
This study focuses on whether marriage and parenthood influence work values after taking into account the influence of work values on family formation. In a recent panel of young adults (N= 709), stronger extrinsic and weaker intrinsic work values during adolescence predicted marriage and parenthood 9 years out of high school. Controlling these relationships, wives, but not husbands, came to attach less importance to extrinsic rewards, and both husbands and wives attached less importance to intrinsic rewards, compared to single men and women. Fathers came to place greater importance on extrinsic rewards than men who had not become parents. The effect of motherhood on extrinsic values depended upon marital status, with positive effects only evident among single mothers. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for models of work-family relationships and understanding the meaning of contemporary family roles, especially motherhood and fatherhood.
First published in 1969 and augmented by the author with a new essay in 1977, Class and Conformity remains a model of sociological craftsmanship. Kohn's work marshals evidence from three studies to show a decided connection between social class and values. He emphasizes that occupation fosters either self-direction or conformity in people, depending upon the amount of freedom from supervision, the complexity of the task, and the variety of work that the job entails. The extent of parents' self-direction on the job further determines the value placed on self-direction for their children; thus, Kohn finds, is the most critical and pervasive factor distinguishing children raised in different socioeconomic classes.
This text is a Stata-specific treatment of generalized linear mixed models, also known as multilevel or hierarchical models. These models are "mixed" in the sense that they allow fixed and random effects and are "generalized" in the sense that they are appropriate not only for continuous Gaussian responses but also for binary, count, and other types of limited dependent variables.
The concept of generation within sociology has until recently been a marginal area of interest. However, various demographic, cultural and intellectual developments have re-awakened an interest in generations that started with the classic essay by Karl Mannheim. To date, the sociological literature has generally conceptualized generations as nationally bounded entities. In this paper we suggest that the sociology of generations should develop the concept of global generations. This conceptual enhancement is important because the growth of global communications technology has enabled traumatic events, in an unparalleled way, to be experienced globally. The late nineteenth and early twentieth century was the era of international generations, united through print media, and the mid-twentieth century saw the emergence of transnational generations, facilitated by new broadcast communications. However, the latter part of the twentieth century is the period of global generations, defined by electronic communications technology, which is characterized, uniquely, by increasing interactivity. The 1960s generation was the first global generation, the emergence of which had world-wide consequences; today with major developments in new electronic communications, there is even more potential for the emergence of global generations that can communicate across national boundaries and through time. If in the past historical traumas combined with available opportunities to create national generations, now globally experienced traumas, facilitated by new media technologies, have the potential for creating global generational consciousness. The media have become increasingly implicated in the formation of generational movements. Because we are talking about generations in the making rather than an historical generation, this article is necessarily speculative; it aims to provoke discussion and establish a new research agenda for work on generations.
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