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Sexting and Psychological Distress: The Role of Unwanted and Coerced Sexts
Abstract
Sexting (e.g., conveying nude electronic images) is now common among young adults. Despite leading to negative consequences for some (e.g., harassment and unwanted dissemination), findings regarding sexting behaviors and mental health variables have been mixed. We recruited a convenience sample of young adults (N = 444, M age = 20, SD = 1) to test the hypothesis that sexting might be associated with poorer mental health. Our results showed no association between receiving or sending sexts overall. However, receiving unwanted sexts, or sexting under coercion, was associated with higher depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms, and lower self-esteem, and these two sexting experiences were independent predictors of psychological distress. The relationship between these sexting behaviors with poor mental health was moderated by gender, with poorer outcomes for males receiving unwanted sexts. These findings indicate a possible moderating factor in sexting and mental health.
... Further, risks traditionally associated with sexting behaviours, such as cyberbullying and internalizing problems, are more closely associated with the non-consensual forms of sexting behaviours, such as the non-consensual dissemination of intimate images [18][19][20][21][22]. Pertinently, victims of non-consensual sext-sharing are not only prone to experience subsequent blackmail, bullying, and internalizing problems previously associated with sexting generally [18,20,23,24], but also more vulnerable to intimate partner violence [25], mental trauma, and suicidal ideation [26][27][28]. ...
... Further, risks traditionally associated with sexting behaviours, such as cyberbullying and internalizing problems, are more closely associated with the non-consensual forms of sexting behaviours, such as the non-consensual dissemination of intimate images [18][19][20][21][22]. Pertinently, victims of non-consensual sext-sharing are not only prone to experience subsequent blackmail, bullying, and internalizing problems previously associated with sexting generally [18,20,23,24], but also more vulnerable to intimate partner violence [25], mental trauma, and suicidal ideation [26][27][28]. ...
... Further, few studies differentiated between consensual and non-consensual sexting. This distinction is critical, especially for studies investigating the potential for harmful consequences due to sexting, as consent has been found to be a moderating factor when considering harmful outcomes of sexting [20,26,27,48]. Such varied definitions and conceptualizations reflect the broad scope of the existing research, which may contribute to the difficulty in finding consensus across the sexting literature and explain why this review identified variations across a range of outcomes. ...
The exchange of intimate messages, images, and videos via digital means, also referred to as sexting, has drawn considerable academic attention in recent years. Specifically, cross-sectional research has indicated that sexting can be associated with harmful outcomes such as depression, anxiety, and cyberbullying. However, there is currently limited empirical research examining the causal relationship between these factors, and to date, there has been no systematic review of the longitudinal studies on sexting. Thus, the purpose of this review is to summarise and review the current research addressing long-term outcomes and predictors of sexting. A systematic search of databases was conducted. Eight databases were searched, with twenty-four longitudinal studies meeting the inclusion criteria and thus included in this review. The quality of individual studies was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal tool. Overall, longitudinal research into sexting is scarce, and variability in definitions, measured variables, and sample demographics have created challenges in achieving consensus across variables. For example, findings were inconclusive regarding causal relationships between sexting, cyberbullying/bullying, and psychological health outcomes. Findings indicated that positive peer norms predicted sexting and that sexting was predictive of future offline sexual behaviours. Future longitudinal research would benefit from differentiating between consensual and non-consensual sexting behaviours in measurement. Future prevention efforts should focus on addressing peer norms that develop around sexting behaviours.
... Prior research has explored the relationship between sexting behaviours and cyber-victimisation [5][6][7]; however, there is a paucity of information on the sexting predictors associated with cyberbullying perpetration. Further, despite established associations between nonconsensual sexting and psychological distress [8], little is known about the relative impact of nonconsensual sexting on cyberbullying perpetration, since consent has rarely been included in prior studies. ...
... Consent has been found to be critical for distinguishing whether sexting behaviours can be seen as normative and harmless or potentially harmful to mental health [8]. Prior research into sexting and cyberbullying acknowledged the presence of nonconsensual sexting behaviours, such as sext-hassling, defined as the repeated act of requesting someone to send an image-based sext of themselves, or nonconsensual sext dissemination [5], defined as the nonconsensual sharing of received sexts to audiences beyond the intended recipient [31]. ...
... The conflation of consensual and nonconsensual behaviours is problematic for several reasons. Firstly, prior research [8] has established that negative mental health complications are associated specifically with the nonconsensual forms of sexting, rather than sexting more broadly in young adults, and hence these behaviours need to be considered as distinct. ...
With the increased ubiquity of digital technology, sexting behaviours, defined as the online sending, receiving, or disseminating of sexually explicit messages, images, or videos, have become increasingly frequent, particularly among young adults. While prior research found sexting behaviours to be associated with cyberbullying behaviours, the role of consent as part of this association has been largely unexplored. The current study investigates whether the relationship between sexting behaviours and cyberbullying perpetration might be explained by a subset of nonconsensual sexting behaviours, such as engagement in nonconsensual sext dissemination and sext-hassling. A large convenience sample of young Western cisgendered adults (n = 1688, M age = 23.15, SD = 3.23, 52.7% women) completed an anonymous online survey exploring harmful online behaviours (nonconsensual sext dissemination, sext-hassling, cyberbullying victimisation/perpetration). A hierarchical logistic regression was used to analyse predictive relationships between variables. The results showed no significant association between consensual sext-sending and cyberbullying perpetration in young adults. However, nonconsensual sexting behaviours, particularly sext-hassling and nonconsensual sext dissemination, were predictive of cyberbullying perpetration. Finally, cyberbullying victimization appeared to be the most strongly associated factor with cyberbullying perpetration. These findings suggest that future research and prevention efforts surrounding sexting and cyberbullying perpetration would benefit from a focus on consent and the bidirectional nature of cyberbullying behaviours.
... While studies developed different methods for classifying sexting behaviors, a common distinction made is between sexting voluntarily versus sexting under pressure. This distinction is critical because sexting voluntarily with partners or strangers could be a gratifying experience that leads to intimate feelings and sexual satisfaction, whereas sexting under pressure has been associated with being threatened to have unsafe and unwanted sex, lower self-esteem, and higher levels of depression and anxiety (Kernsmith et al., 2018;Klettke et al., 2019). Psychological studies have demonstrated that pressure to reciprocate can drive compliance with a request (Regan, 1971); thus, when people receive sexts, they may feel pressure to reciprocate. ...
... Psychological studies have demonstrated that pressure to reciprocate can drive compliance with a request (Regan, 1971); thus, when people receive sexts, they may feel pressure to reciprocate. In addition, people with high anxiety tend to reciprocate because they expect that doing so may improve their relationship or avoid potential conflicts with the other person (Drouin & Tobin, 2014;Klettke et al., 2019). ...
... Even in the case of voluntary sexting, the possibility that the receiver may forward the sender's sexually explicit images to other people without their consent cannot be ruled out (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2015). In the case of sexting under pressure, this concern might lead to various negative psychological symptoms, such as anxiety and depression (Dodaj et al., 2020;Klettke et al., 2019). The thrill of developing a casual sex relationship combined with its potential risks make sexting a sensation-fulfilling activity. ...
Prior studies found that sexting was associated with risky sexual activities and that men who have sex with men (MSM) engaged in more frequent sexting than their heterosexual counterparts. Therefore, it is pertinent to understand what factors are associated with sexting among MSM. This study explored the relationships between sensation-seeking, gay identity confusion, and muscularity ideal with sexting behaviors. An online survey was administered to 355 and 448 18–34-year-old MSM in Hong Kong and Taiwan, respectively. While the number of sexting partners and the frequency of sexting were similar across the two regions, they had different associations with psychological factors. In Hong Kong, sensation-seeking was positively related to the number of sexting partners, while in Taiwan, it was positively related to the frequency of sending sexts. In Hong Kong, MSM who were more confused about their sexual orientation had fewer sexting partners. In both regions, MSM holding a stronger muscularity ideal also had more sexting partners. Gay identity confusion and muscularity ideal were associated with sexting under pressure in Taiwan; all three psychological factors concerned were associated with sexting under pressure in Hong Kong. Overall, these results showed that some MSM found sexting to be a sensation-fulfilling activity, but some were vulnerable to sexting under pressure. Counseling services to MSM about their sexual identity and concern for muscularity are needed to prevent them from becoming victims of forced sexting. Finally, the inconsistent results for the Hong Kong and Taiwanese samples indicated the importance of considering regional specificity in sexting research.
... Cyberbullying and non-consensual sexting demonstrate significant gender differences, with ciswomen more likely to be victimized online and cismen more likely to be perpetrators. Ciswomen are more likely to receive unwelcome sexts [34], more likely to experience coercion to send sexts [e.g., 24], and more likely to have sexts of themselves used to cause reputational damage [62,49]. To understand why, researchers have turned to gender differences in attitudes and beliefs concerning the acceptability and perceived consequences of inappropriate and harmful acts perpetrated online. ...
... Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) people are often drawn to online environments in the belief that they provide safe spaces (relative to offline environments) within which to express their identity authentically, obtain and provide social support, and receive information and advice in relation to their gender identity and expression [33][34][35]. However, there is growing recognition that although the online environment can be less physically threatening to TGD people, it can still be a psychologically hostile environment [36][37][38]. ...
... Consistent with our first hypothesis, cismen reported higher rates of both cyberbullying and non-consensual sexting perpetration than ciswomen irrespective of sexual orientation (asexual adults were lowest in both perpetration and victimization, however, this was similar across gender groups). This is consistent with previous evidence that cyberbullying [6,39] and non-consensual sexting [34, exhibit substantial gender differences, independently of sexual orientation. Cismen also expressed substantially more positive attitudes and beliefs regarding both cyberbullying and sexting. ...
Cyberbullying and non-consensual sexting are prevalent and potentially harmful online behaviours. However, little is known about the attitudes and beliefs that underpin these behaviours in ciswomen and cismen and the extent to which they explain the online experiences of trans and gender diverse (TGD) people. A sample of 638 ciswomen, 722 cismen, and 146 TGD adults 18 to 66 years of age (M = 23.27, SD = 3.66), completed a survey of online perpetration behaviours, victimization experiences, and positive attitudes/beliefs about cyberbullying and sexting. MANCOVAs revealed significant gender differences in terms of both cyber and sexting perpetration and victimization. On average, ciswomen reported 8% less cyberbullying perpetration and 17% less non-consensual sexting perpetration than cismen, and experienced 77% more victimization from non-consensual sexting. TGD adults similarly reported 8% less cyberbullying perpetration than cismen, but also 65% less non-consensual sexting perpetration than cismen, as well as experiencing 77% more victimization from non-consensual sexts. MANCOVAs also revealed that cismen held more positive attitudes and beliefs about cyberbullying and sexting than ciswomen and TGD adults. Multigroup path analyses further revealed that positive attitudes and beliefs were related to perpetration behaviours but differently for different genders, with pro-cyberbullying attitudes/beliefs associated with perpetration behaviours in TGD adults, and pro-sexting attitudes/beliefs associated with perpetration behaviours in cisgender adults. These results highlight gender differences in online perpetration and victimization, extend this observation to TGD populations, and demonstrate the importance of underlying attitudes and beliefs.
... . Sexual harassment is a well-recognized and researched problem that effects a wide spread of individuals, with findings suggesting it is the most prevalent form of discrimination (Bargh et al., 1995;Rospenda & Richman, 2005). Even more harmful, sexual harassment is inversely associated with well-being and mental health (Nicolson, 2015), with one study resulting in 90% of sexually harassed individuals experiencing psychological or physical symptoms afterwards (Charney & Russell, 1994) and another finding an increase in depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms, and lower self-esteem (Klettke et al., 2019). This suggests that the aftermath effects for victims can be long-lasting and detrimental. ...
... Other research identified various sexting motivators, including relational attachment, body image reinforcement, and instrumental/aggravated reasons (Bianchi et al., 2017;Currin & Hubach, 2019;Bianchi et al., 2021;Drouin & Landgraff, 2012). Recently, research shifted to looking at motivators of unsolicited sexting; receiving unsolicited sexts are correlated with higher levels of depression, anxiety, stress symptoms, lower self-esteem, and distress levels (Klettke et al., 2019;Valiukas et al., 2019). ...
... Yet, exposing oneself offline is considered a criminal act whereas cyber-flashing is not, indicating that forms of online sexual harassment are not viewed as detrimental compared to sexual harassment in the "real" world. Yet, receiving unsolicited sexual images has been correlated with high levels of depression, anxiety, stress, distress levels, and lower self-esteem (Klettke et al., 2019;Valiukas et al., 2019), suggesting that the behavior is deserving of more attention than currently given. ...
With the majority of individuals in the United States owning a
mobile device, communicating via text is popular. Many individuals
who text also engage in sexting, commonly defined as
sending a sexually suggestive or explicit message that can
include a nude image. In September of 2019, Texas passed a
law prohibiting the sending of an unsolicited nude image
without consent from the receiver. The goal of the study was
to capture the reactions of individuals to this state law. There
were 400 different responses by 400 different individuals
posted on Reddit by users expressing their reactions to the
passing of the state law. Initial reactions were captured,
chosen from specific Reddit threads containing the link to the
law within 1 month of the law being passed. These comments
were collected and the research team used thematic analysis
to highlight the themes to users’ responses to the sexting law.
Of note was the sizeable number of individuals who disapproved
of the law, highlighting a lack of knowledge about
consent to engage in sexual behaviors in general, the need to
gain consent to engage in sexting, and a misunderstanding of
what defines sexual harassment. Implications for sex education
programs and policy makers are discussed.
... Although unwanted sexting is an understudied phenomenon, it is evident that it leads to a far greater number of negative consequences than wanted sexting (e.g., higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms, and lower self-esteem; Klettke et al., 2019), and it is associated with other forms of sexual victimization, because it can function as an online extension of offline forms of sexual violence (Choi et al., 2016;Cornelius et al., 2020). Thus, the goal of this study was to examine (a) the extent to which wanted and unwanted sexting occurs among young adult women and men, (b) how both types of sexting relate to other forms of sexual violence (sexual coercion and online sexual victimization), and (c) how both types of sexting are related to sexual and life satisfaction. ...
... In the same way, other studies have shown negative consequences from unwanted sexting behaviors (e.g., Drouin & Tobin, 2014), finding that among women, the frequency of consenting to unwanted sexting was significantly related to anxious attachment. In addition, receiving unwanted sexts was associated with higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms and lower selfesteem (Klettke et al., 2019;Lu et al., 2021). ...
The understanding of sexting as a new form of interpersonal
communication is increasing; however, little is known about whether the incidence, correlates, and outcomes of sexting vary depending on whether such behavior is done willingly or not. In this non-experimental study, we aimed to investigate the prevalence, predictors, and consequences of sexting among 310 Spanish young adults, who completed an online survey regarding their previous experiences of wanted and unwanted sexting behaviors, their sexual coercion and online sexual victimization experiences, and their levels of sexual and life satisfaction. The results showed that more than half and one third of the sample had been involved in wanted and unwanted sexting behaviors, respectively. Additionally, sexual coercion and online sexual victimization predicted a higher probability of engaging in
unwanted sexual behaviors and, with that, a decrease of life satisfaction. Finally, having experienced more instances of sexual coercion was associated with lower life satisfaction by increasing the likelihood of suffering online sexual victimization experiences and engaging in additional unwanted sexting behaviors. Our findings show the importance of discerning between wanted and unwanted sexting and how doing so differently conditions the predictors and consequences of this phenomena.
... For example, numerous studies have found greater emotional difficulties are associated with adolescent involvement in various types of cyberdeviance, compared to their noninvolved counterparts. This includes anxiety, depression and stress for cyberbullying (Campbell et al., 2013;Fletcher et al., 2014;Foody et al., 2019;Kaiser et al., 2020;Yang et al., 2013); anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation and self-harm for sexting (Bauman, 2015;Chaudhary et al., 2017;Dake et al., 2012;Dawson et al., 2019;Frankel et al., 2018;Gamez-Guadix & De Santisteban, 2018;Gasso et al., 2020;Klettke et al., 2019;Ybarra & Mitchell, 2014); anxiety and depression for both image-based sexual abuse (Gasso et al., 2020), and disseminating cyberhate ; and anger and depression for a combined measure of 'cyber delinquent behaviors' (Lee & Kim, 2017)-the latter construct being measured as collective engagement in hacking, online fraud, and cyberbullying. Conversely, the literature on peer relationship problems is less comprehensive as it is constrained to the cyberbullying context, and somewhat inconsistent. ...
... The associations observed in this current study between internalizing problems and various types of cyberdeviance are consistent with findings reported in prior literature, including for cyberbullying (see also Campbell et al., 2013;Kaiser et al., 2020, Yang et al., 2013, passive cyberhate and passive cyberviolence (see Kvardova et al., 2021), and fraud (see Lee & Kim, 2017). In the current study, a statistically significant association was not observed between internalizing problems and sexting, or active cyberhate, which differs from findings reported in several studies (see Chaudhary et al., 2017;Kaakinen et al., 2020;Klettke et al., 2019;Ybarra & Mitchell, 2014), although these studies all adopted different measures of internalizing problems, which may account for these discrepancies. ...
Research has shown that psychosocial and behavioral factors are associated with engagement in a range of deviant behaviors across offline settings. To date, however, very little research has explored the impact of these factors in online contexts. This article addresses this gap by examining the psychosocial and behavioral factors associated with common types of adolescent cyberdeviance. This is accomplished through an empirical study of 327 adolescents enrolled in a high school located in a large Australian city. The study assesses various aspects of psychosocial and behavioral functioning using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (total difficulties, internalizing problems, externalizing problems, prosocial behavior), as well as numerous types of cyberdeviance relevant to young people, including cyberfraud, cyberhate, cyberviolence, sexting, digital piracy, hacking, and cyberbullying. A series of multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to demonstrate the association between psychosocial and behavioral difficulties and various types of cyberdeviance, independent of gender, school grade, socioeconomic status, and engagement in offline delinquency. Results indicate that total difficulties, internalizing problems, and externalizing problems were significantly associated with greater likelihood of engagement in most types of cyberdeviance examined in this study, whereas prosocial behavior was associated with a lower likelihood of engagement in digital piracy only. A discussion of the findings highlights the importance of understanding these factors in a digital context, as well as demonstrating the need to account for them when designing targeted interventions.
... The role of consent has been found to be important in understanding harms associated with other sexting behaviors, and could be a critical factor in understanding or differentiating forms of sext dissemination. Previous investigations into the impact of coerced sending and unwanted receipt of images (e.g., Frankel et al., 2018;Gassó et al., 2019;Klettke et al., 2019) have identified that non-consensual, coerced or unwanted forms of sexting appear to be most likely associated with psychological distress for victims. Additionally, women tend to carry an increased risk of experiencing non-consensual sexting behaviors, including receiving unwanted sexts Klettke et al., 2019), and being coerced into sending sexts (Gassó, Mueller-Johnson, et al., 2021;Laird et al., 2021;Ross et al., 2019). ...
... Previous investigations into the impact of coerced sending and unwanted receipt of images (e.g., Frankel et al., 2018;Gassó et al., 2019;Klettke et al., 2019) have identified that non-consensual, coerced or unwanted forms of sexting appear to be most likely associated with psychological distress for victims. Additionally, women tend to carry an increased risk of experiencing non-consensual sexting behaviors, including receiving unwanted sexts Klettke et al., 2019), and being coerced into sending sexts (Gassó, Mueller-Johnson, et al., 2021;Laird et al., 2021;Ross et al., 2019). Some studies also find that women are more likely to have their own sexts distributed without consent (Clancy et al., 2020, while others report no gendered difference in dissemination victimization (Gassó, Mueller-Johnson, et al., 2021). ...
Sext dissemination (i.e., the online sharing of sexually explicit images) has the potential to result in legal, social, and psychological harms. Recent research has shown that this behavior can be consensual or non-consensual in nature; yet little is known about how motivations or attitudes may differ between these forms, or with gender. This study is based on a cross-sectional online survey investigating consensual and non-consensual sext dissemination and associated demographic, behavioral, attitudinal, and psychological factors. Participants were 2,126 cisgendered adults aged 18 to 30 years (M = 22.97, SD = 3.21, 55% women, 45% men), resident in Western, English-speaking nations, particularly Australia. Around 10% of respondents reported disseminating texts, and of these, only 19.8% indicated they had permission for this, with no differences across gender. When sexts were disseminated "to gossip," this was significantly more likely to be non-consensual. There were no significant differences between consensual and non-consensual dissemination in subjective attitudes or norms toward dissemination, nor levels of psychological distress. Women were more likely to non-consensually disseminate sexts that had been received as unwanted or unwelcome. Consensual dissemination was weakly associated with being sexually active and having given consent to having one's own images disseminated. We discuss implications for future research regarding consent, and relationship and sexuality education.
... 14,31,32 However, Van Ouytsel et al 23 warned that context matters and associated only coerced or pressured sexting, with negative psychosocial outcomes. [33][34][35][36] For example, in a recent study on German 13 to 16-year-old adolescents, Wachs et al 37 reported that non-consensual and pressured sexting were positively related to depressive symptoms and non-suicidal self-harm, whereas consensual sexting was unrelated to these outcomes. Furthermore, the study revealed that boys engaged in more non-consensual sexting than girls, whereas girls were more pressured to send sexts than boys. ...
... Although negative health outcomes of sexting have been studied widely, 7,14,29,[31][32][33][34][35]37,50 the prevalence and adverse psychological consequences of early sexting have been less researched. 6 Our research provides a comparison of the magnitude and types of pressured feelings in both early and late adolescence. ...
Background:
Sexting is sending, receiving, or forwarding sexually explicit messages, images, or videos through electronic means. Research has examined sexting in high school and college students. This study seeks to add to the existing literature by exploring the nature of pressured or problematic sexting in middle school-aged subjects.
Methods:
We asked participants in public colleges in Massachusetts, Colorado, and Virginia, to recall their sexting-related experiences in middle and high school. We utilized an online survey tool for data collection. We performed bivariate quantitative statistical analyses to examine attitudinal and behavioral differences, as well as motivations and consequences of adolescent sexting.
Results:
The study revealed unique patterns of early-onset sexting compared to sexting in later adolescence. Early-onset adolescents typically start sexting before they become sexually active and are at a higher risk for poor outcomes associated with sexting, they are more likely to seek therapy. Early sexting is significantly more pressured than sexting in later adolescence.
Conclusions:
The study is an important contribution to the existing research on pressured sexting. Exploring pressured sexting at very early ages finds that early sexting activity is more likely pressured, creates more stress than later in life, and hence, it needs attention from school mental health professionals and education programs. The authors suggest that comprehensive sex education, including sexting should begin earlier than middle school to prevent risky online sexual behavior and provide for learning coping mechanisms for adolescents.
... Further, some individuals reported being subjected to pressure and coercion to send their nude images (Henry et al., 2018;Klettke et al., 2019). Instances of pressured, coerced, and unwanted sexting have been conceptualised as forms of image-based abuse and online intimate partner aggression (Henry et al., 2018). ...
... Instances of pressured, coerced, and unwanted sexting have been conceptualised as forms of image-based abuse and online intimate partner aggression (Henry et al., 2018). These pernicious forms of sexting are more frequent among women relative to men (Drouin et al., 2015;Gassó et al., 2020;Howard et al., 2020Howard et al., , 2021Laird et al., 2021), and have been linked to symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, trauma, and lower self-esteem (Drouin et al., 2015;Gassó et al., 2020;Klettke et al., 2019). Despite the acknowledgement of such risks (Dir & Cyders, 2015;Lim et al., 2016), many young people continue to engage in sexting behaviours. ...
Sexting is a common form of sexual communication that is often considered normative and beneficial despite some research highlighting its negative social, psychological, and legal repercussions. Using protection motivation theory (PMT), this study examines how young adults weigh the pros and cons of sending consensual sexts, sexting under pressure, and deciding against sending sexts, and whether body image dissatisfaction interacts with any of the decision-making processes. In total, 906 participants (554, 61.14% women), aged 18–25 years (M = 21.65, SD = 2.01), completed an online measure of sexting behaviours, body image, and protection motivation. Overall, 71.41% of respondents ever sent a sext. Of those, 45.07% and 36.32% felt pressure to sext or sent a sext because of pressure. Further, 63.90% participants ever considered and decided not to send a sext. All models predicting various sexting behaviours were significant and provided a partial support for the PMT. Body image was a unique predictor of ‘pressured’ sexting but its interactions with the PMT subscales for pressured sexting and decisions against sexting were non-significant. Our study illustrates the need for increasing young people’s self-efficacy and body image to improve their sexting agency and experience.
... In the seven studies focused on anxiety and TMSI-related experiences, four found no significant associations between anxiety and sending and/or receiving visual TMSI [63][64][65][66]. For most of these studies, there were no reported gender differences. ...
... However, this finding was moderated by gender/sex, sexual orientation, and the relationship context of the experience. In all four anxiety studies, experiencing non-consensual TMSI as the victim coincided with or predicted greater anxiety [65,67,71,72]. In two, the findings were moderated by gender [67,71]. ...
Technology-mediated sexual interactions (TMSI) are interpersonal exchanges via technology of self-created sexual material, including photos, videos, and auditory or text messages. There is little research on the factors that predict both TMSI experiences and their sexual wellbeing outcomes. Social anxiety is anxiety experienced in response to social or performance situations. From a cognitive–behavioural perspective, people higher in social anxiety may avoid TMSI, preventing positive or negative consequences. They also may use TMSI to avoid the anxiety caused by in-person sexual interactions, benefiting from access to sexual interactions while perpetuating anxiety about them. The purpose of this scoping review was to explore the role of social anxiety in TMSI and its sexual wellbeing outcomes. We executed a comprehensive search strategy across eight academic databases and searched reference lists of included articles. We included 19 articles written in English or French that had a human sample and were published between 1991 and 2021 and evaluated connections between social anxiety constructs (e.g., shyness, anxiety) and TMSI-related experiences (e.g., sexting, internet sex addiction). The pattern of results suggested that social anxiety constructs may predict some but not all forms of TMSI. Future research from a cognitive–behavioural perspective will expand knowledge on social anxiety, TMSI, and its sexual wellbeing outcomes.
... Unsolicited sexting, specifically, is conceptualized as a sexual risk-taking behavior and as a form sexual aggression (Henry & Powell, 2015;Krieger, 2017). Sending unsolicited sexts is a prevalent behavior among men with 48% of men reporting having sent an unsolicited sext (Oswald et al., 2019) and 48%-90% of women reporting receiving an unsolicited sext (Klettke et al., 2019;Marcotte et al., 2021). ...
... Understanding risk factors for unsolicited sexting to inform intervention is imperative given the negative consequences recipients of unsolicited sexts experience including depression symptoms, anxiety symptoms, lower self-esteem, and psychological distress (Klettke et al., 2019;Marcotte et al., 2021;Valiukas et al., 2019). Furthermore, prior research suggests other problematic sexting behaviors, such as coercing someone to send a text, is associated with in-person violent behaviors including physical, psychological, and sexual aggression (Noorishad & Trottier, 2022;Ross et al., 2019). ...
Compulsive sexual behaviors (CSB; i.e., recurrent, excessive, and impairing sexual thoughts and behaviors) is prevalent among populations affected by substance use disorder (SUD) and was linked to harmful sexual behaviors. However, less is known about the association between CSB and potentially harmful sexual behaviors that occur in digital contexts (e.g., unsolicited sexting defined as sending sexually-explicit images or messages without the recipient's permission). The present study reviewed medical records for 253 men in residential treatment for SUD to examine the association between CSB and unsolicited sexting and the moderating effect of negative urgency (i.e., the tendency to act impulsively when negative affect is high) on this association. We conducted hierarchical multiple regression analyses using PROCESS. Results revealed a significant positive association between CSB and unsolicited sexting among men who endorsed high and average, but not low, levels of negative urgency. These results suggest that negative urgency may serve as a point of intervention in the relationship between CSB and unsolicited sexting among male residential SUD patients.
... Mitchell, 2014) oder deuten auf eine häufigere Beteiligung von männlichen Jugendlichen beim Versenden freizügiger Fotos hin (Dodaj, Sesar, Jerinić., 2020;Vanden Abeele, Campbell, Eggermont, Roe, 2014). Einige Studien berichten auch, dass männliche Jugendliche häufiger freizügige Fotos empfangen (Klettke, Hallford, Clancy, Mellor, Toumbourou, 2019;Strassberg et al., 2013). Ob es tatsächlich einen geschlechtsspezifischen Effekt gibt, lässt sich somit noch nicht eindeutig beantworten, denn die Studien unterscheiden sich in der untersuchten Altersgruppe und Beteiligungsform an Sexting, in der Definition von Sexting, dem Erfassungszeitraum und dem soziokulturellen Kontext. ...
... Auch im Freundeskreis werden freizügige Fotos verschickt, um Anerkennung oder Bestätigung zu bekommen (Döring, 2012). Neben einer freiwilligen, einvernehmlichen Beteiligung an Sexting, findet Sexting auch nicht einvernehmlich statt, sondern in einem Zwangskontext ("coercive sexting") in dem eine Person unter Druck gesetzt wird, ein freizügiges Foto zu versenden (Klettke et al., 2019;Reed, Boyer, Meskunas, Tolman, Ward, 2020;van Ouytsel, Lu, Ponnet, Walrave, Temple, 2019 (Schoeler, Duncan, Cecil, Ploubidis, Pingault, 2018). Auch kann die schulische oder berufliche Laufbahn negativ beeinflusst werden, wenn freizügige Fotos in Umlauf geraten (Katzman, 2010;Kopecký, 2015). ...
Sexting, defined as sending and receiving self-produced, sexually explicit images, is a widespread phenomenon among adolescents, which can have negative consequences, especially if an abusive dissemination occurs. In this study, a program on the prevention of
the abusive distribution of sexually explicit images was developed and implemented for grades 6 and 7.The programwas evaluated using a pre-, post- and follow-up design. Students’ program satisfaction, students’ attitudes towards privacy on the internet and sexting, their
knowledge about sexting and image rights, and their strategies handling sexting were measured. The results of the evaluation show that the adolescents (N = 132; 58.3 % female; Mage = 12.1 years, SD = 0.64) were satisfied with the program.There was a significant increase
in knowledge. Furthermore, the results indicate an increase of strategies to cope with an unintentional distribution of a picture and strategies for a responsible use of sexting. Attitudes toward sexting were somewhat less critical after program participation. In addition to the successful implementation of the program in the school context, the results indicate that the program is effective.
... First, a sending could be made in response to such a reception as a reciprocal behavior. [50][51][52] While such an action could be seen as a form of indirect pressure, 49,53 especially because of the unsolicited characteristic of such a reception, it can also allow the two persons to prove that they can trust each other. 51 Second, such a reception can be considered in the context of the peer group effect. ...
... This finding demonstrated that mental health, as measured by this one specific scale, is not directly related to sexting and that it is certainly more a situation of pressure, harassment, and violent reactions from peers that could have effects on mental health. 19,49 Despite the young age of the participants, the suggestive content remained rare compared to more explicit images, especially among those who reported having sent their own intimate image several times. Very few studies have looked at the different types of content and when this has been the case, the results were not in line with ours. ...
Background:
There is a gap in the literature regarding data on sexting among youth under the age of 16 whereas the problems related to this practice could affect them more because of their ongoing development. This study aims to determine the prevalence rate and characteristics of sending one's own sexually related image among middle-school teens.
Methods:
Data were obtained from a web-based in-school survey conducted between October 2019 and February 2020. The sample comprised 3006 (mean age 13.7; 50.2% males) 10th-grade pupils in the canton of Vaud (Switzerland). Participants were asked "Have you ever sent a sexually related/sexy image of yourself?". Analysis of variance/chi-square tests and multinomial regression analyses were used to compare the groups.
Results:
Overall, 93.0% reported never, 3.7% once and 3.3% several times. No gender differences were found. Sending was associated with older age, low academic performance, cyberbullying victimization and reception of unsolicited sexually related images.
Conclusions:
Education and health professionals should be aware that it is necessary to discuss the theme, perhaps with a more global approach including pressure, consent, exchange of nonsexual images, and so on from an early age. The context and reasons for sending remain to be explored, particularly to determine if the pressure is greater at this age.
... Sexting constitutes a common form of online sexual communication. The behavior can entail sending, receiving, and forwarding of sexual content (typically encompassing texts, images, or videos) via electronic means, and can range from consensual to non-consensual in nature (Barroso et al., 2023;Klettke et al., 2019). While consensual sexting is perceived to be a normative expression of young persons' sexual repertoire (Levine, 2013) and a need for intimacy or validation (Bianchi et al., 2017), non-consensual sexting can be considered potentially harmful. ...
Although consensual sending of sexts between adolescents is considered developmentally appropriate, it may also entail a range of negative consequences. Current sexting research lacks a comprehensive theoretical framework identifying a range of risk and protective factors underpinning adolescent consensual sending of sexts across individual, interpersonal, and distal levels. Further, there is a lack of systematic evaluation of how the importance of these factors may vary across adolescent age. This study investigated the utility of the Social Development Model to predict a range of risk and protective factors across individual, family, peer, school, and community-level factors. The sample included 1302 teenagers from Victoria, Australia (Mage = 14.54, SD = 1.14, 50.8% girls). Results indicated that 146 (11.7%) participants sent a sext (76 boys and 70 girls). Logistic regression analyses revealed that the Social Development Model accounted for 45.8% of variance in sexting, with greater likelihood of sending sexts being associated with older age, prior sexual activity, school sector, physical activity, lifetime substance use, greater depressive symptoms, sensation seeking, and perceived substance availability in the community. Multigroup analyses revealed that lifetime substance use was associated with a greater likelihood of sending sexts among younger teens. Among older adolescents, adaptive coping was associated with reduced engagement in sexting, while higher parental overcontrol and family conflict increased the odds of sending sexts. Overall, sexting is associated with a range of modifiable factors potentially amenable to intervention.
... Cyberflashing has only recently been recognized as a form of IBSA (Hayes & Dragiewicz, 2018). Cyberflashing appears to be a gendered form of violence, with half of women having received at least one unsolicited sexual image compared to only one quarter of men (Klettke, Hallford, Clancy, Mellor, & Toumbourou, 2019). Interestingly, self-reported rates of cyberflashing perpetration (22%) reported by men are lower than women, suggesting that some men may be sending such images to multiple individuals (Smith, 2018). ...
... Though men were not affected by benevolent sexting, women were at higher risk of developing anxiety and depression even with passive sexting. On the other hand, both sexes develop poorer mental health when there is online sexual victimization [41] , as the receipt of unwanted sexts, oppression, or coercion [42] . Demographic variables may also explain the discrepancy between the results. ...
Background:
Social media use has become widely popularized in modern society and because of that, human interactions have drastically changed. In parallel, depression and anxiety have reached unprecedented levels among the youth, and concerns have emerged on social media use compromising mental health. The objectives of our review are to explore if there is a relation between social media and the development of those two disorders among youth, to highlight the patterns that could lead to them, and to give recommendations for future research.
Methods:
Based on Scale for the Assessment of Narrative Review Articles (SANRA) criteria, we performed a search of all-time articles published in Medline database using terms such as social media, social media use, problematic social media use, depression, anxiety, suicidality, self-harm, fear of missing out, cyberchondria, cyberbullying, sexting, and online shopping. The initial search yielded 184924 articles. After review, 77 articles were included for discussion.
Results:
Social media use is often associated with depression and anxiety. Different patterns are thought to predict poorer mental health outcomes like multitasking, emotional investment, appearance-based activities, passive media use, problematic social media use, cyberbullying, sexting, and disaster awareness.
Conclusion:
Specific patterns of engagement with social media appear to be associated with poor mental health outcomes in youth. It is important for physicians to address social networks exposure in well-visits and for parents to communicate about it openly. However, more in-depth research needs to be done to determine a relation of causality.
... Sexting is defined as the sending and receiving correspondence of explicit or implied sexual nature carried out through text, images, videos, or emoticons over smartphones or other digital devices (Dir et al., 2013;Klettke et al., 2019). Studies indicate a high prevalence of sexting by adolescents. ...
Sexting (sexual correspondence based on text or images) is a behavior that in principle is considered normative in the literature as an expression of sexuality in the online space. At the same time, the phenomenon carries risks because it takes place on the Internet and allows its dissemination. It may also be the result of such risk when it is carried out for instrumental motives such as the desire to receive payment. The present study tested the association between sexting motives and behavior as a function of parental and peers' roles to deepen our knowledge of the sexting phenomenon. Participants included 152 adolescents aged 14–19 (M = 15.57) who engaged in sexting. They completed seven online questionnaires. The findings indicate that when the parents used a strategy of technologically restrictive mediation, sexting behaviors with sexual motivations increased, but the same strategy reduced sexting behaviors when the motivations were instrumental. The study also found that high peer cohesion promoted the association between sexual motives and sexting behaviors. The results of the study can inform the design of sexting education and shape parenting practices.
... Sending sexual texts, images, and/or videos electronically, also known as "sexting," Klettke et al., 2019) is often a consensual activity. Among adolescents and young adults, research has found that sexting is quite common Gordon-Messer et al., 2013;Mitchell et al., 2012; see Mori et al., 2020 for a meta-analysis). ...
Technology use has brought about the perpetration of both sexting coercion and image-based
sexual abuse (which includes sharing or threat of sharing someone’s intimate image). This study
sought to examine the association between the Dark Tetrad, propensity to morally disengage, and
the perpetration of sexting coercion and image-based sexual abuse. As well, this study then
examined how those variables influence how someone perceives online coercion, when
relationship type and coercion tactic are altered. With a sample of 1467 university students (72%
women; 74% heterosexual), higher psychopathy, sadism, or narcissism scores was associated
with an increased likelihood of perpetrating image-based sexual abuse. For sexting coercion,
identifying as a man, and higher narcissism scores were associated with an increased likelihood
of perpetrating sexting coercion. Scoring higher in psychopathy, sadism, and narcissism were
predictive of having a higher propensity to morally disengage. Examining coerciveness
perceptions from the vignettes, being a woman and not having perpetrated sexting coercion were
predictive of rating the vignettes more coercive and being higher in moral disengagement
propensity was predictive of rating the vignettes less coercive. There was no interaction between
relationship type and coercion tactic and no main effect for relationship type but was a main
effect for coercion tactic. The threaten tactic was associated with a mean “Coercion” score 7.71
points higher than the hinting tactic. This study has implications regarding who may be more
likely to perpetrate image-based sexual abuse or sexting coercion and what factors may influence
perceptions of online coercion. This study also showed that the general aggression model appears
to be a valid theory to explain image-based sexual abuse and sexting coercion perpetration.
... About 33% of the participants in our study were exposed to sexting coercion, while 28% had engaged in sexting coercion perpetration. This pattern of results is consistent with the findings of several previous studies conducted on the AYA population aged 14-30 years (Brodie et al., 2019;Drouin & Tobin, 2014;Englander, 2015;Laird et al., 2021;Klettke et al., 2019;Kernsmith et al., 2018), which indicate that between 12% and 70% of respondents reported feeling pressured and/ or coerced to sext. Lippman and Campbell's (2014b) study using open-ended questionnaires among adolescents suggests that social injunctive norms (beliefs about the extent to which members of a reference group disapprove or approve of a particular behaviour) play a role in adolescent sexting, particularly among girls who sometimes sext because of social pressure and expectations, especially from boys they trust. ...
Prior research has mainly focused on why individuals are engaging in sexting. However, little is known about sexting in intimate relationships, particularly sexting coercion. This study examined sexting coercion using social learning theory in a sample of young adults who had experience with a romantic relationship (N = 315, aged 14–28 years, 67.94% female). Individuals completed the sexting coercion scale and the social learning scale online. The results showed that over 33% of the respondents reported being victims of sexting coercion in an intimate relationship, while about 28% of them had perpetrated sexting coercion. The results suggest that sexting coercion in an intimate relationship is significantly predicted by differential association, differential reinforcement, and imitation. The findings of this study highlight the importance of exposing youth to evidence-based preventive educational interventions on sexting from the earliest age, based on the constructs of social learning theory.
Practice Impact Statement
The findings of this study of sexting coercion among young adults are relevant to educational programmes given recent evidence of the prevalence of sexting coercion victimisation and sexting coercion perpetration among youth in romantic relationships. The findings suggest that those who engage in sexting coercion use a social learning mechanism that should be considered when developing educational interventions to prevent sexting coercion.
... Barrense-Dias et al. (2017) distinguished the definition of sexting into four categories: (1) actions, including sending, receiving, and forwarding content, (2) as it does not necessarily have negative consequences or lead to undesirable outcomes. In this context, Klettke et al. (2019) propose an inclusive discourse on sexting in which sexting behaviours are presented on a continuum from consensual sexting to non-consensual and forced sexting. Non-consensual forwarding of sexts is considered a type of online sexual harassment behaviour (van Oosten & Vandenbosch, 2020). ...
Backgrounds: Given the negative consequences associated with sexting experiences, researchers, practitioners, and policymakers have called for more thorough research on sexting. Research on sexting behaviour has primarily used quantitative methods. In recent years, mixed methods research has gained prominence in the field of sexting. However, to date, no systematic review of mixed methods studies on sexting has been conducted. The purpose of this article is to review empirical mixed methods studies on sexting.
Methods: A thematic synthesis of the qualitative data and a narrative review of the quantitative data were conducted in accordance with standardised templates by study design (PRISMA guidelines). Ten databases were searched and eleven peer-reviewed articles from 2014 to 2022 that met the inclusion criteria were identified.
Results: Qualitative and quantitative results were organized into three themes: the nature and extent of sexting, motivation for sexting and the consequences and outcomes of sexting. This mixed-methods systematic review shows that sexting is widespread among youth, there are various reasons for involvement in it and it can have both positive and negative consequences.
Conclusion: The results of this study may be helpful to both practitioners working with youth and policy makers to better understand the phenomenon of sexting.
... A relationship between consensual sexting and depression and anxiety (Dodaj et al., 2020) was found. Individuals with symptoms of depression, are emotionally more vulnerable, and need to be accepted by others and, therefore, engage in consensual sexting due to feelings of powerlessness and low self-esteem (Klettke et al., 2019). Also, individuals with depressive symptoms have impaired decision-making process which can make them more prone to engage in non-consensual sexting, not considering boundaries and what is more acceptable between peers (Van Ouytsel et al., 2014). ...
Sexting is considered a practice of sending, receiving, and forwarding sexually explicit content through electronic devices. Given a lack of research distinguishing the characteristics of different forms of sexting, this systematic review aimed to analyze studies of the characteristics that might influence individuals’ engagement in consensual and non-consensual sexting behavior. This systematic review was conducted using three online databases (EBSCOhost, PubMed, and Web of Science). The search resulted in the extraction of 709 articles, of which 39 were considered eligible for inclusion. One study also was identified by a manual search, which resulted in a final sample of 40 articles published between 2012 and 2021. The results show that male adolescents are more likely to engage in both forms of sexting. Adolescents with some Big Five Personality traits (i.e., who score higher on conscientiousness, extroversion, and openness), spend more time online and are in a stable relationship were positively associated with consensual sexting. Adolescents who lack control and are more aggressive were more likely to engage in non-consensual sexting. This systematic review also revealed that there is insufficient research on the subject, mainly regarding non-consensual sexting and characteristics of who perpetrates this behavior.
... Sexting is the phenomenon of sending and receiving sexual content online, using texts, photos, video clips, or emoticons with implied or explicit sexual meaning (Dir et al., 2013;Cooper et al., 2016;Klettke et al., 2019). Studies have indicated a high frequency of sexting by adolescents. ...
Sextortion (a portmanteau of "sexual" and "extortion") is a relatively new phenomenon of sexual exploitation, which occurs when a person threatens another with the distribution of sexual content on the Internet, to obtain more pictures or videos, money, or have some other demand met. The current study examined how school counselors in Israel perceive the phenomenon of online sextortion. To this end, we conducted a qualitative study based on 20 semi-structured in-depth interviews with school counselors working in middle schools and high schools in Israel, who treated adolescent girls blackmailed over the Internet on sexual grounds. Findings indicate that the school counselors had difficulty in identifying and defining the cases they treated as instances of sextortion, and that in their view the harm was slight. Findings also indicate that school counselors associated the causes of sextortion with the victims and their backgrounds. We found differences between the Arab and secular and national-religious state education in the way Jewish counselors treated the victims and involved additional actors such as the victim's parents and the police. This underscores the importance of providing educational staff with adequate knowledge and tools that are culturally suited to the victims.
... Sexting, i.e., sending or receiving sexual words, pictures, or videos via electronic devices (Gómez & Ayala, 2014;Madigan et al., 2018), has become more popular over the years (Marganski, 2017), especially among young adults (Bianchi et al., 2017(Bianchi et al., , 2019Klettke et al., 2019;Madigan et al., 2018;Rice et al., 2012). Indeed, according to a meta-analysis by Mori and colleagues (2020), 41.5% of young adults (ages 18-29) reported to have received and up to 38.3% indicate to have sent sexts at least once. ...
Non-consensual dissemination of sexual materials – or sexts – via technology represents a crime with psychological and social consequences for the victims, mostly women. Commonly, non-consensual dissemination of sexts results from sexting, i.e., the practice of sharing sexually explicit materials via mobile and internet technologies. The literature so far has provided inconsistent results on the implication of this practice, and it remains unclear under which conditions sexting may represent a risk for suffering non-consensual dissemination of sexts. Based on objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), we investigated whether the relationship between sexting and experiences of non-consensual dissemination of sexts in young women (N = 351) would be moderated by self-objectification, i.e., the consideration of themselves as a sexual object rather than a fully human being. Overall, results revealed that the link between sexting behaviors and experiences of non-consensual dissemination of sexts was significant only for women with high levels of self-objectification, suggesting that women who reduce themselves to sexual objects were more likely to have experienced non-consensual dissemination of sexts due to sexting behaviors. Implications of results are discussed.
... Our use of a non-pictorial measure of sexting is also a limitation, as it potentially underrepresents the sexting that may have actually taken place and does not consider the level of consent/coercion in relation to sending images. This examination of consent/coercion in sexting images is perhaps a critical area for future research, as consent is overall understudied but severely so in adolescents and in sexting (Padilla-- Walker et al., 2020) and pictorial sexting levels of unwanted receipt for young girls are high and concerningly associated with psychological distress (Klettke et al., 2019). Particularly, the question of whether those exposed to sexualized lyrics are more likely to coerce others and send unwanted images remains to be answered. ...
There has been little research on the impact of media on sexting behaviors in adolescence, and none regarding the influence of musical lyrics. The goal of the current study was to explore these associations in a longitudinal investigation. Participants were 278 fourteen-year-old adolescents (all cisgender, 49.46% female) who were assessed at three different time points. Participants completed several questionnaires (including music preferences) and were given BlackBerry devices through which frequency of textual sext message utterances were obtained. Sexual content in music preferences was then quantitatively analyzed using the Linguistic Inquiry Word Count (LIWC) software. Data was analyzed for Time 1 and Time 3 and results indicated that boys were more likely to participate in sexting in the future when exposed to sexual music lyrics, though there was no association for girls. These and other results are discussed as well as implications for parents and the need for further research on sexting and the behavioral influence of musical lyrics.
... Receiving unwanted sexual requests online is common, perhaps even normalized in adolescent populations (Ringrose et al., 2022) and although some young people in this study described being seemingly unconcerned about being pressured, the majority reported being negatively affected. Being negatively affected by pressured sexting has also been reported in previous research (e.g., Huneh€ all Berndtsson & Odenbring, 2021;Klettke et al., 2019;Lippman & Campbell, 2014;Mishna et al., 2021;Van Ouytsel et al., 2016;Thomas, 2018). Our study further showed that the severe reactions often seemed to be due to the shock of unwantedly and unexpectedly becoming the object of someone else's sexual desire, which violates sexual autonomy and privacy (McGlynn & Johnson, 2020), especially when being thrown into a sexual context outside of one's own maturity (Cacciatore et al., 2019). ...
This study explored adolescents' experiences of being under pressure to sext (sending nude images), offering insights into what situations adolescents view as pressuring, how adolescents react to the pressure, and what counter‐strategies they use. Written statements from 225 adolescents (age 13–16 years, M = 14.4 years, SD = 0.93) were analyzed using thematic analysis. Results indicated a range of situations including both explicit and implicit pressure. The pressure elicited different emotional responses, including severe physical and psychological reactions, becoming distressed, and being seemingly unconcerned. A majority of the adolescents reported successful strategies on how to ward off the unwanted sexual requests. This study provides insight into how young people cope with potentially harmful situations online.
... We did not measure coercion because we focused on overall controlled motivations for sexting in the relationship as opposed to individual scenarios. Nonetheless, past research has illustrated that when coercion is accounted for, participants are more likely to engage in sexual compliance (Katz & Tirone, 2009;Willis & Nelson-Gray, 2022) and experience higher depression, anxiety, stress, trauma, sexual problems, attachment dysfunction, and lower selfesteem Klettke et al., 2019;Ross et al., 2019). Despite not knowing the frequency, some participants who reported controlled motivations for sexting may have engaged as a result of coercion, and these experiences may be especially damaging for outcomes. ...
Although many studies have examined reasons for sexting among young people, few have taken into account the underlying motivations associated with different reasons and how that may be associated with divergent positive or negative outcomes. This study addressed this gap by employing Self-determination Theory to assess how autonomous and controlled motivations for sexting were related to subjective well-being and relationship quality among emerging adults. Online survey data from 267 emerging adults (72 men, 195 women) ages 18–25 who had sent sexually explicit images or videos of themselves through electronic means to a committed partner were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling. Autonomous and controlled motivations for sexting were significantly related to pleasant affect, with autonomous motivation predicting more pleasant affect and controlled motivation predicting less pleasant affect. Autonomous motivations for sexting were related to enhanced relationship quality, whereas controlled motivations for sexting were related to decreased relationship quality. Neither form of motivation had a statistically significant relationship with unpleasant affect or life satisfaction. These results demonstrate that the quality of motivations for sexting among emerging adults in committed relationships may contribute to different outcomes, particularly in terms of relationship quality. Implications for counselors, educators, and practitioners working with emerging adults who sext are discussed.
... More recently, researchers have pushed to separate definitions of sexting according to degrees of consent (Slane, 2010;Slane, 2013;Krieger, 2017). Non-consensual sexting has been called a variety of terms including: "aggravated sexting" (Johnson et al., 2018;Wolak & Finkelhor, 2011), "secondary sexting" (Del Ray et al., 2019), "pressured sexting" (Englander, 2015), and "coerced but consensual sexting" (Klettke et al., 2019). While this work is important, inclusion of the term 'sexting' in the descriptions of these harmful behaviours maintains the conceptual association of consensual sexting with risk, whereby these non-consensual behaviours are viewed as an unfortunate by-product of consensual sexting (Krieger, 2017). ...
This article reports on a qualitative research study Sharing Networked Image Practices (SNIP) among young people. We explore our findings from 37 focus groups with 206 young people aged (11–19) in London and South East England and Toronto, Canada conducted in 2019 and 2020. Drawing on feminist legal and criminological scholarship (Powell & Henry, 2017; McGlynn et al., 2017; McGlynn and Johnson, 2020) we develop a framework to clearly identify how and when image sharing should be constituted as forms of: (1) Image-Based Sexual Harassment (IBSH) (i.e. unsolicited penis images (‘dick pics’) and unwanted solicitation for nudes), and (2) Image-Based Sexual Abuse (IBSA) (i.e. non-consensual image creation/sharing). We argue that categorizing non-consensual image sharing, showing and distributing as image-based sexual harassment and abuse rather than ‘sexting’ is an important conceptual shift to enable young people, schools, parents and all relevant stakeholders to recognize and address new forms of technology-facilitated sexual violence.
... This makes some people try to compensate for their loneliness and sexual needs by using sexting to cope (Lehmiller et al., 2021). On the contrary, Klettke et al. (2019) have explained that there is a possibility that sexting is still carried out even though the individual does not want to do it because of coercion from the partner, which causes psychological distress. When this occurs, the feeling of having to engage in sexting is significantly correlated with anxiety and stress, which is associated with lower life satisfaction. ...
The research sought to find out more about the perceived changes and relationships between sexual activities, sexual satisfaction, and life satisfaction of sexually active Indonesian adults before the pandemic (February 2019 - February 2020) and during the pandemic (March 2020 - June 2020). The research applied a cross-sectional method. An online questionnaire was conducted once in June 2020 to collect the data from 1.006 samples aged 18 to 64. Analysis using paired sample t-test shows a significant decrease due to the COVID-19 pandemic in various sexual activities, including cuddling, non-penetrative sex, masturbation sex, oral sex, and penetrative sex, but not in sexting. The results also show a significant decrease in sexual and life satisfaction due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Regardless of the COVID-19 pandemic, sexual satisfaction, and life satisfaction are positively and significantly correlated in sexually active Indonesian adults. The results of the research indicate that sexual life is still an important aspect, especially when dealing with stressful life events such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Interestingly, the same relationship with age did not emerge for receiving sexts. This may speak to youth receiving unsolicited/unwanted sexts prior to being developmentally prepared (Van Ouytsel et al., 2021;Klettke et al., 2019). Future research may seek to explore the implications of differential associations between age and sexting behaviors; perhaps youth typically receive sexts prior to sending, or youth who have non-consensually received sexts are more likely to send in the future. ...
Purpose
Early adolescent sexting has implications for health and wellbeing. Parenting practices may impact youth engagement in online risk behaviors. This study examines associations between parental media mediation and early adolescent sexting in a sample of U.S. youth and their parents.
Methods
Parents and their 10-14-year-olds (N = 306 dyads) completed an online survey of technology use and online experiences. Youth reported on receiving (valid % = 14.5) and sending (valid % = 11.5) sexts. Media parenting behaviors were measured by four scales (youth and parent report): active mediation, restriction, parental monitoring, and technology control. Logistic regression was used to test associations between media parenting and sexting, controlling for demographic and social covariates.
Results
Parent and child reports of restrictive parenting were negatively associated with sending and receiving sexts; active mediation was negatively associated with sending sexts; and parent report of monitoring was positively associated with sending sexts. Age, SES, and parent respondent gender were associated with sending sexts.
Conclusions
Specific types of parental media mediation are associated with reduced youth sexting, particularly restriction and active mediation. Although parent and youth report of mediation were similar, differences emerged. Future research should explore these differences and associations with health risk behaviors.
... Sexting coercion can include receiving threats, blackmail, or pressure to sext . Indeed, sexting coercion is considered one of the more harmful sexting experiences (Klettke et al., 2019). Additional findings reveal that pressure to sext is common even among consensual sexting, yet there is a distinct difference between nonconsensual sexting, unwanted sexting, and coerced sexting (Cornelius et al., 2020). ...
As sexting continues to develop as a facet of sexual behavior among emerging adults, it is important to examine precursors and outcomes of such behavior. Current research is beginning to examine potential positive outcomes of consensual sex- ting in addition to negative consequences, as well as the motivations and contexts in which these consequences manifest. The purpose of the present study was to examine motivations for consensual sexting across gender and relationship status, as well as a range of perceived consequences of sexting in undergraduate emerging adults (N=536; 77.2% women). With regards to motivations for sexting, men and those in committed romantic relationships more frequently reported that their sexting was incited by relational motives compared to women and those in casual sexual relationships. In examining consequences of sexting, women reported higher levels of punishment compared to men. A significant interaction was present between gender and relationship status, revealing that women in casual sexual relationships reported the highest amounts of negative consequences. These findings highlight the complexity of sexting behaviors and suggest the need for more nuanced research to accurately conceptualize and contextualize the motivations for and the consequences of sexting as a function of relationship status and gender.
... Definitions of, and the behaviors included by sexting vary but the sending and receiving of social media messages with nudity or sexualized visual content (typically considered "private") is a common theme ( Barrense-Dias et al., 2017;Madigan et al., 2018), (Gewirtz-Meydan et al., 2018). Public dissemination of nude or sexualized images is a relatively common experience among youth of diverse sexual orientations (Bauermeister et al., 2014;Madigan et al., 2018), often generating significant negative responses such as shame, humiliation, bullying, psychological distress, sexual violence perpetration, and legal prosecution Klettke et al., 2019Klettke et al., , 2014Krieger, 2017;Mori et al., 2019;Reed et al., 2020). ...
Sexual modesty is the social, cultural, interpersonal, and psychological systems - defined by the tenets of Script Theory - that regulate individuals' sexual expression and experience at the social, legal, and interpersonal boundaries of acceptable/not-acceptable, private/public, and personal/social. Almost all aspects of sexual expression and experience are touched by the pervasive modesty standards for sexual communication, sexual display, sexual relations, and sexual behaviors. Sexual modesty influences an array of sexual and reproductive health outcomes. Many aspects of sexual modesty are enforced by legal as well as social, cultural, and religious proscriptions, including social shaming and ostracism as well as corporal and capital punishments. The purpose of this paper is to summarize a diverse literature related to sexual modesty from the years 2000 to 2021 in order to clarify its role in sexual health and sexual wellbeing and to identify directions for new research.
... The term sexting refers to the sending and receiving, usually by smartphone (Hinduja & Patchin, 2012), of messages that include sexual content (written, photographs, and videos) with partial or implied nudity, as part of sexual communication (Cooper et al., 2016;Klettke et al., 2019). Sexting can occur while adolescents are experimenting with their sexuality (Dir et al., 2013;Henderson & Morgan, 2011). ...
Sexting (sending, receiving, and forwarding nude, semi-nude, or sexually explicit content) entails risks for adolescents; therefore, it is important for parents to be able to communicate with their children about its implications. The goal of the present study was to identify parental characteristics that lead to dysfunctional communication (lower quality of communication) about sexting, on a sample of 427 parents (336 mothers and 91 fathers) of Israeli adolescents aged 10–18 years and to determine whether parents’ perceived severity of sexting and the degree to which they perceive their adolescent to be susceptible to sexting function as mediating factors. Parents completed a set of questionnaires online. Findings indicated that authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were positively associated with dysfunctional parent–child communication about sexting. Authoritative style was inversely related to dysfunctional communication and was mediated by positive attitudes toward sex education. Additionally, authoritative parents were capable of assessing the severity of their children’s sexting activities, and the degree to which their children were susceptible to engage in sexting. The quality of the discussion initiated by authoritative parents appears to have enabled them to be aware of adolescent behaviors and to adjust their communication about the inherent risks. Findings suggest that the perception of sexting as too risky diminishes parents’ ability to conduct a high-quality discussion about it. In conclusion, research findings emphasize parents’ role in mediation of the online experiences of their children and conducting a constructive discussions with them about sexting.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, Çevrimiçi Cinsel Taciz Ölçeği’nin Türkçe’ye uyarlamasını gerçekleştirmek, bu kapsamda geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmalarını yapmaktadır. Çalışmanın bir diğer amacı ise üniversite öğrencilerinin çevrimiçi cinsel tacize maruz kalmalarının cinsiyete göre farklılık gösterip göstermediğinin incelenmesidir. Çalışmaya 340 üniversite öğrencisi (221 kadın, 119 erkek) katılmıştır. Ölçeğin yapı geçerliğini incelemek amacıyla 340 katılımcıdan elde edilen veri seti ile Doğrulayıcı Faktör Analizi (DFA) yapılmıştır. Ölçeğin orijinalinde olduğu gibi 12 maddeden oluşan 2 faktörlü (cinsel ilgi ve cinsiyet temelli taciz) yapısı doğrulanmıştır. DFA sonucunda ulaşılan uyum iyiliği değerlerinin kabul edilebilir düzeyde olduğu görülmüştür (χ2/df= 3.77; GFI= .91; SRMR= .045; CFI= .95; NFI= .93; IFI= .95; TLI= .94). Cinsel ilgi ve cinsiyet temelli taciz boyutlarına ve ölçeğin bütününe ilişkin Cronbach alfa değerleri sırasıyla .93, .83, .94 olarak bulunmuştur. Çevrimiçi Cinsel Taciz Ölçeği (ÇCTÖ)’nin Türkçe formunun çevrimiçi cinsel taciz deneyimini ölçmek amacıyla kullanılabilecek geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçme aracı olduğu söylenebilir. Bununla birlikte araştırmada kadın katılımcıların çevrimiçi cinsel taciz puan ortalamalarının hem alt boyutlarda hem de ölçeğin bütününde erkeklere göre anlamlı şekilde yüksek olduğu, istenmeyen cinsel ilgiye ve cinsiyet temelli tacize daha yoğun şekilde maruz kaldıkları belirlenmiştir.
Objectification theory was tested to examine the potential mediating role of self-objectification in the relationship between technology-facilitated sexual harassment (TFSH) and psychological functioning in a sample of women (N = 481). The results indicated that TFSH was associated with eating pathology, alcohol use, and sexual functioning. Furthermore, partial support for the objectification theory was achieved, with self-objectification potentially explaining the relationships between TFSH and eating pathology, and TFSH and alcohol use. This research may shed light on the role of objectification processes in the context of TFSH in women, as well as inform mental health interventions for women victims of TFSH.
This study used expectancy violations theory and uses and gratifications theory to conduct an experiment investigating how the content of relationship initiation messages, recipients' gender, and recipients' motives for using online dating applications shape whether and how the initiation message violates recipients' expectations. Participants ( N = 275) were recruited through an emergent adult population at a large Midwestern university and identified primarily as women (66.7%), heterosexual (79%), and white (64.5%). Participants were randomly assigned to imagine matching with someone through online dating who sent either a traditional greeting or sexually explicit content in their initial message. As predicted, receiving a sexually explicit message was more unexpected and perceived more negatively than receiving an ordinary greeting, but the intensity of that negative reaction was moderated by users' motives for using online dating apps and gender. Negative reactions to receiving sexually explicit content were amplified for women and individuals interested in long‐term relationships. Negative reactions were dampened for men and online daters interested in casual sexual relationships. The implications of the findings are discussed in relation to expectancy violations theory and research on relationship initiation in online contexts.
Introduction
Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) is a global public health problem with potentially severe health and mental health consequences. Healthcare professionals (HCPs) should be familiar with risk factors and potential indicators of CSA, and able to provide appropriate medical management. The WHO issued global guidelines for the clinical care of children with CSA, based on rigorous review of the evidence base. The current systematic review identifies existing CSA guidelines issued by government agencies and academic societies in the European Region and assesses their quality and clarity to illuminate strengths and identify opportunities for improvement.
Methods and analysis
This 10-database systematic review will be conducted according to the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination guidelines and will be reported according to The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement. Guidance for HCPs regarding CSA, written by a national governmental agency or academic society of HCPs within 34 COST Action 19106 Network Countries (CANC) and published in peer-reviewed or grey literature between January 2012 and November 2022, is eligible for inclusion. Two independent researchers will search the international literature, screen, review and extract data. Included guidelines will be assessed for completeness and clarity, compared with the WHO 2017/2019 guidelines on CSA, and evaluated for consistency between the CANC guidelines. The Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation II tool and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation methodology will be used to evaluate CANC guidelines. Descriptive statistics will summarise content similarities and differences between the WHO guidelines and national guidelines; data will be summarised using counts, frequencies, proportions and per cent agreement between country-specific guidelines and the WHO 2017/2019 guidelines.
Ethics and dissemination
There are no individuals or protected health information involved and no safety issues identified. Results will be published in a peer-reviewed medical journal.
PROSPERO registration number
CRD42022320747.
The advent of technology has dramatically changed the way sexual violence is perpetrated and experienced. Understanding the context of image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) and risk factors associated with perpetration are key to effective prevention efforts. The present study explores three IBSA behaviours—coerced sexting, non-consensual dissemination of intimate images, and cyberflashing—to examine the degree of victim-perpetrator overlap and what risk factors from the extant sexual violence literature are relevant to each behaviour. Emerging adults (n = 541; 69% female, 31% male) were recruited from a local university in Nova Scotia and the broader community (not specific to Nova Scotia) and reported their perpetration and victimization experiences with the three forms of IBSA. Participants also completed measures relating to their offense-supportive attitudes, dark triad traits, sadism, sexual compulsivity, impulsivity, and substance use. Results indicated substantial victim-perpetrator overlap for non-consensual dissemination of intimate images and cyberflashing. Victim-perpetrators demonstrated a pattern of higher scores across all risk-related measures, the magnitude of which differed across IBSA behaviours. These findings suggest that the broader literature on sexual offending is relevant to understanding IBSA and fits with the wider literature that suggests overlap between victimization and perpetration.
Sextortion is a relatively new phenomenon of sexual exploitation, which occurs when a person threatens another person with the distribution of sexual content on the Internet, in order to get more pictures, videos, money or other benefits. The current study examined how educational consultants in Israel perceive online sextortion. For this purpose, we conducted a qualitative research that entailed twelve in-depth semi-structured interviews with educational consultants working in middle and high schools in Israel, who treated girls who experienced online sextortion. The findings of the study indicate that the educational counselors had difficulty in identifying and defining treatment cases as cases of sextortion in the network and that in their perception this is only a minor injury. In addition, they tried to hang the reasons for the extortion on factors related to the victim and the background from which she came and made a distinction between those who transmitted the sexual images themselves and those from whom the images were stolen. The findings of the study show the importance of providing relevant knowledge and appropriate coping tools to educational counselors and discuss the implications for the field.
Dating app facilitated sexual violence (DAFSV) includes behaviors such as unwanted sexual comments/harassment, unsolicited sexual photos, and gender/sexuality-based harassment - and could extend to sexual violence when meeting partners face-to-face. The effects of sexual violence on mental health are well-established; however, research on DAFSV has been limited. The goal of the current study was to understand college students' experiences of DAFSV and investigate cross-sectional associations with indicators of mental health (i.e. depression and anxiety symptoms) and well-being (i.e. self-esteem, loneliness, perceived control). Participants were college students in the United States who used dating apps (N = 277) and identified primarily as women (64.6%) and heterosexual/straight (74.0%). Most participants (88.4%) self-reported at least one instance of DAFSV. Women (vs. men) and sexual minority (vs. heterosexual/straight) individuals experienced more frequent DAFSV. Regression analyses indicated that DAFSV frequency was associated with higher depression and anxiety symptoms, higher loneliness, lower self-esteem, and lower perceived control. This study highlights the importance of DAFSV for a broad range of well-being indicators. Given that dating apps are one of the most common means of meeting partners, research is needed to better understand these initial interactions, prevent DAFSV from occurring, and mitigate the impact of DAFSV on health outcomes.
The sending of sexually explicit images by men to women without prior request, a practice commonly referred to as sending or receiving a “dick pic,” is a fairly common manifestation of sexual cyber-violence that has grown in recent times. As research on this type of sexual cyber-violence is limited, the current study analyzed the prevalence of this phenomenon in a sample of 347 Spanish women between 18 and 30 years of age, studying the factors that influence the emotional impact reported by women if they received an unsolicited dick pic (using a hypothetical scenario) and exploring the various coping strategies that women would use in that situation. Results showed a significant prevalence of this type of cyber-violence in the sample, as 48.1% of the participants had received an unsolicited dick pic from an unknown man at some point. Women with lower levels of hostile sexism—but not of benevolent sexism—reported a higher depressed and angry/annoyed emotional impact of the sexual cyber-violence scenario. This was also the case for women with a less conservative political ideology, with less religious beliefs, as well as those women who perceived that their female friends receive this type of images frequently (descriptive norm) and who perceived that their female friends are less accepting of these situations (injunctive norm). In addition, from the strategies presented to the participants to cope with this situation of sexual cyber-violence, it was observed that a significant percentage of women would choose strategies, such as talking about the incident with other people and blocking the sender’s access. Yet, fewer women would employ effective strategies, such as reporting the perpetrator’s profile to the managers or administrators of the social network or reporting the incident to the police. This study is one of the first studies in Spain that addresses this new form of sexual cyber-violence against women by unknown men and suggests that, in online social networks, women experience the same situations of abuse, harassment, and sexual objectification that they have faced offline in everyday life. Therefore, more work needs to be done to raise awareness and try to prevent these situations, while also providing more support to these women so that they can adopt effective coping strategies.
Sexting (sending and receiving sexual messages) could entail risk for
adolescent users. Hence, it is important that parents are able to address their children's sexuality and mediate to them the implications of sexting. The goal of the current study was to identify parental factors that lead to dysfunctional communication about sexting
among 427 parents of Israeli adolescents (ages 10±18) and to determine whether parents' perceived severity of sexting function as
mediating factors. Parents completed a set of online questionnaires. Findings indicated that of the parenting styles examined, the authoritarian and permissive styles were positively associated with dysfunctional parent-child communication. The authoritative
style was inversely related to dysfunctional communication and was mediated by positive attitudes regarding sex education. Additionally, authoritative parents were capable of assessing the severity and susceptibility of their children's sexting activities.
It appears that the quality of the discussion initiated by authoritative parents enabled them to be aware of adolescent behaviors and phenomena and modulate their communication regarding the implied risks accordingly. Moreover, ethnic differences emerged between Arab and Jewish parents with regard to the quality of parent-child communication about sexting. Specifically, Arab parents tended more toward
dysfunctional communication about sexting than did Jewish parents. Findings suggest that perceiving the implications of sexting as too risky diminishes parents' ability to conduct a high-quality discussion. In conclusion, parents need to mediate and conduct constructive discussions with their children regarding this topic.
The study examines sexting among 3,171 Greek university students in the context of different relationship types (i.e. romantic partners, friends, strangers). Participants completed an anonymous online survey, assessing sexting during the last year along with demographic and relationship status information. Sexting was a common practice among participants, with the use of mobile phones and the Messenger application to exchange sexts. Sexting was more common among males and non-heterosexuals. Participants aged 25 and above were more likely to exchange sexts with strangers than those aged between 18 and 24. Romantic partners reported exchanging sexts more often than strangers. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that non-heterosexual males in a long-distance romantic relationship were more likely to participate in sexting, and that non-heterosexual older males who have been single for the last year were more likely to exchange sexual or provocative messages with strangers. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications.
. Losing a significant other to suicide increases the risks of depression and suicide. Fear of stigma, fatigue and lack of services may hinder the help-seeking behavior of suicide mourners, or “survivors”. The study aimed at exploring characteristics and needs of recent survivors seeking for help online and the pros and cons of the use of live-chats as a first-aid tool in bereavement support. A data-driven thematic analysis with the software ATLAS.ti was carried out on 20 live-chat conversations from the major Italian association providing free-of-charge online support. Socio-demographics details were retrieved from the transcripts. Three categories were explored: users’ features, users ‘requests and online interactions. The users were mainly women (18 of 20), partners, siblings, or parents of the deceased (11 of 20), aged between 24 and 56 years, who had lost their significant other between one day and 12 months before. Users expressed needs to receive practical information on how and where to find support and requests to be emotionally reassured. Features such as anonymity and accessibility were fondly appreciated. Live-chat services represent a safe space where survivors can obtain useful information and start processing their loss. Because of its anonymity and accessibility, a live-chat service may represent a valid first line of support and a tool for prevention of suicidal ideation. The strengths of the study reside in its ecology: differently from a simulated user study, this analysis stems from a real context of emergency.
Annual Review of CyberTherapy and Telemedicine (ARCTT – ISSN: 1554-8716) is one of the official journals of the International Association of CyberPsychology, Training, and Rehabilitation (iACToR). The journal is published annually (once per year) by the Interactive Media Institute (IMI) - a 501c3 non profit organization, dedicated to incorporating interdisciplinary researchers from around the world to create, test, and develop clinical protocols for the medical and psychological community - in cooperation with Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, hosting and maintaining this web site. ARCTT is an Open Access journal that does not charge readers or their institutions for access.
The influence of information communication technology has brought about the phenomenon of sexting. Sexting is defined as sending, receiving, or forwarding on sexually explicit messages and images via the Internet or a mobile phone. The current study investigated relationships between sexting, sensation seeking, and self-esteem. Sexting was categorized in six ways: sending (1) sexually suggestive photos or videos, (2) photos or videos wearing lingerie, (3) nude photos or videos, (4) sexually suggestive text messages, (5) text messages propositioning sex, and (6) forwarding on or showing others sexts which were meant to be kept private. The sample comprised 583 young adults (80% female, M age = 20.72 years, SD age = 2.13) who participated in an online survey. The strongest predictor of sending all types of sexts was being in a relationship (compared to being single). In addition, high self-esteem was associated with reduced odds of sending nude photos/videos, while high sensation seeking was associated with increased odds of sending suggestive texts and texts propositioning sex. Finally, high self-esteem was associated with decreased odds, and high sensation seeking with increased odds, of forwarding on sexts which were meant to be kept private. This pattern of associations points to differences underlying engagement in the various types of sexting behaviors. Such information can be used by educators, parents, and clinicians to raise awareness of traits which make an individual more likely to engage in sexting, with a view to prevention and education about the risks of sexting and violation of privacy.
The potential emotional and legal consequences of adolescents' engagement in sending sexually explicit pictures through the internet or the mobile phone (i.e., sexting) have caused significant concern about the behavior among practitioners and academics. The present study compares the characteristics of students who engage in sexting to those who do not. A survey among 1028 adolescents of 11 secondary schools in Belgium was administered. Logistic regression analyses suggest that sexting is significantly linked with sensation seeking, experiential thinking styles and depression, while controlling for gender, age, family status and students' response to economic stress. The results are of importance to practitioners who could adapt their prevention and intervention campaigns to better reach this complex youth. Differences with the findings of previous studies highlight the importance of continuing research on sexting and the need to pay attention to the specific context in which adolescent sexting takes place.
A hierarchical facet model of self-esteem proposed by R. J. Shavelson et al (see record
1978-30429-001) was partially tested in a previous study by J. S. Fleming and W. A. Watts (see record
1981-28061-001). Their 3 factors, which were labeled Self-Regard, Social Confidence, and School Abilities, corresponded to 3 of the 4 dimensions posited by Shavelson et al. Predictions of other individual-difference variables from these factors were also tested by correlational analysis. Improvements to the instrument led to a replication of their 3 factors plus 2 predicted physical factors: Physical Appearance and Physical Abilities. In the present study, with 259 undergraduates, a 2nd-order factor analysis yielded a single, superordinate factor of global self-esteem, supporting the hierarchical interpretation of the facet model. Construct validity was further examined by replication of the correlational findings of Fleming and Watts and by correlations with other measures of personality and adjustment, including a global measure of self-esteem: the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The facet model as presently operationalized measures dimensions of relevance for the intended population, but these dimensions are not so broadly defined as to be redundant with related constructs. (65 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Four studies examined the construct validity of two global self-esteem measures. In Studies 1 through 3, the Single-Item Self-Esteem Scale (SISE) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) showed strong convergent validity for men and women, for different ethnic groups, and for both college students and community members. The SISE and the RSE had nearly identical correlations with a wide range of criterion measures, including domain-specific self-evaluations, self-evaluative biases, social desirability, personality, psychological and physical health, peer ratings of group behavior, academic outcomes, and demographic variables. Study 4 showed that the SISE had only moderate convergent validity in a sample of children. Overall, the findings support the reliability and validity of the SISE and suggest it can provide a practical alternative to the RSE in adult samples. More generally, the findings contribute to the research literature by further elaborating the nomological network of global self-esteem.
Concerns about sexting are increasingly prevalent in mainstream and academic media despite limited and inconsistent research findings about the practice. Much of this discourse centers around harm and sexting is commonly considered to be a risky behavior. A driving factor in these discussions is the apparent conflation of consensual and nonconsensual acts or sexting behaviors. A systematic review was conducted to determine the extent to which consensual and nonconsensual acts were conflated in the legal, educational, and psychological literatures on sexting, and how nonconsensual sexting was conceptualized within these disciplines. Definitions of sexting varied widely with regard to the inclusion or exclusion of nonconsensual acts. Nonconsensual acts were conceptualized in the following ways: as a risk of sexing, as being the fault of the victim, as bullying, or as a form of violence against women. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
In this study, we examined the relationships between sexting coercion, physical sex coercion, intimate partner violence, and mental health and trauma symptoms within a sample of 480 young adult undergraduates (160 men and 320 women). Approximately one fifth of the sample indicated that they had engaged in sexting when they did not want to. Those who had been coerced into sexting had usually been coerced by subtler tactics (e.g., repeated asking and being made to feel obligated) than more severe forms of coercion (e.g., physical threats). Nevertheless, the trauma related to these acts of coercion both at the time they occurred and now (looking back) were greater for sexting coercion than for physical sex coercion. Moreover, women noted significantly more trauma now (looking back) than at the time the events occurred for sexting coercion. Additionally, those who experienced more instances of sexting coercion also endorsed more symptoms of anxiety, depression, and generalized trauma. Finally, sexting coercion was related to both physical sex coercion and intimate partner violence, which suggests that sexting coercion may be a form of intimate partner violence, providing perpetrators with a new, digital route for physical and sexual covictimization.
Young people's use of technology as a tool for the negotiation of their sexual identities and encounters has increasingly become a focal point in popular and scholarly discussion. Much of this debate centres on the sending of explicit sexual images and/or video (‘selfies’ or ‘sexting’) by mobile phone, email or social media. In Australia and elsewhere, legislative frameworks have arguably over-regulated or criminalised young people's consensual, digital, sexual communications. Equally, the law has failed to respond to the harm that is experienced by victims of non-consensual making and/or distribution of such sexual images. In this paper, we examine the non-consensual creation and distribution of sexual images in the context of harassment, stalking and family or intimate violence. We argue that harmful digital communications are often framed as a problem of user naiveté rather than gender-based violence. Moreover, we argue that current legal and policy approaches fail to adequately capture the social and psychological harm that results from the use of sexual imagery to harass, coerce or blackmail women. We draw on preliminary data from a larger project investigating adult women's experiences of technology-mediated sexual violence and harassment.
Purpose:
To examine the relation between "sexting" (sending and sharing sexual photos online, via text messaging, and in person) with sexual risk behaviors and psychosocial challenge in adolescence.
Methods:
Data were collected online between 2010 and 2011 with 3,715 randomly selected 13- to 18-year-old youth across the United States.
Results:
Seven percent of youth reported sending or showing someone sexual pictures of themselves, in which they were nude or nearly nude, online, via text messaging, or in person, during the past year. Although females and older youth were more likely to share sexual photos than males and younger youth, the profile of psychosocial challenge and sexual behavior was similar for all youth. After adjusting for demographic characteristics, sharing sexual photos was associated with all types of sexual behaviors assessed (e.g., oral sex, vaginal sex) as well as some of the risky sexual behaviors examined-particularly having concurrent sexual partners and having more past-year sexual partners. Adolescents who shared sexual photos also were more likely to use substances and less likely to have high self-esteem than their demographically similar peers.
Conclusions:
Although the media has portrayed sexting as a problem caused by new technology, health professionals may be more effective by approaching it as an aspect of adolescent sexual development and exploration and, in some cases, risk-taking and psychosocial challenge.
Heightened psychosocial stress coupled with maladaptive coping may be associated with greater sexual risk engagement. This study examined the association between stress levels and coping strategy use as predictors of sexual risk behavior engagement over 24 months among African-American adolescent females (N = 701; M = 17.6 years) enrolled in an STI/HIV risk-reduction intervention program. Participants completed audio computer assisted self-interview (ACASI) measures of global stress, interpersonal stress, coping strategy use, and sexual behaviors prior to intervention participation. Follow-up ACASI assessments were conducted at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months post-intervention. Generalized estimated equation models examined associations between baseline stress levels and coping strategy use as predictors of condom use (past 90 days, last sex) and multiple partners during follow-up. Global stress and individual coping strategy usage were not associated with differences in condom use. Higher interpersonal stress was associated with lower proportion condom use (p = .018), inconsistent condom use (p = .011), and not using a condom at last sex (p = .002). There were no significant associations between stress levels, coping strategy use, and multiple partners. Future research should explore mechanisms that may underlie the association between elevated interpersonal stress and decreased condom use among this population.
A wide body of research has examined unwanted but consensual sex in a face-to-face context, focusing on intercourse, petting, kissing, and other sexual activity that people consent to even though they do not want to. Recent research has shown many people engage in sexual interactions via computer-mediated mediums; yet, to date, there are no studies that have investigated whether unwanted but consensual sexual activity exists in these contexts. In this study, we examined the extent to which 93 women and 62 men had consented to unwanted sexting within committed relationships and the attachment characteristics and motivations that are associated with this behavior. Approximately one half of the sample (52.3%) had engaged in unwanted but consensual sexting with a committed partner, and most did so for flirtation, foreplay, to fulfill a partner’s needs, or for intimacy. Among men, neither of the attachment dimensions was related to unwanted but consensual sexting. However, among women, anxious attachment was significantly related to frequency of consenting to unwanted sexting, and consenting to avoid an argument was a mediator in the relationship between anxious attachment and consenting to unwanted sexting. These results are compared to previous work on unwanted but consensual sex, and future directions are discussed.
The current study examines whether adolescents who report sexting exhibit more psychosocial health problems, compared to their non-sexting counterparts. Participants included 937 ethnically diverse male and female adolescents recruited and assessed from multiple high schools in southeast Texas. Measures included self-report of sexting, impulsivity, alcohol and drug use, and depression and anxiety symptoms. Teen sexting was significantly associated with symptoms of depression, impulsivity, and substance use. When adjusted for prior sexual behavior, age, gender, race/ethnicity, and parent education, sexting was only related to impulsivity and substance use. While teen sexting appears to correlate with impulsive and high-risk behaviors (substance use), we did not find sexting to be a marker of mental health.
The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of sexting among sixth through twelfth grade students and its correlations with other risk behaviors. The survey was conducted in 35 different schools in a midwestern state. Overall, 17% of students engaged in sexting, which varied significantly by age (3% of 12-year-olds to 32% of 18-year-olds). Adjusted odds ratios found statistically significant correlations between sexting and sexual behaviors, substance use behaviors, emotional health behaviors, and time spent texting. Sexting should be addressed by parents, teachers, and mental health professionals who interact with adolescents.
Purpose:
Sexting has stirred debate over its legality and safety, but few researchers have documented the relationship between sexting and health. We describe the sexting behavior of young adults in the United States, and examine its association with sexual behavior and psychological well-being.
Methods:
Using an adapted Web version of respondent-driven sampling, we recruited a sample of U.S. young adults (aged 18-24 years, N = 3,447). We examined participant sexting behavior using four categories of sexting: (1) nonsexters, (2) receivers, (3) senders, and (4) two-way sexters. We then assessed the relationships between sexting categories and sociodemographic characteristics, sexual behavior, and psychological well-being.
Results:
More than half (57%) of the respondents were nonsexters, 28.2% were two-way sexters, 12.6% were receivers, and 2% were senders. Male respondents were more likely to be receivers than their female counterparts. Sexually active respondents were more likely to be two-way sexters than non-sexually active ones. Among participants who were sexually active in the past 30 days, we found no differences across sexting groups in the number of sexual partners or the number of unprotected sex partners in the past 30 days. We also found no relationship between sexting and psychological well-being.
Conclusions:
Our results suggest that sexting is not related to sexual risk behavior or psychological well-being. We discuss the findings of this study and propose directions for further research on sexting.
In this study, self-esteem refers to feelings of satisfaction a person has about himself which reflect the relationship between his self-image and his ideal self-image. Different measures of self-esteem, related to this definition, were studied in a sample of 44 late adolescent Ss. Test measures and interview assessment of self-esteem met certain criteria of validity as outlined by Campbell and Fiske. Clinical configurations of self-esteem, including defensive aspects, are described and related to the test measures. (35 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
“Sexting” refers to sending and receiving sexually suggestive images, videos, or texts on cell phones. As a means for maintaining or initiating a relationship, sexting behavior and attitudes may be understood through adult attachment theory. One hundred and twenty-eight participants (M=22 and F=106), aged 18–30years, completed an online questionnaire about their adult attachment styles and sexting behavior and attitudes. Attachment anxiety predicted sending texts that solicit sexual activity for those individuals in relationships. Attachment anxiety also predicted positive attitudes towards sexting such as accepting it as normal, that it will enhance the relationship, and that partners will expect sexting. Sexting may be a novel form for expressing attachment anxiety.
To test the construct validity of the short-form version of the Depression anxiety and stress scale (DASS-21), and in particular, to assess whether stress as indexed by this measure is synonymous with negative affectivity (NA) or whether it represents a related, but distinct, construct. To provide normative data for the general adult population.
Cross-sectional, correlational and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).
The DASS-21 was administered to a non-clinical sample, broadly representative of the general adult UK population (N = 1,794). Competing models of the latent structure of the DASS-21 were evaluated using CFA.
The model with optimal fit (RCFI = 0.94) had a quadripartite structure, and consisted of a general factor of psychological distress plus orthogonal specific factors of depression, anxiety, and stress. This model was a significantly better fit than a competing model that tested the possibility that the Stress scale simply measures NA.
The DASS-21 subscales can validly be used to measure the dimensions of depression, anxiety, and stress. However, each of these subscales also taps a more general dimension of psychological distress or NA. The utility of the measure is enhanced by the provision of normative data based on a large sample.
Senate Select Committee on Cyber-Safety
- Law Council Of Australia
Law Council of Australia. (2013) Senate Select Committee
on Cyber-Safety. Canberra, Australia.
Child's play or child pornography: the need for better laws regarding sexting
- J Walker
- S Moak
Walker J, Moak S. Child's play or child pornography: the
need for better laws regarding sexting. ACJS Today 2014;
35:3-9.
Low risk associated with most teenage sexting: a study of 617 18-year-olds
- E Englander
Englander E. Low risk associated with most teenage sexting: a study of 617 18-year-olds. Marc Research Reports
2012; Paper 6:1-12.