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The role of time and storage conditions on the composition of hashish and marijuana samples: A four-year study
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the role of time and different real-life storage conditions on the composition of different varieties of cannabis products (hashish and marijuana). Six high-potency cannabis products constituted by herbal and resin materials containing different initial concentrations of delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) were employed for this study. Four representative samples were collected from each study material and were maintained for a prolonged time (four years) under different controlled storage conditions: (A) light (24 h) and room temperature (22 °C); (B) darkness (24 h) and room temperature; (C) darkness and refrigeration (4 °C); (D) darkness and freezing (−20 °C). The concentration of the three main cannabinoids, i.e. THC, Cannabinol (CBN, produced from the degradation of THC), and Cannabidiol (CBD), were measured by GC-FID around every 100 days along the four-year study. Significant changes in the THC (degradation) and CBN (formation) content were detected under storage conditions A and B, and almost 100% of THC was degraded after four years. A mono-exponential function was able to well fit both THC degradation and CBN formation, suggesting that these processes occur with a first order kinetics. Data treatment indicated that the storage temperature and light exposure had two different effects on the conversion of THC to CBN: temperature changed only the speed, light changed both the speed and the stoichiometry of this conversion. Models were proposed which allow to predict the storage time, if unknown, and the initial content of THC (i.e. the concentration of THC at the starting storage time), from the measurement of THC and CBN content at any time under storage condition A. Values predicted are more uncertain at larger storage times and have an accuracy of around 5-10%. These models were also tested on data reported in the literature, and can represent a starting point for further improvements. Prediction models may be helpful for forensic purposes, if the initial concentration of THC or the approximate age of a degraded material need to be estimated, or to plan the storage of delicate samples which need to be re-examined over time.
... The first is Turner et al. (1973), who reported the absence of light as more important than N 2 for maintaining levels of Δ 9 -THC. Fairbairn et al. (1976) The consensus is that cannabinoids decrease over time during storage, which is accelerated by light or high temperatures (Fairbairn et al. 1976;Grafström et al. 2019;Lindholst 2010;Mazzetti et al. 2020;Zamengo 2019). However, our study contradicts the consensus because there was no degradation in total cannabinoids regardless of storage treatment. ...
... Lindholst (2010) has also previously demonstrated the role of oxygen availability in reducing THC degradation rates of dried resin. It is also possible that more time was required to observe degradation, as some previous work would investigate degradation after years of storage versus weeks or months (Fairbairn et al. 1976;Zamengo et al. 2019). Previous studies have also frequently incorporated a smaller number of cannabinoids, and evaluating total cannabinoid dynamics was not feasible. ...
... One degradation pathway includes the oxidation of THC to CBN (Grafström et al. 2019). An increase in Δ 9 -THC for example, was observed for both treatments and contradicts work from Lindholst (2010) and Trofin et al. (2012) who reported Δ 9 -THC levels in dried resin decreased over time, as well as Turner et al. (1973), Fairbairn et al. (1976, and Zamengo et al. (2019) who all reported decreases at various rate ranges dependent on ambient storage temperature and light permanence of the storage container. Further, it has been well established that Δ 9 -THC can be synthesized through thermal decarboxylation of THCA (Tan et al. 2018;Tahir et al. 2021), and it is noteworthy that THCA was the only cannabinoid to decrease in our study. ...
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) alters the gaseous composition of air surrounding packaged goods to prevent deleterious oxidation associated reactions. MAP has been adopted for the storage of cannabis, though a recent study revealed little difference in terpene content under MAP conditions. Questions regarding its efficacy for preservation of high value compounds like terpenes and cannabinoids lost during postharvest storage remain. The goal of this research is to determine weather N 2 MAP preserves high value compounds of cannabis during its postharvest storage. This experiment followed a completed randomized block design. There were two factors of interest. The first was storage atmosphere (atmospheric or N 2 MAP). The second was storage duration (18, 46, or 74 days). The experiment was then blocked by cannabis chemovar using 5 different chemovars. The concentration of 17 cannabinoids was evaluated through UPLC-UV and 61 volatile terpene compounds through GC–MS. Concentrations were compared over time and between storage treatments. There were no significant differences in total cannabinoids and volatile terpene compounds over time or between storage treatments. Individual cannabinoids Δ ⁹ -THC, CBG, CBNA, CBC, THCV, and THCVA all increased during storage time while THCA decreased. CBG and THCV only increased under MAP storage. Individual aromatics limonene, β-pinene, α-pinene, camphene, and terpinolene all only decreased during storage under N 2 MAP. Only caryophyllene oxide and α-humulene increased under N 2 MAP storage. β-Myrcene decreased under atmospheric storage, but not under N 2 MAP. While N 2 MAP had no effect on the preservation of total cannabinoids and aromatics during storage, it did influence several individual compounds. CBG, THCV, and α-humulene all increased under N 2 MAP. N2 MAP also maintained the concentration β-myrcene over time, though the preservation of β-myrcene was offset by a decrease limonene. Overall, N 2 MAP was not needed for preservation of most high value compounds but did have an effect of some compounds with reputed therapeutic benefits.
... According to the literature survey by Lazarjani et al., (2021) [38], external factors such as light duration, oxygen, and harvest time (floral maturity) have been shown to influence the secondary metabolite production in cannabis [37][38][39][40][41][42][43]. Three conditions were used to store cannabis resin (hashish slabs) and extract (by the solvent): room temperature and 4°C both with visible light exposure and darkness, and − 20°C in darkness [37,[38][39][40][41][42][43]. ...
... According to the literature survey by Lazarjani et al., (2021) [38], external factors such as light duration, oxygen, and harvest time (floral maturity) have been shown to influence the secondary metabolite production in cannabis [37][38][39][40][41][42][43]. Three conditions were used to store cannabis resin (hashish slabs) and extract (by the solvent): room temperature and 4°C both with visible light exposure and darkness, and − 20°C in darkness [37,[38][39][40][41][42][43]. One of the study identified that in cannabis resin, light exposure can affect the decarboxylation of THCA and the degradation of THC [37,[38][39][40][41][42][43]. ...
... Three conditions were used to store cannabis resin (hashish slabs) and extract (by the solvent): room temperature and 4°C both with visible light exposure and darkness, and − 20°C in darkness [37,[38][39][40][41][42][43]. One of the study identified that in cannabis resin, light exposure can affect the decarboxylation of THCA and the degradation of THC [37,[38][39][40][41][42][43]. This is evident as the half-life increased by 40% in darkness [37,38]. ...
This review paper highlights and updates the recent robust extraction methods for phytocannabinoids, hydrodynamic extraction technology and use of vegetable oil as the solvent system. Hydrodynamic cannabis extraction is a recent development within the cannabis industry that can be used to produce full-spectrum cannabis extracts with high bioavailability. According to the patented hydrodynamic extraction technology by Clean Green Biosystems, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India, the system is the first of its kind to be able to use whole, freshly harvested cannabis materials. Clean Green Biosystems, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India reports that Hydyne is innovative new hydrodynamic extraction system that uses the entire fresh plant materials to preserve all the unique phytochemicals and phytonutrients compounds in a full spectrum/broad spectrum extract. Hydrodynamic system converts the cannabis plant material into a cannabis nano-emulsion by means of hydrodynamic force and ultrasonification by breaking the cell walls of the plant material and releases them into the aqueous phase. PhytoX TM (USA) is another new hydrodynamic extraction system developed by IASO Inc (Incline Village, Nevada, USA) that can process whole, fresh, un-dried cannabis plants, which maximizes plant utilization, reduces processing costs, and increases yields. Many traditional extraction methods can not guarantee the integrity of unstable compounds. Hydrodynamic extraction is designed to use fresh and whole plants, ensuring these volatile molecules are kept intact. Additionally, the distillation prevents the phytocannabinoids from thermal degradation, further protecting molecule integrity. The aroma of the resultant cannabis products is stronger than traditional extracts. Because the plant material is frozen in the preparation stage of the system, it allows the aromatic compounds to remain intact.
... Sample Collection-According to the study conducted by Schwabe et al., (2023) it has been documented that THC potency varies in flowers located on the top, middle and lower branches on the same plant as well as the timing of plant development [27]. Colorado, USA has developed guidelines for how flowers should be sampled [27,53], but there is limited to no enforcement of these guidelines [27]. If growers are not randomly selecting flowers from throughout plants for testing, THC potency results may not be indicative of the entire batch [27]. ...
... Ross and ElSohly [26,27,52] found that when stored at room temperature, THC potency decreased by 16.6% (±7.4) after one year, and up to 41.4% (±6.5) after four years . Furthermore, when exposed to light at room temperature, THC is almost 100% degraded after four years [26,[53][54][55][56][57]. However, when THC degrades, it is converted to Cnnabinol (CBN) which was not observed in sizeable quantities in the samples used in this study, indicating the lower potency in the observed versus reported values were not due to age or poor storage conditions [26,[52][53][54][55][56][57]. ...
... Furthermore, when exposed to light at room temperature, THC is almost 100% degraded after four years [26,[53][54][55][56][57]. However, when THC degrades, it is converted to Cnnabinol (CBN) which was not observed in sizeable quantities in the samples used in this study, indicating the lower potency in the observed versus reported values were not due to age or poor storage conditions [26,[52][53][54][55][56][57]. The three most used extraction techniques by the cannabis industry are alcohol extraction, hydrocarbon extraction, and supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2) extraction [20-52-57]. ...
This literature review paper highlights and updates the THC quantification methods applied for the differentiation of Cannabis varieties and final Cannabis products as a part of the quality control measures. The quantification method also helps to differentiate between Medical Cannabis sativa (drug or marijuana) and Industrial Cannabis sativa L. (Hemp) since THC levels are different. Cannabis has been used for thousands of years for recreational, medicinal, or religious purposes and does not produce Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) is produced by the cannabis plant as a precursor. The acidic residue of THCA undergo decarboxylation upon heating producing the psychoactive, Cannabinoid, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). A variety of analytical techniques have been developed for quantification and qualification of Cannabinoids and other compounds in Cannabis plant. The most common cannabinoid quantification techniques include color tests, testing gadgets, Cannabinoids direct ELISA Kit, thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) followed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry (NMR). The lack of accurate reporting of THC potency can have impacts on medical patients controlling dosage, recreational consumers expecting an effect aligned with price, and trust in the industry as a whole. Therefore, quantification of final Cannabis product plays an important role in quality control measures. This literature review paper is developed as a part of Cannabis Science awareness programme since Cannabis with 2 different names (marijuana and hemp) is used as a medicine, food and psychotropic drug (THC).
... Sample Collection-According to the study conducted by Schwabe et al., (2023) it has been documented that THC potency varies in flowers located on the top, middle and lower branches on the same plant as well as the timing of plant development [27]. Colorado, USA has developed guidelines for how flowers should be sampled [27,53], but there is limited to no enforcement of these guidelines [27]. If growers are not randomly selecting flowers from throughout plants for testing, THC potency results may not be indicative of the entire batch [27]. ...
... Ross and ElSohly [26,27,52] found that when stored at room temperature, THC potency decreased by 16.6% (±7.4) after one year, and up to 41.4% (±6.5) after four years . Furthermore, when exposed to light at room temperature, THC is almost 100% degraded after four years [26,[53][54][55][56][57]. However, when THC degrades, it is converted to Cnnabinol (CBN) which was not observed in sizeable quantities in the samples used in this study, indicating the lower potency in the observed versus reported values were not due to age or poor storage conditions [26,[52][53][54][55][56][57]. ...
... Furthermore, when exposed to light at room temperature, THC is almost 100% degraded after four years [26,[53][54][55][56][57]. However, when THC degrades, it is converted to Cnnabinol (CBN) which was not observed in sizeable quantities in the samples used in this study, indicating the lower potency in the observed versus reported values were not due to age or poor storage conditions [26,[52][53][54][55][56][57]. The three most used extraction techniques by the cannabis industry are alcohol extraction, hydrocarbon extraction, and supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2) extraction [20-52-57]. ...
This literature review paper highlights and updates the THC quantification methods applied for the differentiation of Cannabis varieties and final Cannabis products as a part of the quality control measures. The quantification method also helps to differentiate between Medical Cannabis sativa (drug or marijuana) and Industrial Cannabis sativa L. (Hemp) since THC levels are different. Cannabis has been used for thousands of years for recreational, medicinal, or religious purposes and does not produce Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) is produced by the cannabis plant as a precursor. The acidic residue of THCA undergo decarboxylation upon heating producing the psychoactive, Cannabinoid, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). A variety of analytical techniques have been developed for quantification and qualification of Cannabinoids and other compounds in Cannabis plant. The most common cannabinoid quantification techniques include color tests, testing gadgets, Cannabinoids direct ELISA Kit, thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) followed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry (NMR). The lack of accurate reporting of THC potency can have impacts on medical patients controlling dosage, recreational consumers expecting an effect aligned with price, and trust in the industry as a whole. Therefore, quantification of final Cannabis product plays an important role in quality control measures. This literature review paper is developed as a part of Cannabis Science awareness programme since Cannabis with 2 different names (marijuana and hemp) is used as a medicine, food and psychotropic drug (THC).
... The long-term stability assays were designed based on the fact that cannabinoids remain stable at −20 • C for at least 4 years [30,31]. To minimize interday variability and possible surface-core differences, 0.1 g of stable microcapsules (i.e., maintained at −20 • C) was placed in three clear glass closed vials and exposed to the three different conditions tested every 15 days during the experiment, resulting in 21 sampling days per storage condition. ...
... The observed results match the cannabinoid degradation patterns in other products maintained in similar storage conditions. Zamengo et al. reported mean t 1/2 values of ∼500 to 660 days for THC, ∼1300 to 3000 days for CBD and ∼2500 to 2600 days for CBN in marihuana and hashish samples stored at 22 • C for 24 h light exposure and in darkness, respectively [31]. Compared to our results, the t 1/2 of cannabinoids is more than 10 times bigger in marihuana and hashish in both storage conditions. ...
... Similarly, the degradation of cannabinoids was faster compared to the observations made in long-term stability studies of plant material [59][60][61], hashish [30,59,62,63], extractions in organic solvents [30,64] and oils [65]. Temperature is the main factor that accelerates cannabinoid degradation, as it accelerates the oxidation of cannabinoids or decarboxylation of acidic cannabinoids [30,31,36,[59][60][61][62]64]. This phenomenon is increased by the presence of light, as it has been previously reported [30,31,59,60,62]. ...
Cannabinoids present in Cannabis sativa are increasingly used in medicine due to their therapeutic potential. Moreover, the synergistic interaction between different cannabinoids and other plant constituents has led to the development of full-spectrum formulations for therapeutic treatments. In this work, the microencapsulation of a full-spectrum extract via vibration microencapsulation nozzle technique using chitosan-coated alginate is proposed to obtain an edible pharmaceutical-grade product. The suitability of microcapsules was assessed by their physicochemical characterization, long-term stability in three different storage conditions and in vitro gastrointestinal release. The synthetized microcapsules contained mainly ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-type and cannabinol (CBN)-type cannabinoids and had a mean size of 460 ± 260 µm and a mean sphericity of 0.5 ± 0.3. The stability assays revealed that capsules should be stored only at 4 °C in darkness to maintain their cannabinoid profile. In addition, based on the in vitro experiments, a fast intestinal release of cannabinoids ensures a medium–high bioaccessibility (57–77%) of therapeutically relevant compounds. The full characterization of microcapsules indicates that they could be used for the design of further full-spectrum cannabis oral formulations.
... Since cannabis has been an illicit substance for decades, existing literature on cannabinoid stability has predominantly been viewed through the lens of forensic analysis. 2,3 Research has focused on the stability of THCA and THC, often with the purpose of dating illicit cannabis seizures or to assist in criminal investigations. Both THCA and THC have shown similar stability profiles, which suggests that these cannabinoids degrade at similar rates, and both temperature and UV light have a notable effect on the stability of cannabinoids. ...
... 9,10 At room temperature in darkness, THC degradation was complete after four years with studies reporting a half-life of 500 days. 2,3 Exposure to UV (sunlight) decreased the half-life of THC to ∼330 days, demonstrating the importance of storing cannabis in darkness when attempting to maintain maximum cannabinoid concentration. Temperature also had a significant effect with ∼25% of the original THC lost when refrigerated over 4 years and no degradation observed when stored at −20°C. 3 Literature has demonstrated that CBD had greater stability than THC. ...
... Both CBDA and CBD were more stable than THCA and THC respectively at both room and refrigerated temperatures which was in agreement with previous literature. 2,4 At room temperature (25 ± 3°C) in darkness, it took 100 days for the cannabinoid concentration to drop to 90% of the original CBDA concentration and only 50% remained after 320 days ( Figure 4). After 1 year, the CBDA concentration steadily declined for the remainder of the study. ...
... The compositions and concentrations of these molecules depend on the plant's tissue-type, age, variety, growth conditions and harvest time (Berman et al., 2018;Hawley et al., 2018;Welling et al., 2018;Bernstein et al., 2019a,b;Namdar et al., 2019). Importantly, they also change over time postharvest, as a result of different degradation routes (Trofin et al., 2011(Trofin et al., , 2012Peschel, 2016;Zamengo et al., 2019). One major example of degradation is the heat-induced decarboxylation of 9 -THCA, into the psychoactive component 9 -THC. ...
... Current literature provides only limited information on the stability of phytocannabinoid and terpenoid components, and most studies focused on a few major phytocannabinoids, usually ignoring the terpenoid content. Cannabinol (CBN) for example, has been used as a marker for Cannabis aging in many publications (Peschel, 2016;Zamengo et al., 2019). CBN can be formed by several pathways, mainly the oxidation of 9 -THC or decarboxylation of cannabinolic acid (CBNA), which in turn originates from 9 -THCA oxidation (Figure 1). ...
... Nevertheless, it was found that for all Cannabis materials, degradation of these three neutral phytocannabinoids was higher in samples exposed to light at 22 • C compared with those stored in the dark at 4 • C. These findings correspond with a more recent study that used GC to analyze 9 -THC, CBD, and CBN over a 4-year storage period at 22 • C with and without light exposure compared with storage at 4 and −20 • C in the dark (Zamengo et al., 2019). ...
The therapeutic use of medical Cannabis is growing, and so is the need for standardized and therapeutically stable Cannabis products for patients. The therapeutic effects of Cannabis largely depend on the content of its pharmacologically active secondary metabolites and their interactions, mainly terpenoids and phytocannabinoids. Once harvested and during storage, these natural compounds may decarboxylate, oxidize, isomerize, react photochemically, evaporate and more. Despite its widespread and increasing use, however, data on the stability of most of the plant’s terpenoids and phytocannabinoids during storage is scarce. In this study, we therefore aimed to determine postharvest optimal storage conditions for preserving the composition of naturally biosynthesized secondary metabolites in Cannabis inflorescences and Cannabis extracts. To this end, Cannabis inflorescences (whole versus ground samples) and Cannabis extracts (dissolved in different solvents) from (-)-Δ⁹-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol- or cannabidiol-rich chemovars, were stored in the dark at various temperatures (25, 4, −30 and −80°C), and their phytocannabinoid and terpenoid profiles were analyzed over the course of 1 year. We found that in both Cannabis inflorescences and extracts, a storage temperature of 25°C led to the largest changes in the concentrations of the natural phytocannabinoids over time, making this the most unfavorable temperature compared with all others examined here. Olive oil was found to be the best vehicle for preserving the natural phytocannabinoid composition of the extracts. Terpenoid concentrations were found to decrease rapidly under all storage conditions, but temperatures lower than −20°C and grinding of the inflorescences were the least favorable conditions. Overall, our conclusions point that storage of whole inflorescences and extracts dissolved in olive oil, at 4°C, were the optimal postharvest conditions for Cannabis.
... Attention should also be paid to storage conditions since it is important for the stability of the compounds and to avoid alterations of the analytes (Zamengo et al., 2019). For example, when storing fresh plant material, F I G U R E 1 Schematic overview of the review with the analysis process of herbal Cannabis in forensics. ...
... Furthermore, it is known that time, air, light, or elevated temperatures affects the decarboxylation of the cannabinoid-acids with further oxidative degradation of THC into CBN (see Figure 2) (Lazarjani et al., 2021). Zamengo et al. (2019) studied the influence of several real-life conditions on the chemical composition of cannabis products. It was seen that samples, stored in darkness and at À20 C, showed the smallest reduction of the cannabinoid concentrations over time. ...
Cannabis sativa L. is undoubtedly the most used recreational drug worldwide because of its desired acute psychotropic effects, like relaxation, euphoria and altered perceptions. In addition, promising medical properties of Cannabis components have gained a lot of attention, resulting in a debate to permit recreational Cannabis use in several countries. In recent years, this controversial plant was increasingly studied and a large number of scientific papers were published. Herbal Cannabis consists of a variable and complex matrix, which makes it challenging to properly seize and prepare the sample for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Moreover, both the adoption of legal cut‐off values in different countries for the Δ9‐tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content in seizures, and the emergence of cannabidiol (CBD) based products, containing generally small but variable amounts of THC, urged the need for sensitive and reliable analytical techniques to accurately identify and quantify the components of interest. This review presents detailed information on the procedure prior to analysis and covers chromatographic and spectroscopic methods developed for the analysis of cannabinoids in seizures for different forensic purposes, that is, identification/quantification, potency testing, drug‐ and fiber‐type differentiation, age estimation, yield determination and Cannabis profiling. Advantages and drawbacks of existing methods, within a specific forensic context, are discussed. The application of chemometrics, which offers a powerful tool in interpreting complex data, is also explained. This article is categorized under: Toxicology > Cannabis Toxicology > Drug Analysis Forensic Chemistry and Trace Evidence > Presentation and Evaluation of Forensic Science Output Cannabis sativa L. is the most used and seized recreational drug worldwide. For forensic institutes/laboratories, it is important to obtain reliable and reproducible data about seized samples, as it is used in judicial investigations. A thorough consideration about the sampling, sample preparation, instrumental analysis and subsequent data handling is needed, and depends on the forensic purpose. Moreover, chemometrics, which is already applied in certain herbal cannabis studies, will become an important tool in forensics to interpret large and complex data.
... The authors stated that the percentage loss in THC content is a function of the initial THC concentration, and the higher the initial concentration of THC, the faster the degradation over the first one or two years [13]. Also, for samples kept at room temperature an inverse relationship between THC and CBN content can be observed, suggesting that THC degradation and CBN production are correlated and dependent on temperature storage [14]. ...
... Storage conditions play an important role in THC degradation [6][7][8][9][10][11][12]14] as cannabis plants and related preparations undergo oxidation under storage resulting in a decrease in the content of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) [7,13]. On receipt in the studied forensic laboratory, seized materials are stored in the forensic lab safe room, in the original packing, at room temperature. ...
HIGHLIGHTS: (1) Backlog is a reality in many different types of Forensic Laboratories; (2) THC content decreases with storage and can be used to understand backlog impact; (3) Changes in bench procedures were able to decrease waiting time considerably; (4) Long term storage of marijuana samples sharply increases inconclusive results; (5) The escalation of inconclusive results increases the run cost of a laboratory.
ABSTRACT: Forensic laboratories worldwide are struggling to keep up with the increasing number of cases submitted for analysis, regardless of the reasons, backlog of controlled substances cases is a reality in many countries. In this paper we analyse the number of petitioned examinations (from 2016 to 2020) and the data from 11,655 marijuana TLC results from the Forensic Laboratory in the Federal District Civil Police in Brazil. Data demonstrates that backlog increases inconclusive results, with storage and light playing a crucial role in the process. Additionally we explored the repercussions of delayed forensic results for controlled substances and propose an approach to overcome waiting time in this context.
... In addition, another major cannabinoid regarded as a primary degradation product of THC, Cannabinol (CBN), should also be considered. In particular, the CBN:THC ratio could serve as a measure of the degradation of cannabis products being analyzed and therefore of the reliability of the results, as storage time and storage conditions can affect THC concentration in relatively short times [17][18][19]. Consequently, it is always advisable to track THC, CBD and CBN levels in potency studies. ...
... aging of materials, storage conditions, sampling procedures and analytical methods), especially if statistics about THC content are derived from the analysis of seized materials. Therefore it is important to use controlled analytical methods and evaluate CBN data [19,22]. CBN concentrations of the samples of our study were found to be very low and consistent through the decade indicating reliability of THC values used in statistical analysis. ...
This paper presents data about potency of herbal and resin cannabis products seized during 2010–2019 in north-east Italy. More than 12,000 cannabis samples were analyzed and concentrations of THC, CBD and CBN were collected. The results of our study provided clear evidence for an increase in the potency of cannabis products across the study period, which is consistent with other studies. Globally, the median THC concentrations increased from about 6%–11%, but differences were found between herbal and resin materials. THC potency in resin materials increased more consistently across the study period with a dramatic raise during 2018–2019, with median THC contents around 17%.
CBD concentrations were found to decrease constantly over the study period, especially in herbal materials, which had a mean CBD concentration of 0.3%. In particular, about 75% of the analyzed herbal samples had a CBD concentration which was less than 3% of the corresponding THC concentration. In contrast, more than 50% of the analyzed resin materials had a CBD concentration which was about 30% of the corresponding THC concentration. This is consistent with the increase in prevalence of high-potency seedless female herbal products observed in the same period and indicates that herbal and resin materials were produced from different varieties of cannabis plants. However, resin materials derived from high THC/low CBD cannabis plants were recently found. Different routes (e.g. northern Europe) or different modalities of distribution were assumed for these products.
CBN concentrations were also considered and found to be very low and consistent across the study period indicating reliability of THC values used in statistical analysis.
In conclusion, this study provided an accurate picture of cannabis products seized over a decade over a definite geographical area which can be extremely helpful for comparative purposes and for national and international statistical analyses on cannabis products.
... Recent studies investigating the influence of integrated parameters on cannabinoids' stability during storage mainly focused on post-harvest parameters-e.g., the combination of temperature and light exposure [19][20][21][22]27]-while our study is the first to examine the specific integrated effect of both pre-and post-harvest approaches, which have not been considered so far. Moreover, the hexanoic acid spray results obtained in this study are in line with the impact of hexanoic acid on the secondary metabolite composition in other plant species studied such as tomato and citrus [13,15]. ...
The effort to maintain cannabinoid and terpene levels in harvested medicinal cannabis inflorescence is crucial, as many studies demonstrated a significant concentration decrease in these compounds during the drying, curing, and storage steps. These stages are critical for the preparation and preservation of medicinal cannabis for end-use, and any decline in cannabinoid and terpene content could potentially reduce the therapeutic efficacy of the product. Consequently, in the present study, we determined the efficacy of pre-harvest hexanoic acid treatment alongside four months of post-harvest vacuum storage in prolonging the shelf life of high THCA cannabis inflo-rescence. Our findings indicate that hexanoic acid treatment led to elevated concentrations of certain cannabinoids and terpenes on the day of harvest and subsequent to the drying and curing processes. Furthermore, the combination of hexanoic acid treatment and vacuum storage yielded the longest shelf life and the highest cannabinoid and mono-terpene content as compared to all other groups studied. Specifically, the major cannabinoid's-(-)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA)-concentration decreased by 4-23% during the four months of storage with the lowest reduction observed following hexanoic acid pre-harvest treatment and post-harvest vacuum storage. Hexanoic acid spray application displayed a more pronounced impact on mono-terpene preservation than storage under vacuum without hexanoic acid treatment. Conversely, sesqui-terpenes were observed to be less prone to degradation than mono-terpenes over an extended storage duration. In summa-tion, appropriate pre-harvest treatment coupled with optimized storage conditions can significantly extend the shelf life of cannabis inflorescence and preserve high active compound concentration over an extended time period.
... Ross and ElSohly [54] found that when stored at room temperature THC potency decreased by 16.6% (±7.4) after one year, and up to 41.4% (±6.5) after four years. Furthermore, when exposed to light at room temperature, THC is almost 100% degraded after four years [55]. However, when THC degrades, it is converted to cannabinol (CBN) which was not observed in sizeable quantities in the samples used in this study, indicating the lower potency in the observed versus reported values were not due to age or poor storage conditions. ...
Legal Cannabis products in the United States are required to report THC potency (total THC % by dry weight) on packaging, however concerns have been raised that reported THC potency values are inaccurate. Multiple studies have demonstrated that THC potency is a primary factor in determining pricing for Cannabis flower, so it has an outsized role in the marketplace. Reports of inflated THC potency and “lab shopping” to obtain higher THC potency results have been circulating for some time, but a side-by-side investigation of the reported potency and flower in the package has not previously been conducted. Using HPLC, we analyzed THC potency in 23 samples from 10 dispensaries throughout the Colorado Front Range and compared the results to the THC potency reported on the packaging. Average observed THC potency was 14.98 +/- 2.23%, which is substantially lower than recent reports summarizing dispensary reported THC potency. The average observed THC potency was 23.1% lower than the lowest label reported values and 35.6% lower than the highest label reported values. Overall, ~70% of the samples were more than 15% lower than the THC potency numbers reported on the label, with three samples having only one half of the reported maximum THC potency. Although the exact source of the discrepancies is difficult to determine, a lack of standardized testing protocols, limited regulatory oversight, and financial incentives to market high THC potency likely play a significant role. Given our results it is urgent that steps are taken to increase label accuracy of Cannabis being sold to the public. The lack of accurate reporting of THC potency can have impacts on medical patients controlling dosage, recreational consumers expecting an effect aligned with price, and trust in the industry as a whole. As the legal cannabis market continues to grow, it is essential that the industry moves toward selling products with more accurate labeling.
... of color with disappearance of any greenness, decrease in sticky properties, and improved combustibility.The phytocannabinoids enclosed in the conserving structure of the cannabis trichome are not immune to molecular change. They are subjected to degradation when cannabis is smoked, vaporized or cooked, but also during storage(Milay et al., 2020).Zamengo et al. (2019) note that degradation of THC and CBD occurs during longer storage times, while time and light play a signicat role in the conversion to CBN. Degradation refers to the breakdown of organic molecules or the chemical change (e.g. oxidation) into another compound. An example would be the oxidation of ∆ 9 -THC to CBN (gure 3.12). Decarboxyla ...
This thesis addresses the post-harvest processing of Cannabis sativa L. inflorescences. More specifically, this work focuses on the curing of female cannabis flowers--a technique for preservation and to enhance the aroma. In contrast to the conventional quick-drying after harvesting, curing entails the slow drying of the plant's
flowers. A process which takes more time but in return can lead to a refined product, comparable to an aged wine.
... 111 Three independent 4 year long stability studies, demonstrated that light and temperature have a dramatic effect on the decomposition of THC to CBN, while they mediate different aspects of the process; light impacts the stoichiometry of the conversion of THC to CBN, whereas temperature accelerates the conversion. 109,112,113 In any case, samples stored at RT in direct contact with the atmospheric air, either in light or darkness, suffered the most pronounced losses in THC, ranging from 65% to almost 100%, depending on the sample origin and initial composition. Since many of the substances in cannabinoids can undergo oxidation, sealing the samples in plastic bags can reduce the losses to 25-42%. ...
Historically, cannabis has always constituted a component of the civilized world; archaeological discoveries indicate that it is one of the oldest crops, while, up until the 19th century, cannabis fibers were extensively used in a variety of applications, and its seeds comprised a part of human and livestock nutrition. Additional evidence supports its exploitation for medicinal purposes in the ancient world. The cultivation of cannabis gradually declined as hemp fibers gave way to synthetic fibers, while the intoxicating ability of THC eventually overshadowed the extensive potential of cannabis. Nevertheless, the proven value of certain non-intoxicating cannabinoids, such as CBD and CBN, has recently given rise to an entire market which promotes cannabis-based products. An increase in the research for recovery and exploitation of beneficial cannabinoids has also been observed, with more than 10 000 peer-reviewed research articles published annually. In the present review, a brief overview of the history of cannabis is given. A look into the classification approaches of cannabis plants/species as well as the associated nomenclature is provided, followed by a description of their chemical characteristics and their medically valuable components. The application areas could not be absent from the present review. Still, the main focus of the review is the discussion of work conducted in the field of extraction of valuable bioactive compounds from cannabis. We conclude with a summary of the current status and outlook on the topics that future research should address.
... Importantly, the composition and concentration of the different secondary metabolites are also affected by harvest time (Happyana and Kayser, 2016) and change over time postharvest as a result of different degradation routes, depending on the storage conditions and its duration (Trofin et al., 2011;Jin et al., 2019;Zamengo et al., 2019;Milay et al., 2020). The concentrations of terpenoids rapidly decline in storage due to their volatile nature (Milay et al., 2020). ...
Medical Cannabis and its major cannabinoids (−)-trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are gaining momentum for various medical purposes as their therapeutic qualities are becoming better established. However, studies regarding their efficacy are oftentimes inconclusive. This is chiefly because Cannabis is a versatile plant rather than a single drug and its effects do not depend only on the amount of THC and CBD. Hundreds of Cannabis cultivars and hybrids exist worldwide, each with a unique and distinct chemical profile. Most studies focus on THC and CBD, but these are just two of over 140 phytocannabinoids found in the plant in addition to a milieu of terpenoids, flavonoids and other compounds with potential therapeutic activities. Different plants contain a very different array of these metabolites in varying relative ratios, and it is the interplay between these molecules from the plant and the endocannabinoid system in the body that determines the ultimate therapeutic response and associated adverse effects. Here, we discuss how phytocannabinoid profiles differ between plants depending on the chemovar types, review the major factors that affect secondary metabolite accumulation in the plant including the genotype, growth conditions, processing, storage and the delivery route; and highlight how these factors make Cannabis treatment highly complex.
... The average monthly degradation of ∆9-THCA + ∆9-THC was 2% at 20 • C. It was observed that the storage of these compounds at 4 • C did not ensure long-term (more than 12 months) cannabinoid stability. Zamengo et al. [146] defined the average degradation of ∆9-THC within 100 days, which amounted to 12% at 22 • C (3-4% per month). ...
Scientific demonstrations of the beneficial effects of non-psychoactive cannabinoids on the human body have increased the interest in foods containing hemp components. This review systematizes the latest discoveries relating to the characteristics of cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. var. sativa, it also presents a characterization of the mentioned plant. In this review, we present data on the opportunities and limitations of cannabinoids in food production. This article systematizes the data on the legal aspects, mainly the limits of Δ9-THC in food, the most popular analytical techniques (LC-MS and GC-MS) applied to assay cannabinoids in finished products, and the available data on the stability of cannabinoids during heating, storage, and access to light and oxygen. This may constitute a major challenge to their common use in food processing, as well as the potential formation of undesirable degradation products. Hemp-containing foods have great potential to become commercially popular among functional foods, provided that our understanding of cannabinoid stability in different food matrices and cannabinoid interactions with particular food ingredients are expanded. There remains a need for more data on the effects of technological processes and storage on cannabinoid degradation.
... Detectability of (minor) cannabinoids/ cannabinoid metabolites Several factors influence serum cannabinoid concentrations after cannabis exposure, including, but not limited to, the ingested amount of the cannabis product, the cannabinoid contents of the consumed product (inter alia depending on the cannabis strain, growing conditions, age of the products, or their storage conditions), the type of consumption (e.g., inhalative [inter alia including number and duration of puffs and inhalation volume] or oral uptake), the degree of previous decarboxylation of cannabinoid precursor acids, the time of consumption, the frequency of consumption, interindividual differences in pharmacokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism [possibly also affected by other ingested substances], and excretion), and the stability of cannabinoids in the sample material.2,3,6,12,[20][21][22][23][24] According to the European Drug Report, the potencies of herbal cannabis and cannabis resin have increased since 2008.25 Several studies examining cannabinoid contents in seized materials26-31 revealed variations in composition among the cannabis products. ...
Forensic toxicologists are frequently required to predict the time of last cannabis consumption. Several studies suggested the utility of minor cannabinoids as indicators of recent cannabis use. Because several factors influence blood cannabinoid concentrations, the interpretation of serum cannabinoid concentrations remains challenging. To assess the informative value of serum cannabinoid levels in cannabis users (in total N = 117 patients, including 56 patients who stated an exact time of last cannabis use within 24 h before blood sampling), the detectability of cannabinoids, namely delta‐9‐tetrahydrocannabinol (delta‐9‐THC), 11‐hydroxy‐delta‐9‐THC, 11‐nor‐9‐carboxy‐delta‐9‐THC, cannabichromene (CBC), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), cannabidivarin, tetrahydrocannabivarin, cannabigerol (CBG), cannabicyclol, delta‐8‐THC, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A, cannabichromenic acid, cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), cannabigerolic acid, cannabicyclolic acid (CBLA), 11‐nor‐9‐carboxy‐THCV (THCVCOOH), and 11‐nor‐CBN‐9‐COOH, was investigated. Excluding CBDA and CBLA, all investigated cannabinoids were detected in at least one analyzed sample. The interval between cannabis consumption and sample collection (reported by the patients) was not correlated with cannabinoid concentrations. Minor cannabinoids tended to be more easily detected in samples obtained shortly after consumption. However, some samples tested positive for minor cannabinoids despite an interval of several hours or even days between consumption and sampling (according to patients’ statements). For instance, CBC, CBG, THCVCOOH, CBD, and CBN in certain cases could be detected more than 24 hours after the last consumption of cannabis. Thus, findings of minor cannabinoids should always be interpreted with caution.
... In the early cannabis stability studies, Lerner showed that the THC content of cannabis decreases at the rate of 3 − 5% per month at room temperature [22]. Similarly, Zamengo et al. showed recently that the average THC degradation in the first 100 days is 12% at 22 • C (or 3−4% per month) [23]. Our study is in general agreement with these estimates and puts the average monthly THCA+THC degradation rate at 2% at 20 • C. While room temperature is indeed unsuitable for storage of cannabis standards, we have observed that even storage at +4 • C fails to maintain a reasonable long-term stability (Fig. 5). 5 Predicted changes of the total THC equivalent in dried cannabis stored at −20 • C, +4 • C, and +20 • C (left) and predicted shelflife (85%) distribution of the total THC equivalent at +20 • C (right). ...
This study was undertaken to quantitatively explore the effect of temperature on the degradation of cannabinoids in dried cannabis flower. A total of 14 cannabinoids were monitored using liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry in temperature environments from − 20 to + 40 °C lasting up to 1 year. We find that a network of first-order degradation reactions is well-suited to model the observed changes for all cannabinoids. While most studies focus on high-temperature effects on the cannabinoids, this study provides high-precision quantitative assessment of room temperature kinetics with applications to shelf-life predictions and age estimates of cannabis products.
... In this regard, C. sativa derivatives appear to be chemically unstable since straightforward factors (temperature, time, humidity, light) target degradation or other types of chemical reactions. Variations dramatically affecting the pharmacological properties of a product can be induced by basic thermomechanical stimuli (Agarwal et al., 2018;Naz et al., 2017), for instance, heating at 200 C for seven minutes (Verhoeckx et al., 2006) or ageing (Fairbairn, 1976: 15;Mechoulam and Hanu s, 2000;Zamengo et al., 2019). This is the case when phytocannabinoids, obtained in acidic form when separated from the plant (Happyana et al., 2013;Kimura and Okamoto, 1970;Perrotin-Brunel et al., 2010, Pertwee, 2006 decarboxylate into compounds with enhanced psychopharmacological effects (Reekie et al., 2018;Verhoeckx et al., 2006). ...
Objective: Identify a coherent nomenclature of products containing cannabinoids (whether derived from Cannabis sativa L. or not).
Design: Research undertaken in parallel to the three-year assessment of Cannabis derivatives by the World Health Organisation. The scope is limited to Cannabis products intended for human incorporation (internal and topical con- sumption). Primarily embedded in pharmacognosy, the study incorporates a wide range of scholarly and grey literature, folk knowledge, archives, pharmacopœias, international law, field pharmacy, clinical and herbal medicine data, under a philosophical scrutiny. Generic and Cannabis-specific nomenclatural frames are compared to determine the extent to which they coincide or conflict.
Results: All lexica reviewed use weak, ambiguous, or inconsistent terms. There is insufficient scientific basis for terms and concepts related to Cannabis at all levels. No sound classification exists: current models conflict by adopting idiosyncratic, partial, outdated, or utilitarian schemes to arrange the extraordinarily numerous and diverse derivatives of the C. sativa plant. In law and policy, no clear or unequivocal boundary between herbal and non-herbal drugs, nor natural and synthetic cannabinoids was found; current nomenclatures used need updates. In science, the botanical Cannabis lexicon overlooks parthenocarpy, and wide disagreement remains as to the taxonomy and systematics of the plant; chemical research should address differences in kinds between synthetic cannabinoids; pharmacopœias include little information related to Cannabis, and disagree on broader classes of herbal medicines, virtually failing to embrace many known Cannabis medicines. Since existing products and compounds fail to be categorised in an evidence-based manner, confusions will likely increase as novel cannabinoid compounds, genetic and biotechnological modifications surge.
Conclusions: The lack of clarity is comprehensive: for patients, physicians, and regulators. The study proposes an update of terms at several levels. It points at gaps in morphological descriptions in botany and pharmacognosy and a need for a metaphysical address of cannabinoids. Methods of obtention are identified as a common criterion to distinguish products; the way forward suggests a mutually exclusive nomenclatural pattern based on the smallest common denominator of obtention methods. In the context of a swelling number of Cannabis products being consumed (be it via medical prescription, adult-use, ‘hemp’ foodstuff and cosmetics, or other purposes), this study can assist research, contribute to transparent labelling of products, consumer safety and awareness, pharmacovigilance, medical standards of care, and an update of prevention and harm reduction approaches. It can also better inform regulatory policies surrounding C. sativa, its derivatives, and other cannabinoid-containing products.
Original article available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2050324520945797
... 2019 UHPLC-DAD method for the qualification and quantification of the cannabinoids CBDA, CBD, CBN, THC, CBC and THCA, in medicinal cannabis biomass and resin obtained by SFE [690]; LC-HRMS for cannabinoid profiling of tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, other 30 cannabinoids in hemp seed oil [691]; LDI, MALDI MS, and IMS techniques were used to detect and determine the distribution of cannabinoid compounds on the surface of fresh and aged Cannabis leaves [692]; analysis of seven cannabinoid standards: five neutral and two acidic, as well as Cannabis products (hashish and marijuana) and parts of the Cannabis plant (flower and leaf) using GC-MS, GC x GC-QMS, UPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS and UPLC-ESI-(TWIM)-MS [693]; GC-MS method for the quantification of terpenes in cannabis plant material [694]; prevalence of Cannabis in relation to National Drug Policy in 27 Countries [695]; overview of analytical challenges in the cannabis industry faces and the role of mass spectrometry [696]; stability study of the effect of time and storage conditions on the composition of different varieties of cannabis products (hashish and marijuana) [697]. ...
This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.
Introduction
Alongside the United States’ growing landscape of legalized recreational marijuana intended for humans, cases of canine marijuana toxicosis have been on the rise. Most commonly these dogs have mild clinical signs and respond well to supportive therapies. However, patients might still be ataxic, unable to walk, or remain heavily sedated at the time of discharge. Our hypothesis was that flumazenil would improve the level of consciousness, brainstem reflexes, gait, and stance in dogs with marijuana toxicosis.
Methods
Seventeen dogs presenting for marijuana toxicosis were enrolled. MGCS and Canine Marijuana Severity Score (CMSS), were used to assess level of consciousness, brain stem reflexes, gait, and stance. Flumazenil 0.01 mg/kg was administered IV once. Baseline values immediately before flumazenil administration, 5 min, 15 min, and 30 min after flumazenil were recorded. Serum was collected and analyzed for delta-9-THC using ultraperformance liquid chromatography.
Results
There was a significant change in MGCS and CMSS following flumazenil administration (p = 0.0033 and p ≤ 0.001). The median CMSS at baseline was 17 (10–19), at 5 min was 18 (10–21), at 15 min was 18 (12–22), and at 30 min was 19 (14–22). There was a significant difference between the concentration of delta-9-THC and clinical sign score (p = 0.0275).
Discussion
The administration of flumazenil to dog affected by marijuana toxicosis might result in improved gait, stance, and level of consciousness. There might be some discriminative ability of the CMSS to stratify the severity level of canine marijuana toxicosis.
Emotion daysregulation in cannabinoid drug users, a comparative study
Evaluation of cannabinoid concentrations in products from the legal cannabis market has been fraught with uncertainty. The lack of standardized testing methodology and the susceptibility of cannabinoids to degradation under certain storage conditions complicates the efforts to assess total tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) levels across wide geographic areas. There are few peer-reviewed surveys of cannabinoid concentrations in regulated products. Those that have been done have not characterized the effects of differences in analytical methodology, sample population, and storage conditions. Viridis Laboratories, which operates two cannabis safety compliance facilities in Michigan, has analyzed over 34,000 cannabis products throughout 2021 and 2022 before the sale in the regulated market. Fifteen cannabinoids in cannabis flower, concentrates, and infused products were tested using methanolic extraction and analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. Methods were validated before use, and the flower analysis procedure was certified by the Association of Analytical Collaboration. All the samples were tested before submission for sale and therefore had not undergone prolonged storage. The results are compared with those seen in other states as well as in the illicit market. Total THC levels in cannabis flower from the regulated market are significantly higher than those seen in illicit products. The distribution of cannabinoid levels is similar in flowers intended for either the medicinal or adult-use markets, with an average potency of 18%-23% of total THC. Total THC in concentrates averages up to 82%. Other cannabinoids are observed at significant levels, mostly in products specifically formulated to contain them. These results may act as a benchmark for potency levels in the regulated market.
This study focused on the investigation of cannabinoid profiles and contents of 23 different hemp teas and on the individual transfer of 16 cannabinoids from hemp teas into their tea infusions. The total cannabinoid content in the dry products averaged 14,960 mg kg-1, with CBD&CBDA (sum of cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA)) being the major component, accounting for 87% of the total cannabinoid content. The Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) content ranged from 16 mg kg-1 to 935 mg kg-1 and was on average 221 mg kg-1. For each hemp tea, an infusion was prepared according to a standardized protocol issued by the German Standardisation body DIN and transfer rates per cannabinoid were estimated by comparing the contents in the dry material with the concentrations in the aqueous infusion. The limited water solubility of cannabinoids results in limited extraction efficiency for cannabinoids using boiling water to prepare a tea infusion and the average transfer rate of the psychoactive Δ9-THC was only 0.5%.
Reports suggest that cannabis potency has dramatically increased over the last decade in the USA and Europe. Cannabinoids are the terpeno-phenolic compounds found in the cannabis plant and are responsible for its pharmacological activity. The two most prominent cannabinoids are delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9 THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). Cannabis potency is measured not only by the Δ9 THC levels but also by the ratio of Δ9 THC to other non-psychoactive cannabinoids, namely, CBD. Cannabis use was decriminalized in Jamaica in 2015, which opened the gates for the creation of a regulated medical cannabis industry in the country. To date, there is no information available on the potency of cannabis in Jamaica. In this study, the cannabinoid content of Jamaican-grown cannabis was examined over the period 2014-2020. Two hundred ninety-nine herbal cannabis samples were received from 12 parishes across the island, and the levels of the major cannabinoids were determined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. There was a significant increase (p < 0.05) in the median total THC levels of cannabis samples tested between 2014 (1.1%) and 2020 (10.2%). The highest median THC was detected in the central parish of Manchester (21.1%). During the period, THC/CBD ratios increased from 2.1 (2014) to 194.1 (2020), and there was a corresponding increase in the percent freshness of samples (CBN/THC ratios <0.013). The data show that a significant increase in the potency of locally grown cannabis has occurred in Jamaica during the last decade.
Eleven major cannabinoids from each subdivided tissue of drug-type and fiber-type cannabis plants were determined by means of a liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS). The cannabinoids analyzed in this study were tetrahydrocannabinol acid (THCA), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabidiol acid (CBDA), cannabidiol (CBD), Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC), cannabinol (CBN), cannabichromene (CBC), cannabidivarin (CBDV), cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), cannabigerol (CBG) and tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV). As a result, THCA was detected in the bracts at 28.4 µg/mg, in the buds at 24.8 µg/mg, and in the leaves at 5.1 to 10.5 µg/mg in the drug-type cannabis plant. In addition, Δ9-THC, CBGA, CBN, CBG, CBC, and THCV were mainly detected in bracts, buds, and leaves. On the other hand, as for the fiber-type cannabis plant, CBDA was detected in the bracts at 27.5 µg/mg, in the buds at 10.6 µg/mg, and in the leaves at 1.5-3.3 µg/mg. In addition, Δ9-THCA, CBD, Δ9-THC, CBC, and CBG were mainly detected in bracts, buds, and leaves.
Hemp has a long and complex history with humans—from an essential commodity in the Age of Exploration to widespread prohibition in the 20th century. Recent changes in perception precipitated a renewed interest in this ancient crop. Hemp provides opportunities for environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable agriculture production systems. Each type of hemp crop distinctly contributes to air, soil, and water health. The hemp-derived metabolites and the nutrient-dense grain impact human health. However, the benefits of hemp production come with challenges. Production of hemp for metabolite rapidly expanded during the last decade and quickly resulted in overproduction. The crop continues to face regulatory hurdles, which are exacerbated by industry pushing the boundaries of legality. Despite the challenges, hemp could become a key component of agriculture production around the world.
Cannabis plant has long been execrated by law in different nations due to the psychoactive properties of only a few cannabinoids. Recent scientific advances coupled with growing public awareness of cannabinoids as a medical commodity drove legislation change and brought about a historic transition where the demand rose over ten-fold in less than five years. On the other hand, the technology required for cannabis processing and the extraction of the most valuable chemical compounds from the cannabis flower remains the bottleneck of processing technology. This paper sheds light on the downstream processing steps and principles involved in producing cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. (Hemp) biomass. By categorizing the extraction technology into seed and trichome, we examined and critiqued different pretreatment methods and technological options available for large-scale extraction in both categories. Solvent extraction methods being the main focus, the critical decision-making parameters in each stage, and the applicable current technologies in the field, were discussed. We further examined the factors affecting the cannabinoid transformation that changes the medical functionality of the final cannabinoid products. Based on the current trends, the extraction technologies are continuously being revised and enhanced, yet they still fail to keep up with market demands.
Through the potency monitoring program at the University of Mississippi supported by National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), a total of 18108 samples of cannabis preparations have been analyzed over the last decade, using a validated GC/FID method. The samples are classified as sinsemilla, marijuana, ditchweed, hashish, and hash oil (now referred to as cannabis concentrate). The number of samples received over the last 5 years has decreased dramatically due to the legalization of marijuana either for medical or for recreational purposes in many US states. The results showed that the mean Δ9-THC concentration has increased dramatically over the last 10 years, from 8.9% in 2008 to 17.1% in 2017. The mean Δ9-THC:CBD ratio also rose substantially from 23 in 2008 to 104 in 2017. There was also marked increase in the proportion of hash oil samples (concentrates) seized (0.5–4.7%) and their mean Δ9-THC concentration (6.7–55.7%) from 2008 to 2017. Other potency monitoring programs are also present in several European countries such as The Netherlands, United Kingdom, France, and Italy. These programs have also documented increases in Δ9-THC concentrations and Δ9-THC:CBD ratios in cannabis. These trends in the last decade suggest that cannabis is becoming an increasingly harmful product in the USA and Europe.
The objective of this paper was to investigate the changes in chemical potency of cannabis resin depending on its long-term storage conditions. In this respect, the content of tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9-THC), cannabinol (CBN), and cannabidiol (CBD) in cannabis resin derived from three different seizures made by criminal prosecution authorities from Romania were measured for up to four years of storage in darkness at 4°C and in laboratory light at 22°C. The results revealed a steadily decay of Δ 9-THC over the entire storage period. In addition, the samples exhibited a more pronounced decay for the sample exposed to light at 22°C than those stored in darkness at 4°C. For CBD decay, the same trend is valid also. On the contrary, the content of CBN raised steadily during storage, and the raise is more pronounced for the samples exposed to light at 22°C than those stored in the darkness at 4°C.
Cannabinoids from three samples of cannabis obtained from the Pitt-Rivers Museum, Oxford, and dating from the turn of the century were examined by gas chromatography and mass spectometry for the presence of cannabinoids. Although the samples were from different geographical locations, the profiles of constituent cannabinoids were similar. In common with other aged material, most of the cannabinoid content was present as cannabinol (CBN), the main chemical degradation product of the major psychoactive constituent, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-THC). However, a substantial concentration of CBN acid-A was also present; this compound is unstable to heat and readily undergoes decarboxylation to CBN. Methyl and propyl homologues of CBN, together with delta-9-THC and its naturally occurring acid-A were also found at low concentrations in all samples. Intermediates in the formation of CBN from delta-9-THC, previously identified in aged solutions of the drug, were absent or present in only trace concentrations. However, oxidation products involving hydroxylation at the benzylic positions, C-11 and C-1', not seen in solution, were identified in substantial abundance. The results suggest that decomposition of cannabis samples may proceed more slowly than originally thought.
The purpose of this study was to determine and compare the bioadhesive profiles of hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC) polymer matrices as a function of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content. In addition, the effect of processing temperature on the stability of THC and its extent of degradation to cannabinol (CBN) was investigated. A hot-melt cast molding method was used to prepare HPC polymer matrix systems incorporated with THC at 0, 4, 8, and 16 percent. Bioadhesive measurements including peak adhesive force, area under the curve, and elongation at adhesive failure were recorded utilizing the TA.XT2i Texture Analyzer. Data obtained from these tests at various contact time intervals suggested that the incorporation of THC led to an increase in the bioadhesive strength of the HPC polymer matrices. To determine the stability of THC and the resulting CBN content in the matrices, three different processing temperatures were utilized (120, 160, and 200 degrees C). Post-production High Performance Liquid Chromotography (HPLC) analysis revealed that the processed systems contained at least 94% of THC and the relative percent formation of CBN was 0.5% at 120 degrees C and 0.4% at 160 degrees C compared to 1.6% at 200 degrees C. These findings indicate that the cannabinoid may be a plausible candidate for incorporation into systems utilizing hot-melt extrusion techniques for the development of an effective mucoadhesive transmucosal matrix system for delivery of THC.
The concentration of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabinol (CBN) in cannabis plant material (marijuana) of different varieties stored at room temperature (20-22°Celsius (C)) over a four-year period was determined. The percentage loss of THC was proportional to the storage time. On average, the concentration of THC in the plant material decreased by 16.6% ±7.4 of its original value after one year and 26.8% ±7.3, 34.5% ±7.6 and 41.4% ±6.5 after two, three and four years, respectively. A relationship between the concentration ratio of CBN to THC and the storage time was developed and could serve as a guide in determining the approximate age of a given marijuana sample stored at room temperature.
The aim of the present paper was to investigate the stability of cannabinoids in herbal cannabis upon long-term storage. The content of tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9 -THC), cannabinol (CBN), and cannabidinol (CBD) in herbal cannabis from ten different regions of the world were measured for up to four years of storage in darkness at 4°C and in natural light of laboratory at 22°C. The degradation of Δ 9 -THC was faster in the first year than in subsequent years, and more pronounced for the samples exposed to light at 22°C than those stored in darkness at 4°C. The content of CBN increases during the storage and the increase is more pronounced for the samples exposed to light at 22°C than those stored in the darkness at 4°C. These results are consistent with those obtained for Δ 9 -THC. Also, a new criterion for the chemical potency ranking in different herbal cannabis grades was approached on the basis of the Δ 9 -THC degradation kinetics.
A significant increase in median values of THC contents was observed in 2013 for both herbal products (+24.6%) and cannabis resin (+9.7%), confirming the previously observed trend (2010-2012) in cannabis potency of seized products in the Venice area (Italy). A significant decreasing trend of the CBD content of cannabis products was also confirmed.
Cannabis is the most widely used illicit substance globally, with an estimated annual prevalence in 2010 of 2.6–5.0% of the adult population. Concerns have been expressed about increases in the potency of cannabis products. A high tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content can increase anxiety, depression, and psychotic symptoms, and can increase the risk of dependence and adverse effects on the respiratory and cardiovascular systems in regular users. The aim of this study was to report statistical data about the potency of cannabis products seized in the north‐east of Italy, in a geographical area centred in Venice and extending for more than 10 000 km ² with a population of more than two million, by investigating the variability observed in THC levels of about 4000 samples of cannabis products analyzed over the period 2010–2012. Overall median THC content showed an increasing trend over the study period from about 6.0% to 8.1% (6.2–8.9% for cannabis resin, 5.1–7.6% for herbal cannabis). The variation in the THC content of individual samples was very large, ranging from 0.3% to 31% for cannabis resin and from 0.1 to 19% for herbal cannabis.
Median CBN:THC ratios showed a slightly decreasing trend over the study period, from 0.09 (2010) to 0.03 (2012), suggesting an increasing freshness of submitted materials. Median CBD:THC ratios also showed a decreasing trend over the study from about 0.52 (2010) to 0.18 (2012), likely due to the increase in submissions of materials from indoor and domestic cultivation with improved breeding methods. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the stability of cannabinoids in cannabis resin slabs and cannabis extracts upon long-term storage. The levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabigerol (CBG) on both neutral and acidic form were measured at room temperature, 4°C and −20°C for up to 4 years. Acidic THC degrades exponentially via decarboxylation with concentration halve-lives of approximately 330 and 462 days in daylight and darkness, respectively. The degradation of neutral THC seems to occur somewhat slower. When cannabinoids were stored in extracted form at room temperature the degradation rate of acidic THC increased significantly relative to resin material with concentration halve-lives of 35 and 91 days in daylight and darkness, respectively. Once cannabis material is extracted into organic solvents, care should be taken to avoid the influence of sunlight.
A pathway is proposed for the decomposition of Δ9-tetrahydroeannabinol (I) and its Δ8-isomer (IX) with the eventual formation of cannabinol (II) through epoxy and hydroxylated intermediates.
The determination of illicit active ingredients in seized materials, in order to assess penal or administrative offences, is routinely carried out in many forensic toxicology laboratories. This paper presents main features of the protocol adopted in the Authors' laboratory for the above investigations. In particular, sampling and analysis are considered as the same measurement process quantifying their combined contribution to overall measurement uncertainty. Aspects concerning representative sampling in the case of single and multiple items are discussed. The effects of material heterogeneity are considered by analyzing separately distinct primary samples taken from different parts of the sampling target. Possible errors due to particles dimension that could arise when sub-sampling are also considered. Analytical precision, bias and other matrix effects are studied in order to quantify the component of the overall measurement uncertainty associated to the analysis of prepared test samples. Typical scenarios arising when measurement results are used to assess compliance with specification limits are also discussed revealing the crucial role of measurement uncertainty.
Solutions of pure cannabinoids, nine samples of herbal and two of resin cannabis (one freshly prepared) were stored in varying conditions for up to 2 years. Exposure to light (not direct sunlight) was shown to be the greatest single factos in loss of cannabinoids especially in solutions, which should therefore be protected from light during analytical and phytochemical operations. Previous claims that solutions in ethanol were stable have not been substantiated. The effect of temperature, up to 20 degrees, was insignificant but air oxidation did lead to significant losses. These could be reduced if care was taken to minimize damage to the glands which act as "well filled, well closed containers". Loss of tetrahydrocannabinol after exposure to light does not lead to an increase in cannabinol, but air oxidation in the dark does. It is concluded that carefully prepared herbal or resin cannabis or extracts are reasonably stable for 1 to 2 years if stored in the dark at room temperature.
To the Editor.—
Rodin et al (JAMA, 213:1300, 1970) expressed dismay that the marihuana they received from the National Institute of Mental Health "was supposed to have had a A9-THC [tetrahydrocannabinol] content of 1.312%. When samples of the same material were sent for assay to two independent laboratories, A9-THC contents of 0.5% and 0.2%, respectively, were reported. This indicates that the current assay techniques are either quite unsatisfactory or the material deteriorates merely by standing in a safe at room temperature." In a recent paper,1 Lerner demonstrated that the THC content of marihuana at room temperature decreases at the rate of 3% to 5% per month, and, that at 100 C for one month, all THC in a potent marihuana sample (2.32% THC) had disappeared. As pointed out by Lerner, because of the long-known decrement in the psychoactive potency of marihuana (now known to
Cannabis sativa L.: effect of drying time and temperature on cannabinoid profile of stored leaf tissue
- Coffman
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CBN and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol ratio as an indicator of the age of stored marijuana samples
- Ross