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Intergenerational Transmission of Female Genital Cutting: Community and Marriage Dynamics: Household Decision Making and FGC Discontinuation
Abstract
Objective
This study examined how characteristics of households and communities are implicated in the intergenerational transmission of gender inequality and particularly female genital cutting (FGC).
Background
Human capital perspectives suggest that socioeconomic inequality predicts FGC continuation. This study contributes to discussions of institutional change by examining the association of decisions to forego FGC with household decision making patterns and community gender norms.
Method
Multilevel logistic regression was deployed to analyze a pooled sample (N = 12,144) of six demographic and health surveys from Burkina Faso, Egypt, Guinea, Kenya, Mali, and Nigeria. A series of models examined how decision making styles, both at the household and community levels (2,524 demographic and health survey cluster aggregations), and community levels of FGC correspond with the risk of having a daughter cut.
Results
The results show that daughters are less likely to be cut when parents make key household decisions jointly. Autonomous decision making by women at the community level was associated with lower odds of daughters being cut. However, at the community level, the impacts of women's household decision making were attenuated when FGC was more prevalent.
Conclusion
The findings suggest that women's decision making status is an important factor in FGC abandonment, although that association is less robust when FGC is highly institutionalized. This study provides new insights into how women, families, and communities can disrupt the intergenerational transmission of behaviors associated with institutionalized gender inequality.
... Women who have undergone the procedure may struggle with body image issues and feelings of incompleteness or inadequacy [16]. Conflicting messages from their communities further complicate these self-perceptions, as FGC is seen as a mark of cultural identity and marriageability but is increasingly recognized as harmful [17]. ...
... Scores for depression, anxiety, and stress are calculated by summing the scores for the relevant items and multiplying by 2 to calculate the final score. The recommended cut-off scores for conventional severity labels are as follows: Depression: Normal (0-9), Mild (10-13), Moderate (14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20), Severe (21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27), Extremely Severe (28+); Anxiety: Normal (0-7), Mild (8-9), Moderate (10)(11)(12)(13)(14), Severe (15)(16)(17)(18)(19), Extremely Severe (20+); Stress: Normal (0-14), Mild (15)(16)(17)(18), Moderate (19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25), Severe (26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31)(32)(33), Extremely Severe (34+). The total scores across the three subscales indicated the severity of symptoms, with higher scores indicating greater severity. ...
... Scores for depression, anxiety, and stress are calculated by summing the scores for the relevant items and multiplying by 2 to calculate the final score. The recommended cut-off scores for conventional severity labels are as follows: Depression: Normal (0-9), Mild (10-13), Moderate (14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20), Severe (21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27), Extremely Severe (28+); Anxiety: Normal (0-7), Mild (8-9), Moderate (10)(11)(12)(13)(14), Severe (15)(16)(17)(18)(19), Extremely Severe (20+); Stress: Normal (0-14), Mild (15)(16)(17)(18), Moderate (19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25), Severe (26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31)(32)(33), Extremely Severe (34+). The total scores across the three subscales indicated the severity of symptoms, with higher scores indicating greater severity. ...
Background and aim: Female genital circumcision (FGC), a prevalent practice in the Kurdistan Region of
Iraq, has significant psychosocial and sexual implications for affected women. Therefore, this study aimed
to investigate these impacts among circumcised and non-circumcised Kurdish women.
Method: This comparative study was conducted from January 2 to June 27, 2023, at the Al Mesalla for Human
Rights Improvement organization in Erbil, Iraq. Purposive sampling was used to collect data using a
comprehensive questionnaire. The questionnaire included demographic information, the Depression,
Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE), and the New Sexual
Satisfaction Scale-Short Form (NSSS-S). Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 26 (IBM
Corp., Armonk, NY), with frequency and percentage used for categorical variables and mean and standard
deviation for quantitative variables. Independent sample t-tests and Chi-square tests were conducted to
compare groups. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Results: A total of 772 participants were enrolled in the study, including 382 circumcised and 390 noncircumcised women. The study found significant differences between the two groups in terms of depression,
self-esteem, and sexual satisfaction. Circumcised women had higher mean scores for depression (12.19 ± 5.6
vs. 10.68 ± 5.3), lower mean scores for self-esteem (24.4 ± 12.1 vs. 30.3 ± 10.1), and lower mean scores for
sexual satisfaction (52.4 ± 24.6 vs. 67.6 ± 20.4) compared to non-circumcised women (all p < 0.001).
Conclusions: The study demonstrated that FGC is associated with higher levels of depression, lower selfesteem, and lower sexual satisfaction among Kurdish women. It is recommended for policymakers and
healthcare providers to develop targeted interventions to address the psychosocial and sexual health needs
of circumcised women in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.
... Both practices became associated with maturity, courage, the ability to withstand pain, health, fertility, purity and, importantly, respect for authority and traditional institutions, including (possibly) religion. In contemporary communities, those who are most supportive of FGM/C are older women (for example, mothers, mothers-in-law and older co-wives in polygynous households), usually the primary decision makers for young women to undergo FGM/C [66][67][68] . This pressure is stronger in societies where the frequency of FGM/C is high 57 . ...
... A recent study in Indonesia and Zambia (both countries where FGM/C is practised) showed that parents in societies practising bride-price invest more in their daughters' education 55 . Since education is among the strongest negative predictors of FGM/C cross-culturally 66,67 , the practice of bride-price could paradoxically facilitate the abandoning of FGM/C, at least in urban, more educated communities. ...
... Lastly, several anthropologists have noted that FGM/C and MGM/C are often considered equivalent and complementary by those who practise them 67,73,74 . This is supported by the observation that public awareness of negative sexual and health consequences of FGM/C leads to more unfavourable views of male circumcision among MGM/C-practising immigrant communities in Western countries 75 . ...
Genital mutilation/cutting is costly in terms of health, survival and reproduction, and the long-term maintenance of these practices is an evolutionary conundrum. Previous studies have suggested a mate-guarding function or various signalling functions of genital mutilation/cutting. Here we use phylogenetic comparative methods and two global ethnographic samples to study the origins and socio-ecological correlates of major types of female and male genital mutilation/cutting. Male genital mutilation/cutting probably originated in polygynous societies with separate residence of co-wives, supporting a mate-guarding function. Female genital mutilation/cutting originated subsequently and almost exclusively in societies already practising male genital mutilation/cutting, where it may have become a signal of chastity. Both have originated multiple times, some as early as in the mid-Holocene (5,000-7,000 years ago), considerably predating the earliest archaeological evidence and written records. Genital mutilation/cutting co-evolves with and may help maintain fundamental social structures, hindering efforts to change these cultural practices.
... By comparison, a gender-based interpretation that emphasizes the fundamentally discriminatory dimension of the practice has been slow to take hold at the international level (WHO, 2008). Nevertheless, FGM/C has increasingly come to be understood in terms of intergenerationally transmitted (Berg and Denison, 2013;Boyle and Svec, 2019) social norms rooted in gender inequality (Ziyada et al., 2020;O'Neill et al., 2021;Villani, 2022). Applied research focused on the relationship between social norms and FGM/C (Mackie et al., 2015) has determined that they are by no means fixed (Mackie and Le Jeune, 2009). ...
... Other researchers have found that girls are less likely to undergo FGM/C when their parents take a joint approach to making major household decisions. This provides new insights into how women, families, and communities can disrupt the intergenerational transmission of behaviors rooted in institutionalized forms of gender discrimination (Boyle and Svec, 2019). They also highlight the need to support family discussions Frontiers in Sociology frontiersin.org ...
“Female genital mutilation/cutting” (FGM/C) refers to procedures that involve altering the external female genitalia with the aim of reinforcing gendered body norms. The literature has consistently shown that, like various forms of discrimination, the practice is rooted in systems of gender inequality. As a result, FGM/C has increasingly come to be understood in terms of social norms that are by no means fixed. And yet, in the Global North, interventions remain primarily medical in nature, with clitoral reconstruction having emerged as a common means of dealing with related sexual issues. And although treatments can vary greatly depending on the hospitals and physicians involved, sexuality tends to be considered from a gynecological perspective, even when multidisciplinary care is offered. By contrast, gender norms and other socio-cultural factors receive little attention. In addition to highlighting three critical shortcomings in current responses to FGM/C, this literature review also describes how social work can play a key role in overcoming the associated barriers by (1) adopting a holistic approach to sex education, one capable of addressing those aspects of sexuality that lie beyond the scope of a medical consultation; (2) supporting family-based discussions on matters of sexuality; and (3) promoting gender equality, especially among younger generations.
... 17 35 38 45 Among a pooled sample of six DHS surveys from Nigeria, Egypt, Mali, Kenya, Guinea and Burkina Faso, the age of the mother did not have a statistically significant association with FGM/C. 59 ...
... 55 65 Some determinants were only examined in one study and showed a positive association with FGM/C such as mother's underage marriage, 17 high village FGM/C rate, 22 cultural influence to perform FGM/C or community acceptance 55 or being an undocumented migrant. 28 There was no statistically significant association between FGM/C status and women's decision-making ability, 59 women's ownership of land 39 and domestic abuse 39 (online supplemental table 4). ...
Background
This systematic review aimed to identify and describe the factors that influence female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C).
Methods
Searches were conducted in Medline, PsycInfo, Web of Science, Embase and the grey literature from 2009 to March 2020 with no language restrictions, using related MESH terms and keywords. Studies were included if they were quantitative and examined factors associated with FGM/C. Two researchers independently screened studies for inclusion, extracted data and assessed study quality. The direction, strength and consistency of the association were evaluated for determinants, presented as a descriptive summary, and were disaggregated by age and region.
Results
Of 2230 studies identified, 54 published articles were included. The majority of studies were from the African Region (n=29) followed by the Eastern Mediterranean Region (n=18). A lower level of maternal education, family history of FGM/C, or belonging to the Muslim religion (in certain contexts) increased the likelihood of FGM/C. The majority of studies that examined higher paternal education (for girls only) and living in an urban region showed a reduced likelihood of FGM/C, while conflicting evidence remained for wealth. Several studies reported that FGM/C literacy, and low community FGM/C prevalence were associated with a reduced likelihood of FGM/C.
Conclusions
There were several characteristics that appear to be associated with FGM/C, and these will better enable the targeting of policies and interventions. Importantly, parental education may be instrumental in enabling communities and countries to meet the Sustainable Development Goals.
... Considering the differences in the current age of the daughters and their mothers, the rate of FGM among the young girls of today may surpass the rates among the current mothers by the time the girls complete their reproductive circle, particularly in Nigeria and Mali. Moreover, it is worrisome that this cultural practice is being continuously practised across different countries in daughters of women interviewed in the surveys despite the enactment of laws against the practice and colossal investment on prevention programmes [26,37]. The general submissive attitude of women towards cultural practice even when such culture is harmful has been widely reported in Africa. ...
... The perpetuation of FGM among daughters of mothers that were not educated, and from lower socio-economic class as well as living in areas with high unemployment rates attest to the need to empower women with education and means of livelihood to reduce the risk of genital mutilation in the future. Educated and well-empowered women usually have a voice towards key decisions in the family, especially on their health and that of their children [37]. However, women's socio-economic status may be an influencer of FGM. ...
Despite a total prohibition on the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM), young girls continue to be victims in some African countries. There is a paucity of data on the effect of FGM practice in two generations in Africa. This study assessed the current practice of daughters’ FGM among women living in 14 FGM-prone countries in Africa as a proxy to assess the future burden of FGM in the continent. We used Demographic and Health Surveys data collected between 2010 and 2018 from 14 African countries. We analyzed information on 93,063 women-daughter pair (Level 1) from 8,396 communities (Level 2) from the 14 countries (Level 3). We fitted hierarchical multivariable binomial logistic regression models using the MLWin 3.03 module in Stata version 16 at p<0.05. The overall prevalence of FGM among mothers and their daughters was 60.0% and 21.7%, respectively, corresponding to 63.8% reduction in the mother-daughter ratio of FGM. The prevalence of FGM among daughters in Togo and Tanzania were less than one per cent, 48.6% in Guinea, with the highest prevalence of 78.3% found in Mali. The percentage reduction in mother-daughter FGM ratio was highest in Tanzania (96.7%) and Togo (94.2%), compared with 10.0% in Niger, 15.0% in Nigeria and 15.9% in Mali. Prevalence of daughters’ FGM among women with and without FGM was 34.0% and 3.1% respectively. The risk of mothers having FGM for their daughters was significantly associated with maternal age, educational status, religion, household wealth quintiles, place of residence, community unemployment and community poverty. The country and community where the women lived explained about 57% and 42% of the total variation in FGM procurement for daughters. Procurement of FGM for the daughters of the present generation of mothers in Africa is common, mainly, among those from low social, poorer, rural and less educated women. We advocate for more context-specific studies to fully assess the role of each of the identified risk factors and design sustainable intervention towards the elimination of FGM in Africa.
... This can profoundly shape the development of new behaviour and attitudes of the younger generation within these families towards continuing the advocacy against FGM within their own families and the wider community (Abathun et al;. They should work to understand the structural, emotional, and practical challenges facing FGM victims and address issues such as trauma, retraumatization and intergenerational trauma resulting from intergenerationally transmitted ( Berg & Denison, 2013 ;Boyle and Svec, 2019 ) behaviours rooted in institutionalized gender inequality and discrimination ( Ziyada et al., 2020 ;O'Neill et al., 2021 ;. ...
This paper undertakes an examination of the issue of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Nigeria, and its multidimensional adverse effects on individuals who have undergone the practice. It highlights the crucial role of Nigerian social workers and legal practitioners across the globe in addressing human rights violations and the resulting trauma experienced by FGM victims. Additionally, the study aims to mitigate the risk of retraumatization and disrupt the perpetuation of intergenerational trauma within the lives of the victims, their families, and the broader community. The paper advocates for the urgent integration of a human rights-based, trauma-informed approach in Nigerian social work education and both the social work and legal professional practice. This involves emphasizing the need for both social welfare officers and legal practitioners alike to undergo specialized training in human rights advocacy and trauma-informed care to effectively address the traumatic experiences, unique vulnerabilities, and distinct needs of FGM victims. Collaborative efforts involving social workers, healthcare professionals, legal experts, and law enforcement in helping victims cope with the complexities of human rights violations and associated trauma are explored. The paper analyses current national interventions initiated to eliminate FGM and identifies shortcomings that require improvement for better support of FGM survivors. Ultimately, the article aims to contribute to the overall enhancement of legal, social welfare and support systems for FGM victims or survivors in Nigeria.
... Studies have been conducted to examine the factors that influence FGM worldwide. Based on the findings of these studies, the age of the girls and women involved is crucial in understanding the intergenerational transmission of FGM 8,9 . This is because older women have a higher likelihood of having passed through the practice and may be more likely to pass it down to their children and grandchildren. ...
A deeper understanding of the factors associated with female genital mutilation remains important in the fight against this practice, particularly in developing countries. This study focused on young women (15-35 years) and pooled analysis using DHS data (2015-2019) for selected sub-Saharan African countries was done. The weighted study sample was 26289 and the data were analysed using univariate, bivariate and multivariate regression analysis. The results are based on information at the time of the survey. The overall prevalence of FGM among young women from the selected countries was 71.5%. Sierra Leone had the highest prevalence (83.7%), followed by Tanzania (80.8%), Ethiopia (73.0%), and Gambia (72.4%). The prevalence in Senegal and Guinea were both below 60%. We found that age, level of education, age at first marriage, parity, employment status, media exposure, and type of place of residence were statistically associated with FGM. This calls for targeted interventions focusing on increasing awareness, education, and empowerment for young women with low socioeconomic status. (Afr J Reprod Health 2024; 28 [6]: 15-24). Résumé Une compréhension plus approfondie des facteurs associés aux mutilations génitales féminines reste importante dans la lutte contre cette pratique, en particulier dans les pays en développement. Cette étude s'est concentrée sur les jeunes femmes (15-35 ans) et une analyse groupée utilisant les données DHS (2015-2019) pour certains pays d'Afrique subsaharienne a été réalisée. L'échantillon pondéré de l'étude était de 26 289 et les données ont été analysées à l'aide d'une analyse de régression univariée, bivariée et multivariée. Les résultats sont basés sur les informations disponibles au moment de l'enquête. La prévalence globale des MGF parmi les jeunes femmes des pays sélectionnés était de 71,5 %. La Sierra Leone avait la prévalence la plus élevée (83,7 %), suivie par la Tanzanie (80,8 %), l'Éthiopie (73,0 %) et la Gambie (72,4 %). La prévalence au Sénégal et en Guinée était inférieure à 60 %. Nous avons constaté que l'âge, le niveau d'éducation, l'âge au premier mariage, la parité, la situation professionnelle, l'exposition aux médias et le type de lieu de résidence étaient statistiquement associés aux MGF. Cela nécessite des interventions ciblées axées sur la sensibilisation, l'éducation et l'autonomisation des jeunes femmes ayant un statut socio-économique faible. (Afr J Reprod Health 2024; 28 [6]: 15-24).
... Persisting with the notion of misconceptions and cultural traditions, two further themes in our review which reflected barriers focused on the maintenance of intergenerational traditions and FGM's association with hygiene and cleanliness. While prior research supports these findings (e.g., Boyle & Svec, 2019;O'Neill, 2018), interventions do not appear to effectively target these influences (O'Neill, 2018). Straethern (2004) suggests that a woman's body in many FGM practicing communities is not considered 'hers' but is the business of other family and wider community members. ...
Background
Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a harmful practice that has long-lasting negative impacts on the physical and psychological health of victims. Deemed a global concern, this practice persists in high-income countries (HIC) among certain migrant communities. Given the deleterious effects of the practice, we conducted an updated systematic review of the facilitators and barriers associated with the prevention of FGM in HIC.
Method
A systematic review of published qualitative studies of FGM in HIC was conducted from 2012 to 2022. The search resulted in 276 studies. Of these, the majority were from low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) and excluded. A total of 14 studies were deemed fit for inclusion and none were excluded during quality appraisal. Relevant data were extracted from the studies and thematically analyzed to identify prevalent themes.
Results
A total of 12 themes were identified and the majority reflected barriers to the prevention of FGM including beliefs about female virtue, beliefs about social sanctions, and the preservation of culture, among others. Facilitators to the prevention of FGM were fewer and included memory and trauma from experiencing FGM, knowledge and awareness of the female anatomy, and legislative protection from FGM due to migration. A few themes, such as religious beliefs, acted as both facilitators and barriers.
Conclusion
Findings highlight the importance of shared cultural and social threads among FGM practicing communities in HIC. Interventions can use these findings to guide the development of sociocultural strategies centered on community-level prevention and reduction of FGM in HIC.
... The other study has shown that when parents make major household decisions all together with family can reduce the likelihood of girls undergoing FGM. This offers valuable information on how women, families and communities can break the cycle of institutionalized gender discrimination and prevent harmful practices from being passed down through generations (Boyle and Svec, 2019). Another recent research study which recently conducted in the US found that health and social professionals who work with individuals at risk of undergoing or who have undergone FGM lack the necessary tools and knowledge. ...
This article explores the intricate relationship between Raewyn Connell's gender order concept and women's involvement in Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). Connell's concept, elucidated by Grazyna Zajdow (2011), examines how institutional structures, gender regimes, and individual identities intersect to create social arrangements that allow one gender to dominate another economically, socially, and politically. Focusing on gender order as a social construct, the article delves into the roles, expectations, and performances associated with masculinity and femininity, offering a crucial lens to comprehend women's participation in FGM. The overview of FGM emphasizes its deep-rooted cultural practices with patriarchal structures, primarily found in African and some Asian continents. Despite global efforts to eradicate this harmful practice, its persistence raises questions about underlying factors contributing to its continuation. The examination of Connell's concept in the context of FGM reveals how social norms, power dynamics, and cultural preservation interests perpetuate this phenomenon. The discussion on women's roles in FGM highlights the gender order's influence on societal expectations and the preservation of cultural identity. Women, often responsible for passing on traditions, may feel compelled to support FGM due to social pressure and the need for credibility within their communities. The article also explores the impact of women's empowerment, education, and decision-making power on their attitudes toward FGM, revealing a complex interplay between gender dynamics and societal expectations. Social norms and conformity emerge as significant influencers in the perpetuation of FGM. The article argues that social pressure, fear of isolation, and desire for social acceptance contribute to the continuation of this harmful practice. Additionally, the preservation of cultural identity and the intertwining of culture and religion further complicate efforts to eradicate FGM. In conclusion, this comprehensive exploration underscores the multifaceted nature of women's participation in FGM, demonstrating how gender order theory provides valuable insights into the societal dynamics perpetuating this harmful practice. The essay advocates for a holistic approach that challenges root gender attitudes, empowers women through education, and engages communities in respectful dialogue, prioritizing the well-being and rights of girls and women.
... The other study has shown that when parents make major household decisions all together with family can reduce the likelihood of girls undergoing FGM. This offers valuable information on how women, families and communities can break the cycle of institutionalized gender discrimination and prevent harmful practices from being passed down through generations (Boyle and Svec, 2019). Another recent research study which recently conducted in the US found that health and social professionals who work with individuals at risk of undergoing or who have undergone FGM lack the necessary tools and knowledge. ...
Abstract
This article explores the intricate relationship between Raewyn Connell's gender order concept and women's involvement in Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). Connell's concept, elucidated by Grazyna Zajdow (2011), examines how institutional structures, gender regimes, and individual identities intersect to create social arrangements that allow one gender to dominate another economically, socially, and politically. Focusing on gender order as a social construct, the article delves into the roles, expectations, and performances associated with masculinity and femininity, offering a crucial lens to comprehend women's participation in FGM. The overview of FGM emphasizes its deep-rooted cultural practices with patriarchal structures, primarily found in African and some Asian continents. Despite global efforts to eradicate this harmful practice, its persistence raises questions about underlying factors contributing to its continuation. The examination of Connell's concept in the context of FGM reveals how social norms, power dynamics, and cultural preservation interests perpetuate this phenomenon. The discussion on women's roles in FGM highlights the gender order's influence on societal expectations and the preservation of cultural identity. Women, often responsible for passing on traditions, may feel compelled to support FGM due to social pressure and the need for credibility within their communities. The article also explores the impact of women's empowerment, education, and decision-making power on their attitudes toward FGM, revealing a complex interplay between gender dynamics and societal expectations.
Social norms and conformity emerge as significant influencers in the perpetuation of FGM. The article argues that social pressure, fear of isolation, and desire for social acceptance contribute to the continuation of this harmful practice. Additionally, the preservation of cultural identity and the intertwining of culture and religion further complicate efforts to eradicate FGM. In conclusion, this comprehensive exploration underscores the multifaceted nature of women's participation in FGM, demonstrating how gender order theory provides valuable insights into the societal dynamics perpetuating this harmful practice. The essay advocates for a holistic approach that challenges root gender attitudes, empowers women through education, and engages communities in respectful dialogue, prioritizing the well-being and rights of girls and women.
... The other study has shown that when parents make major household decisions all together with family can reduce the likelihood of girls undergoing FGM. This offers valuable information on how women, families and communities can break the cycle of institutionalized gender discrimination and prevent harmful practices from being passed down through generations (Boyle and Svec, 2019). Another recent research study which recently conducted in the US found that health and social professionals who work with individuals at risk of undergoing or who have undergone FGM lack the necessary tools and knowledge. ...
This article explores the intricate relationship between Raewyn Connell's gender order concept and women's involvement in Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). Connell's concept, elucidated by Grazyna Zajdow (2011), examines how institutional structures, gender regimes, and individual identities intersect to create social arrangements that allow one gender to dominate another economically, socially, and politically. Focusing on gender order as a social construct, the article delves into the roles, expectations, and performances associated with masculinity and femininity, offering a crucial lens to comprehend women's participation in FGM. The overview of FGM emphasizes its deep-rooted cultural practices with patriarchal structures, primarily found in African and some Asian continents. Despite global efforts to eradicate this harmful practice, its persistence raises questions about underlying factors contributing to its continuation. The examination of Connell's concept in the context of FGM reveals how social norms, power dynamics, and cultural preservation interests perpetuate this phenomenon. The discussion on women's roles in FGM highlights the gender order's influence on societal expectations and the preservation of cultural identity. Women, often responsible for passing on traditions, may feel compelled to support FGM due to social pressure and the need for credibility within their communities. The article also explores the impact of women's empowerment, education, and decision-making power on their attitudes toward FGM, revealing a complex interplay between gender dynamics and societal expectations. Social norms and conformity emerge as significant influencers in the perpetuation of FGM. The article argues that social pressure, fear of isolation, and desire for social acceptance contribute to the continuation of this harmful practice. Additionally, the preservation of cultural identity and the intertwining of culture and religion further complicate efforts to eradicate FGM. In conclusion, this comprehensive exploration underscores the multifaceted nature of women's participation in FGM, demonstrating how gender order theory provides valuable insights into the societal dynamics perpetuating this harmful practice. The essay advocates for a holistic approach that challenges root gender attitudes, empowers women through education, and engages communities in respectful dialogue, prioritizing the well-being and rights of girls and women.
... The other study has shown that when parents make major household decisions all together with family can reduce the likelihood of girls undergoing FGM. This offers valuable information on how women, families and communities can break the cycle of institutionalized gender discrimination and prevent harmful practices from being passed down through generations (Boyle and Svec, 2019). Another recent research study which recently conducted in the US found that health and social professionals who work with individuals at risk of undergoing or who have undergone FGM lack the necessary tools and knowledge. ...
... They resolved to do things differently from their ancestors and took upon themselves the responsibility to do for their children what they wished their own parents could have done for them: to protect, educate, and exert authority. Indeed, Boyle and Svec (2019) found that women with autonomous or joint household decision-making powers were more likely to abandon FGM for their daughters. ...
Female genital mutilation (FGM) is conceptualized as an interpersonal act, commonly initiated by mothers. This study investigates relational dynamics among adult women who experienced FGM in childhood and have since migrated to the United Kingdom. A qualitative research design was employed, using semi-structured interviews and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) with nine women. Three superordinate themes emerged: (a) “The ‘who to blame?’ conflict: Preserving goodness in parents”; (b) “Better or worse? Positioning the self in relation to others”; and (c) “Regaining power: Righting the wrongs.” Implications for understanding the relational consequences of FGM and the discontinuation of its intergenerational transmission are considered.
... In an exception to this individual-level focus, Boyle and Svec (2019) show that community levels of women's decision-making autonomy predict daughters' risk of cutting, even net of individual mother's autonomy. More general tests of a feminist approach have been limited because of the varied approaches to conceptualizing and operationalizing relevant aspects of patriarchal systems, and in particular because of the challenges of creating community-level measures of gender systems. ...
Despite long-term efforts to encourage abandonment of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGMC), the practice remains widespread globally. FGMC is situated in specific social and historical contexts, and both prevalence and rates of decline vary widely across practicing countries. However, cross-national comparative research on the determinants of FGMC is sparse. This paper adds to the limited body of rigorous, theoretically grounded quantitative studies of FGMC and takes a step toward advancing cross-national comparative research. We apply an integrated theoretical framework that brings together norms-based and gender-based explanations of community-level influences on FGMC. We test this framework in four francophone West African countries, drawing on comparable nationally representative data from the Demographic and Health Surveys in Burkina Faso (2010), Côte d'Ivoire (2011-2012), Guinea (2012), and Mali (2012-2013). Results show that community-level FGMC norms and community-level gendered opportunities are associated with girls' risk of FGMC, but that the direct and moderating associations vary qualitatively across countries. Our findings highlight the contribution of context-specific social and institutional processes to the decline or persistence of FGMC.
This article examines the dynamics of representation between cultural and economic forms of gender inequality on Nigerian female blogs. Through a thematic analysis of 253 comments retrieved from five female-authored blogs, I draw on prominent cases of gender inequality in Nigeria, such as ‘President Muhammadu Buhari’s position on his wife’ and the ‘rejection of the Gender and Equal Opportunities Bill’. The analysis showed that blog discussions among females in Nigeria suggest extensive intolerance to cultural change, especially in comparison to the more positive attitude towards redistribution. To tackle this complexity, I argue that gender equality advocacy in Nigeria should commence mainly from a redistributive standpoint. This needs to be accompanied by the ulterior aim of achieving recognition. Overall, the study contests the idea that identity politics is threatening to replace the issue of redistribution on the global political agenda by highlighting the primacy of redistributive politics in blog discourse. It enriches media studies and gender research by providing rare insight into the practical connections between cultural and economic politics of gender inequality in an online discursive context.
Research on children's participation in housework is scarce and mainly descriptive. Drawing on theories of gender role socialization, the authors identify how children's contributions are influenced by how their parents allocate domestic tasks. Using data from the German Socioeconomic Panel, which include annual information on time dedicated to housework for all family members, they analyze a sample of 2,293 sons and daughters born 1976 to 1995 who live with their parents at ages 18 and 19 and whose parents reported their own time spent on housework when the children were aged 8 to 11 years. The authors find that parents' housework division when children were ages 8 to 11 affects the likelihood of sons (and less so, daughters) participating in such tasks, even after controlling for parental education, the mother's work attachment, time constraints, and parents' division of housework in adolescence. Analysis of siblings provides additional support for our hypothesis.
Background
It is well acknowledged that Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C/C) leads to medical, psychological and sociocultural sequels. Over 200 million cases of FGM/C exist globally, and in Kenya alone, a total of 12,418,000 (28%) of women have undergone FGM/C, making the practice not only a significant national, but also a global health catastrophe. FGM/C is rooted in patriarchal and traditional cultures as a communal experience signifying a transition from girlhood to womanhood. The conversations surrounding FGM/C have been complicated by the involvement of women themselves in perpetuating the practice.
Methods
A qualitative inquiry employing face-to-face, one-on-one, in-depth semi-structured interviews was used in a study that included 30 women living with obstetric fistulas in Kenya. Using the Social Network Framework and a feminist analysis we present stories of Kenyan women who had developed obstetric fistulas following prolonged and obstructed childbirth.
Results
Of the 30 participants, three women reported that health care workers informed them that FGM/C was one of the contributing factors to their prolonged and obstructed childbirth. They reported serious obstetric complications including: the development of obstetric fistulas, lowered libido, poor quality of life and maternal and child health outcomes, including death. Fistula and subsequent loss of bodily functionalities such as uncontrollable leakage of body wastes, was reported by the women to result in rejection by spouses, families, friends and communities. Rejection further led to depression, loss of work, increased sense of apathy, lowered self-esteem and image, as well as loss of identity and communal sociocultural cohesion.
Conclusion
FGM/C is practised in traditional, patriarchal communities across Africa. Although the practice aims to bind community members and to celebrate a rite of passage; it may lead to harmful health and social consequences. Some women with fistula report their fistula was caused by FGM/C. Concerted efforts which embrace feminist understandings of society, as well as multi-sectoral, multidisciplinary and community development approaches need to be employed to address FGM/C, and to possibly reduce cases of obstetric fistulas in Kenya and beyond. Both government and non-government organisations need to be involved in making legislative, gender sensitive policies that protect women from FGM/C. In addition, the policy makers need to be in the front line to improve the lives of women who endured the consequences of FGM/C.
Female genital cutting (FGC) involves partial or total removal of the external female genitalia and causes detrimental effects on woman’s physical and psychological health. Estimates suggest that 130 million women and girls have experienced FGC worldwide. A frequently cited reason for performing this procedure is to restrict female sexuality. To test this idea, we examined women’s willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual relations (sociosexuality) among the traditional Igbo community in Southeastern Nigeria, a region in which FGC is prevalent. Women with FGC reported more restricted sociosexuality in all three domains (attitude, behavior, and desire) compared to women without FGC. Our results suggest that FGC significantly restricts female extra-pair behavior. We provide evidence that this practice is partially attributable to sexual conflict over reproduction by decreasing paternity uncertainty and increasing the reproductive costs to women.
We present formal evolutionary models for the origins and persistence of the practice of Female Genital Modification (FGMo). We then test the implications of these models using normative cross-cultural data on FGMo in Africa and Bayesian phylogenetic methods that explicitly model adaptive evolution. Empirical evidence provides some support for the findings of our evolutionary models that the de novo origins of the FGMo practice should be associated with social stratification, and that social stratification should place selective pressures on the adoption of FGMo; these results, however, are tempered by the finding that FGMo has arisen in many cultures that have no social stratification, and that forces operating orthogonally to stratification appear to play a more important role in the cross-cultural distribution of FGMo. To explain these cases, one must consider cultural evolutionary explanations in conjunction with behavioral ecological ones. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of our study for policies designed to end the practice of FGMo.
This research examines behavioral and attitudinal data in order to investigate the perpetuation of the practice of female circumcision, also known as female genital mutilation, in the Sudan. During the recent Sudan Demographic and Health Survey, women were asked about their own circumcisions, as well as those done or planned for their daughters, and they reported what they (and their husbands) felt about the continuation of the practice. We analyze the data on the likely prevalence of daughters' circumcisions, along with the attitudinal data on the continuation of the practice and on the preferred type of circumcision where continuation is supported. Close to 90% of all women surveyed either had circumcised or planned to circumcise all of their daughters. Roughly half of those women reported favoring the most severe procedures. The practice is thus likely to continue to be widely practiced, and the most severe forms may well continue to be most common.
Typically, fertility surveys and demographic and health surveys have included little information
on economic status. In the past, socioeconomic status has been determined using the education level of
the respondent and/or spouse, sometimes in combination with their own or their spouse’s occupation. A
few studies have used household construction, mostly type of flooring, as an economic indicator, and
some others have combined several housing characteristics into ad hoc indexes. The DHS wealth index is
an attempt to make better use of existing data in the Demographic and Health Surveys in a systematic
fashion to determine a household’s relative economic status.
This report documents the philosophy, history, and background of the DHS wealth index and
describes the methodology employed in its construction and the decisions made about possible variations
in the methodology. After discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of using a wealth index as
opposed to income and expenditure measures of economic status, a comparison is made between the
wealth index and the expenditure index in a particular setting. This comparison shows that the wealth
index explains the same or a greater amount of the differences between households on a set of health
indicators, even though the wealth index requires far less effort from respondents, interviewers, data
processors, and analysts.
Comparisons are made for five selected countries in the distribution of wealth among households
and for some key demographic and social indicators. Additionally, as examples, key health, education,
and use of public services indicators are tabulated according to quintile of the population distribution of
household wealth, and comparative results for health indicators in the poorest quintile are presented for 44
countries.
The use of the wealth index for addressing the needs of the poor is discussed and illustrated
through poverty maps and nongeographic analysis. Also discussed is the joining of the wealth index to
more traditional measures of poverty. Finally, suggestions are offered for extension of the DHS wealth
index, both by inclusion of additional items and by refinement of the methodology of calculation.
Although the international community has recently promoted legislation as an important reform strategy for ending female genital cutting (FGC), there exist divergent views on its potential effects. Supporters argue that legal prohibition of FGC has a general deterrent effect, while others argue legislation can be perceived as coercive, and derail local efforts to end the practice. This study examines the range of responses observed in rural Senegal, where a 1999 anti-FGC law was imposed on communities in which the practice was being actively contested and targeted for elimination. Drawing on data from a mixed-methods study, we analyze responses in relation to two leading theories on social regulation, the law and economics and law and society paradigms, which make divergent predictions on the interplay between social norms and legal norms. Among supporters of FGC, legal norms ran counter to social norms, and did little to deter the practice, and in some instances incited reactance or drove the practice underground. Conversely, where FGC was being contested, legislation served to strengthen the stance of those contemplating or favoring abandonment. We conclude that legislation can complement other reform strategies by creating an "enabling environment" that supports those who have or wish to abandon FGC.
To elucidate the attitudes of women and their husband's towards female genital mutilation (FGM) and their associations with the continuation of FGM upon their daughters.
Subjects were 10,345 (in 1997) and 11,252 (in 2003) ever married women aged 15 to 49 years from the Yemen Demographic Health Surveys. Performances of FGM on the most-recently-born daughters were investigated. Attitudes of women and their husbands were assessed by their opinions on the continuation of FGM. The association between the attitudes of women and their husbands and performance of FGM on the most-recently-born daughters were investigated after adjusting for age and education of the women.
The percentage among the most-recently-born daughters who received FGM of women who had undergone FGM declined from 61.9% in 1997 to 56.5% in 2003 (p<0.001). The percentages of women who had undergone FGM and who supported the continuation of FGM and of husbands who also supported its continuation decreased from 78.2% and 60.1% in 1997 to 70.9% and 49.5% in 2003, respectively (both p<0.001). When the women or the husbands did not agree with FGM, it was less likely to be performed on their daughter than when the women or the husbands agreed in 1997 (odds ratio=0.11, 95% confidence interval 0.07-0.16 and odds ratio=0.07, 95% confidence interval 0.04-0.12, respectively) and in 2003 (odds ratio=0.12, 95% confidence interval 0.09-0.16 and odds ratio=0.11, 95% confidence interval 0.07-0.16, respectively).
Non-supportive attitudes of women and their husbands towards the continuation of FGM have become common and were associated with their decision not to perform FGM upon their daughters.
There has been a large decline in female genital circumcision (FGC) in Egypt in recent decades. Understanding how this change has occurred so rapidly has been an area of particular interest to policymakers and public health officials alike who seek to further discourage the practice elsewhere.
We document the trends in this decline in the newest cohorts of young girls and explore the influences of three pathways---socioeconomic development, social media messages, and women's empowerment---for explaining the observed trends. Using the 2005 and 2008 Egypt Demographic and Health Surveys, we estimate several logistic regression models to (1) examine individual and household determinants of circumcision, (2) assess the contributions of different pathways through which these changes may have occurred, and (3) assess the robustness of different pathways when unobserved community differences are accounted for.
Across all communities, socioeconomic status, social media messages, and women's empowerment all have significant independent effects on the risk of circumcision. However, after accounting for unobserved differences across communities, only mother's education and household wealth significantly predict circumcision outcomes. Additional analyses of maternal education suggest that increases in women's education may be causally related to the reduction in FGC prevalence.
Women's empowerment and social media appear to be more important in explaining differences across communities; within communities, socioeconomic status is a key driver of girls' circumcision risk. Further investigation of community-level women's educational attainment for mothers suggests that investments made in female education a generation ago may have had echo effects on girls' FGC risk a generation later.
Using the case of female genital cutting (FGC), the article addresses the question of when local attitudes and practices conform to international norms. One theoretical perspective links attitudes in developing countries to control over the physical environment, arguing that greater control over nature is associated with the rejection of traditional authority and the acceptance of modern science. A competing perspective emphasizes the importance of western scripts as a source of individual identity. The authors use hierarchical models to analyze Demographic and Health Survey data on attitudes toward, and the practice of, female genital cutting in five African countries with anti-FGC policies. They find that institutions that carry `modern' scripts - education, college, mass media and female employment - all reduce the probability that women will favor the continuation of FGC or `circumcision' of their daughters. The effects of factors associated with control over nature were more mixed. The study also finds that Christian women are more likely to express negative attitudes toward FGC.
Develops & tests a model based on relative deprivation theory which suggests that gender ideology functions as a moderator variable in a process through which inequalities in the division of household labor come to be seen as inequities. Using data from the 1987/88 National Survey of Families & Households, for 4,960 married US couples, 3 empirical tests of the model provide evidence that inequalities in the division of household labor are more strongly related to perceptions of inequity for egalitarian than for traditional wives, & that perceptions of inequity are more strongly related to perceived quality of the marital relationship for egalitarian than for traditional wives. The findings suggest that researchers studying the division of household labor need to shift their focus away from analyses of objective inequalities & toward the study of perceived inequity. 2 Tables, 27 References.
The practice of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) has been documented in many countries in Africa and in several countries in Asia and the Middle East, yet producing reliable data concerning its prevalence and the numbers of girls and women affected has proved a major challenge. This study provides estimates of the total number of women aged 15 years and older who have undergone FGM/C in 27 African countries and Yemen. Drawing on national population-based survey data regarding FGM/C prevalence and census data regarding the number of women in each country, we find that almost 87 million girls and women aged 15 and older have been cut in these 28 countries. Producing reliable figures for the number of women affected by FGM/C in these countries allows researchers and program directors to better comprehend the impact of the practice and to mobilize resources for advocacy against it.
Conditional cash transfer programmes provide extremely poor households with a cash subsidy, on condition that children attend school, and mothers and infants undergo health checks. These programmes are generally considered effective social protection mechanisms, and success in meeting children's nutrition, education, and health targets is reported. However, the impact of these programmes on women's empowerment and intra-household dynamics is under-explored. This article provides a summary of some key findings of recent research in Latin America, supported by CARE International UK. The research looked at the Juntos Programme in Peru, Bono de Desarrollo Humano in Ecuador, and Bono Juana Azurduy in Bolivia. Through qualitative and participatory research with women beneficiaries, and interviews with key informants, the study examined whether, and in what ways, conditional cash transfer programmes might promote gender equity and women's empowerment.
The study aimed to (dis)prove the association of the level of women's empowerment with their future intention to perpetuate female genital cutting for their daughters.
In a national representative community-based sample of 14,393 currently-married women in Egypt, the level of empowerment, intention to continue the practice, and other socio- demographic variables were collected in the 2000 Egypt Demographic and Health Survey. Secondary in-depth analysis was conducted on data downloaded from MEASURE Demographic Health Surveys (MEASURE DHS) website.
About 14% of the women intended to discontinue the practice. Twenty-six percent of the women were empowered in all household decisions. Levels of women's empowerment adjusted for age, residence, education, interaction between empowerment and education, work status, and female genital cutting status of currently-married women were entered in six logistic regression models in a sequential way.
In the last model, those of high levels of empowerment and education were 8.06 times more likely not intending to perpetuate female genital cutting for their daughters than low- empowered low-educated women.
Traditional female genital circumcision, or female genital mutilation, performed upon women in some non-Western cultures has provoked considerable international controversy since the late 1970s. Western feminists, physicians, and ethicists condemn such practice. Having made moral judgement against female genital mutilation, however, what is the next step? There is clearly an impasse between cultural relativism on the one hand and universalism on the other. Those at the forefront of the debate on female genital mutilation must learn to work respectfully with, instead of independently of, local resources for cultural self-examination and change. The authors discuss cultural relativism and moral universalism; female circumcision in sections on epidemiology, health effects, and culture, religion, and social change; the debate historically; the response of Arab and African women; and moving beyond the impasse.
Here we explore the relationship between female genital cutting (FGC), sexual behaviour, and marriage opportunities in five West African countries. Using large demographic datasets (n 72,438 women, 12,704 men, 10,695 couples) we explore key (but untested) assumptions of an evolutionary proposal that FGC persists because it provides evolutionary fitness benefits for men by reducing non-paternity rates. We identify and test three assumptions implicit in this proposal. We test whether cut women have reduced extra-pair sex before or within marriage; whether FGC is associated with a younger age at marriage as an indication of partner preference; and whether individual and group-level indicators of paternity concern are associated with a stronger preference for marriage to women with FGC.
Our results show that FGC status does not affect the odds of women engaging in several indicators of premarital sex, however women with FGC have significantly lower odds of having more than one lifetime sexual partner. We also show that women with FGC get married at a younger age which supports the argument that FGC status influences women's marriage opportunities, even when it does not restrict sexual activity. Finally, we find that in population groups where reported sexual activity and perceived risk of women's extra-pair sex is high, men have higher odds of marrying a first wife with FGC. Together, these results indicate that paternity certainty may be one of several factors contributing to the persistence of FGC in this sample, and that group-level sexual norms are key to maintaining the practice of FGC through the marriage market.
Using the continuous Demographic and Health Surveys (2005-2012) for Peru, we employ multinomial logistic regression estimates to assess risk for intimate partner violence (IPV). Using empowerment and gender frameworks for IPV, we find that women making more household decisions jointly are less likely to experience physical violence. We also find that education is negatively associated with IPV, unless a woman's attainment exceeds her partner's. Although women earning more than their partners are more likely to experience violence, joint decision-makers have a lower risk of moderate physical violence even when their status exceeds that of a male partner. By adding measures for relationship dynamics, we highlight the ways decision-making within the household contributes to violence risk for women. While deviating from male-breadwinning norms can result in violence, risk factors are conditioned on the nature of cooperation within a partnership. Our findings suggest that shared power within the household reduces IPV risk.
To the Western eye, there is something jarringly incongruous, even shocking, about the image of a six-year-old girl being held down by loving relatives so that her genitals can be cut. Yet two million girls experience this each year. Most Westerners, upon learning of the practice of female circumcision, have responded with outrage; those committed to improving the status of women have gone beyond outrage to action by creating various programs for "eradicating" the practice. But few understand the real life complexities families face in deciding whether to follow the traditional practices or to take the risk of change. In The Female Circumcision Controversy, Ellen Gruenbaum points out that Western outrage and Western efforts to stop genital mutilation often provoke a strong backlash from people in the countries where the practice is common. She looks at the validity of Western arguments against the practice. In doing so, she explores both outsider and insider perspectives on female circumcision, concentrating particularly on the complex attitudes of the individuals and groups who practice it and on indigenous efforts to end it. Gruenbaum finds that the criticisms of outsiders are frequently simplistic and fail to appreciate the diversity of cultural contexts, the complex meanings, and the conflicting responses to change. Drawing on over five years of fieldwork in Sudan, where the most severe forms of genital surgery are common, Gruenbaum shows that the practices of female circumcision are deeply embedded in Sudanese cultural traditions-in religious, moral, and aesthetic values, and in ideas about class, ethnicity, and gender. Her research illuminates both the resistance to and the acceptance of change. She shows that change is occurring as the result of economic and social developments, the influences of Islamic activists, the work of Sudanese health educators, and the efforts of educated African women. That does not mean that there is no role for outsiders, Gruenbaum asserts, and she offers suggestions for those who wish to help facilitate change. By presenting specific cultural contexts and human experiences with a deep knowledge of the tremendous variation of the practice and meaning of female circumcision, Gruenbaum provides an insightful analysis of the process of changing this complex, highly debated practice.
Female genital cutting (FGC) is a persistent social norm in the Liben district of southern Ethiopia. This study explores whether the sexual experiences of married men and women differ by women's FGC status. Qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted with 28 women with different types of FGC (or no FGC) and 21 husbands. Compared to others, women with more severe FGC reported traumatic sexual experiences and decreased sexual desire. Nonetheless, participants largely endorsed FGC for daughters, revealing pressure to maintain the practice. Opportunities for change exist, as women and men recognized the sexual pleasure and healthy birth experiences of uncut women.
One of the reasons for the perpetuation of female circumcision is that it controls female sexuality. In this study, we examined the relationship between female circumcision (FC) and the sexual behavior of women in Kenya and Nigeria. Data on women who were aware of circumcision and were circumcised were extracted from the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey of 2008/09 as well as the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey of 2008. The sample size was 7,344 for Kenya and 16,294 for Nigeria. The outcome variables were age at first intercourse and total lifetime number of sexual partners. The study hypothesis was that women who were circumcised were less likely to have initiated sex early and to have only one sex partner. Cox proportional hazards regression and Poisson regression were used to examine the relations of female circumcision and other selected variables to sexual behavior. No association was observed between female circumcision and the outcomes for sexual behavior of women in Kenya and Nigeria. The argument of sexual chastity is insufficient to sustain the perpetuation of female circumcision.
For decades, researchers studying female genital cutting have sought to understand why the practice continues amidst abundant evidence indicating that serious health consequences can result from the more aggressive forms of cutting. Behavioral ecology theory is applied to data collected among Ghana's Kassena-Nankana to highlight the gendered cultural forces that keep FGC practice in place through successful reproductive outcomes. With its strong association to marriageability, and thus women's status and access to resources through marriage, circumcision has long been obligatory. However, the social transformation that is currently underway in this rural population is bringing a new perspective to the value of education, which is replacing circumcision as the resource access currency.
This study examines the intergenerational transmission of two gender attitudes (gender role ideology and work role identity). It draws on a life course perspective and panel data on mothers to assess the relationships between daughters' attitudes and (a) mothers' attitudes and employment experiences, as well as (b) the daughters' own life experiences. We find that mothers' gender role ideology in the 1950s was positively related to their daughters' gender role ideology as adults in 1988 and that social change over this 30-year period contributed to greater mother-daughter congruence in gender role ideology and work role identity by the 1980s. However, daughters' own status matters most in predicting their work role identity, suggesting the importance of both behavior and broad historical changes in moderating intergenerational transmission processes.
This article examines the politics and discourses surrounding female circumcision, and explores ethical approaches to its study for feminist anthropologists. First I present an overview of the international debate on these operations, and review the literature on "female genital mutilation." Unfortunately these writings that are meant to help empower African women can "colonize" them (after Mohanty, 1991). Second, the current debates around the practice in Mali are discussed. The issue has become a metonym for politically, ideologically and economically motivated discussions on gender, age, caste, Islam and Westernization. /// Cet article explore les discours et les relations de pouvoir qui entourent et sous-tendent les débats sur la circoncision féminine. L'auteure explore des approches éthiques qui pourraient être adoptées par les anthropologues féministes. Tout d'abord, un survol historique des débats sur la scène internationale est présenté, incluant une revue des publications sur les "mutilations génitales". Malheureusement ces écrits qui se veulent libérateurs pour les femmes africaines peuvent avoir comme conséquence de les coloniser à nouveau (cf. Mohanty, 1991). Dans une deuxième partie l'auteure présente les résultats de ses recherches sur les débats actuels sur l'excision au Mali. Le débat sur l'excision fonctionne comme une métonymie à travers laquelle sont débattue d'autres grandes questions sociales et politiques sur les rapports sociaux entre les sexes et entre les jeunes et les aîné-e-s, sur la stratification sociale par castes, et sur les mérites comparés de l'Islam et de l'occidentalisation.
Objective
To investigate the relationship between women’s autonomy and attitudes toward female genital cutting (FGC) and having a daughter with FGC in Eritrea.
Methods
Data from a nationally representative sample of 8754 women aged between 15 and 49 years from the 2002 Eritrea Demographic and Health Survey were analyzed. Multivariate logistic regression was used to determine significant predictors of the practice of and attitudes toward FGC, including women’s autonomy.
Results
Sixty-three percent (n = 3168) of women sampled had at least one daughter who had undergone FGC and 50.1% (n = 4848) of women believed FGC should continue. When controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, the odds of supporting the continuation of FGC were greater among women who justified wife beating (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.43; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.23–1.66). Among women who participated in household decisions, the odds of them supporting the continuation of FGC were less than among women who did not participate in household decisions (aOR 0.87; 95% CI, 0.75–0.99).
Conclusion
Interventions addressing women's autonomy, specifically attitudes toward gender norms and increasing women’s involvement in household decisions that carry a greater responsibility, may be a useful approach to reduce the support for and practice of FGC.
Female circumcision is still practiced in different parts of Egypt, impacting women's health and well-being. Existing studies often portray parents' representations of the practice as positive and homogeneous, with little attention paid to the true diversity of views within a community. This study draws on social representations theory to highlight such nuances, while identifying the psychosocial factors that shape parents' decisions to circumcise or not circumcise their daughters. In-depth interviews with 11 mothers and five fathers were conducted in rural communities in the Al Qalyoubeya and Benisweif governorates. Thematic analysis revealed the co-existence of positive, negative and ambivalent representations of female circumcision amongst parents and within the individuals themselves. Although some parents positively represent female circumcision as ensuring the daughter's chastity, safeguarding her femininity and preserving community identity, they feel distress about its potential harms, such as pain, bleeding and terrifying experience on the daughter. Fathers further acknowledge its negative impact on marital sexual relationships. In some cases, parents challenge the ritual and refuse to circumcise their daughters. In light of a theory of change that emphasises the role of community dialogue in renegotiating health-damaging social practices, along with evidence of diverse views amongst parents, this study argues that sensitively facilitated ‘community conversations’ might provide parents with opportunities to debate their opposing views and allow for the construction of health-enabling social representations. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
In recent years, gender-based violence in South Asia has been of great concern to scholars and policymakers alike. This study explores the effects of women's relative resources on several dimensions of intimate partner violence in India, and tests whether economic resources allow women to “bargain” for less violence, or exacerbate the violence they face. To explore both possibilities, I use data from the 2005–06 Indian National Family Health Survey. The findings indicate that women with relatively higher education, employment, or earnings status than their spouse face more frequent and severe violence than women with lower status. Together, these findings suggest that women's superior material power bases threaten patriarchal norms and are responded to with the use of violence.
This study was designed to test empirically the value of the distributive justice framework in terms of understanding wives' sense of fairness about the division of family work, as recommended by Thompson. Operationalizations of many of the social-psychological cognitions suggested by the framework are presented. In a sample of 234 dual-earner wives randomly selected from metropolitan areas of the western United States, there was qualified support for the framework. Feelings of appreciation were the strongest predictor of fairness. Deciding together how things would be divided was also a strong predictor. Other effects on fairness were indirect, however; they affected the division of family work, which, in turn, influenced wives' sense of fairness. More psychometric work will be needed, and replication with different samples is necessary, but the distributive justice framework appears to have significant merit for understanding wives' perceptions of fairness about family work.
Understanding how the idea of culture is mobilized in discursive contests is crucial for both theorizing and building multicultural democracies. To investigate this, I analyze a debate over whether we should relieve the “cultural need” for infibulation among immigrants by offering a “nick” in U.S. hospitals. Using interviews, newspaper coverage, and primary documents, I show that physicians and opponents of the procedure with contrasting models of culture disagreed on whether it represented cultural change. Opponents argued that the “nick” was fairly described as “female genital mutilation” and symbolically identical to more extensive cutting. Using a reified model, they imagined Somalis to be “culture-bound”; the adoption of a “nick” was simply a move from one genital cutting procedure to another. Unable to envision meaningful cultural adaptation, and presupposing the incompatibility of multiculturalism and feminism, they supported forced assimilation. Physicians, drawing on a dynamic model of culture, believed that adoption of the “nick” was meaningful cultural change, but overly idealized their ability to protect Somali girls from both Somali and U.S. patriarchy. Unduly confident, they failed to take oppression seriously, dismissing relevant constituencies and their concerns.
Both models, then, influenced the outcome of this cultural conflict by shaping the perceptions of cultural change in problematic ways. Given the high-profile nature of “culture” in contemporary politics, these findings may very well extend to other issues that crystallize the supposed incommensurability of feminism and multiculturalism, as well as the wider debates about how societies can be both diverse and socially just.
Genital cutting has been a key ritual event of initiation in Kuria society since anyone can remember. While changes surely occurred to the ritual as it was passed between generations, social and health concerns have quickly and radically reshaped it. In this article, I examine recent changes to the tradition, trace the concomitant social compromises and shifts in community ideology and practice, and identify how guiding social norms have been reshaped. Health concerns on the part of insiders and human-rights concerns on the part of outsiders have stimulated some Kuria to modify their opinions and change long-established customs. First, sterile procedures were introduced to circumcisers in the mid-1990s in response to the danger of HIV transmission. Then in the late 1990s, a clergyman, wanting to reduce the risks to the initiates but to preserve the ritual, brought a trained nurse to a mission in the community to operate on girls. During the 1998 ritual (it occurs every two to three years), about sixty girls were cut there. In 2001, a Kuria circumciser performed female genital cutting (FGC) at the mission, thereby obviating concerns about interethnic and interclan witchcraft. In the 2004–2005 season, after years of campaigning, international NGOs introduced an alternative rite of passage. They brought together more than 200 girls from throughout the district to attend workshops instead of genital cutting; on their way home, however, most of those girls were pressured or forced to undergo genital cutting anyway, fulfilling the cultural norm that requires initiation candidates to return home only after they have been operated on. Locally, the circumcision controversy has generated a language that frames the issues in terms of modernization theory's starkest contrasts—using terms, characterizations, and language unheard of in the community even a few years ago.
This article reviews campaigns against female genital cutting (FGC) directed at Maasai communities in northern Tanzania. The authors argue that campaigns against FGC using educational, health, legal, and human rights–based approaches are at times ineffective and counterproductive when they frame the practice as a “tradition†rooted in a “primitive†and unchanging culture. We suggest that development interventions that do not address local contexts of FGC, including the complex politics and history of interventions designed to eradicate it, can in fact reify and reinscribe the practice as central to Maasai cultural identity.
We analyzed determinants of women's employment with data for 40,792 women living in 103 districts of 6 Arab countries. We tested a new theoretical framework that addresses the roles of needs, opportunities, and values at multiple levels. At the microlevel (individual, family), socioeconomic factors, care duties, and traditionalism were important; at the macrolevel (district), economic development and societal norms were important. Women's education seemed most influential. Interaction analyses showed that returns on women's education depended on their partner's education and on the economic development, labor market structure, urbanization, and strength of traditional norms in the district in which women live. Our results stress the importance of a comprehensive approach toward women's employment in these countries.
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This paper uses data from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth to examine social, demographic, and economic correlates of planned and unplanned childbearing among unmarried women. I look at who has births outside of marriage, who plans births outside of marriage, and how childbearing patterns vary for Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics. I find that low education increases the likelihood of planned and unplanned childbearing outside of marriage for all race and ethnic groups. The same holds for cohabitation, although effects on planned births are notably stronger for Hispanics than others. Finally, spending time in a single-parent family as a child increases planned and unplanned childbearing among White women, with modest or no effects among Blacks or Hispanics. Results suggest ways in which the meaning of childbearing depends on the context in which it occurs.
Drawing on British data from the 2002 International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) module on ‘Family and Changing Gender Roles’, this paper is an exploratory attempt to assess the extent to which newly emerging ‘individualised’ patterns of money management in intimate relationships, are coming to be associated with shifts towards greater equality between partners, in terms of who has the final say over large expenditure decisions, and the implications this has for overall satisfaction with the relationship and happiness with life in general. Our findings show that while in general, keeping money partly separate was associated with a relatively high level of male control, which was more visible to female respondents than male control in other systems, a minority of (sometimes) higher earning, cohabiting women with partly separate finances, were able to make autonomous decisions about spending, possibly by using their own personal spending money. However, the analysis also indicates that when either men or women made autonomous decisions about spending, both male and female respondents were less satisfied with family life, as well as with life in general, than those who made joint decisions.
This paper begins from the understanding that women's empowerment is about the process by which those who have been denied the ability to make strategic life choices acquire such an ability. A wide gap separates this processual understanding of empowerment from the more instrumentalist forms of advocacy which have required the measurement and quantification of empowerment. The ability to exercise choice incorporates three inter-related dimensions: resources (defined broadly to include not only access, but also future claims, to both material and human and social resources); agency (including processes of decision making, as well as less measurable manifestations of agency such as negotiation, deception and manipulation); and achievements (well-being outcomes). A number of studies of women's empowerment are analysed to make some important methodological points about the measurement of empowerment. The paper argues that these three dimensions of choice are indivisible in determining the meaning of an indicator and hence its validity as a measure of empowerment. The notion of choice is further qualified by referring to the conditions of choice, its content and consequences. These qualifications represent an attempt to incorporate the structural parameters of individual choice in the analysis of women's empowerment.
The relationship between religious obligations and female genital cutting is explored using data from Burkina Faso, a religiously and ethnically diverse country where approximately three-quarters of adult women are circumcised. Data from the 2003 Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey are used to estimate multilevel models of religious variation in the intergenerational transmission of female genital cutting. Differences between Christians, Muslims, and adherents of traditional religions are reported, along with an assessment of the extent to which individual and community characteristics account for religious differences. Religious variation in the intergenerational transmission of female genital cutting is largely explained by specific religious beliefs and by contextual rather than individual characteristics. Although Muslim women are more likely to have their daughters circumcised, the findings suggest the importance of a collective rather than individual Muslim identity for the continuation of the practice.
Recent reviews of intervention efforts aimed at ending female genital cutting (FGC) have concluded that progress to date has been slow, and call for more efficient programs informed by theories on behavior change. Social convention theory, first proposed by Mackie (1996), posits that in the context of extreme resource inequality, FGC emerged as a means of securing a better marriage by signaling fidelity, and subsequently spread to become a prerequisite for marriage for all women. Change is predicted to result from coordinated abandonment in intermarrying groups so as to preserve a marriage market for uncircumcised girls. While this theory fits well with many general observations of FGC, there have been few attempts to systematically test the theory. We use data from a three year mixed-method study of behavior change that began in 2004 in Senegal and The Gambia to explicitly test predictions generated by social convention theory. Analyses of 300 in-depth interviews, 28 focus group discussions, and survey data from 1220 women show that FGC is most often only indirectly related to marriageability via concerns over preserving virginity. Instead we find strong evidence for an alternative convention, namely a peer convention. We propose that being circumcised serves as a signal to other circumcised women that a girl or woman has been trained to respect the authority of her circumcised elders and is worthy of inclusion in their social network. In this manner, FGC facilitates the accumulation of social capital by younger women and of power and prestige by elder women. Based on this new evidence and reinterpretation of social convention theory, we suggest that interventions aimed at eliminating FGC should target women's social networks, which are intergenerational, and include both men and women. Our findings support Mackie's assertion that expectations regarding FGC are interdependent; change must therefore be coordinated among interconnected members of social networks.
El presente documento desarrolla el tema de la erradicación de la mutilación genital femenina desde el punto de vista holístico del Fondo de Población de las Naciones Unidas - UNFPA. El texto explica la prevalencia, tipos e impacto de la mutilación genital femenina, razones de esta práctica, tendencias, cambios positivos y buenas prácticas.
This paper is about how female circumcision/female genital mutilation (FC/FGM) was viewed by women and men aged 18-89 in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, now that it has been against the law for almost 15 years. The findings come from 11 months of field research, participant observation and interviews in 2008. The practice of FC/FGM was an important issue in Bobo-Dioulasso, even though prevalence seems to be falling. The most important argument for continuing it was not a traditional role, but the need to control female sexuality - regarded as very active - not to negate it, but to ensure morally acceptable behaviour. When I talked about female genital cosmetic surgery it emerged that Bobolaise women used various substances to enhance sexual pleasure for men, both to keep the relationship and to protect the gifts and money many women needed to survive and for their children. FC/FGM was seen as a socio-cultural obligation, necessary to achieve a respectable status. Other forms of genital modification were seen as a means of satisfying male sexual needs, though vaginal tightening to hide sexual experience was also a way of demonstrating respectability. What emerged overall is that Bobolaises had their own perspectives about all the forms of female genital modification that were discussed.
Summary Impact evaluation studies routinely find that lending to women benefits their households. However, a number of them also find that this may not empower the women concerned. This seemingly paradoxical conclusion is confirmed by our study with respect to a lending program in rural India. We investigate this result by examining a combination of loan-use data and borrower-testimonies. We find that loans procured by women are often diverted into enhancing household's assets and incomes. This combined with woman's lack of co-ownership of family's productive assets, we conclude, results in her disempowerment. If empowering women is a crucial objective, then the patriarchal hold on productive assets must be challenged.
To study the prevalence of and reasons for female genital mutilation in an Egyptian village population.
A survey of all 819 households in an Upper Egyptian village near Assiut was conducted in 1992. The mothers of 1,732 girls under 20 years of age were interviewed to obtain information about their daughters. When possible, fathers and grandparents were also interviewed.
Respectively, 62%, 36.6% and 1.1% were girls who had undergone female genital mutilation (FGM), were to undergo the procedure and were not to have the operation. A total of 67% of the fathers of girls who had undergone FGM and 92% of their mothers were illiterate. FGM was performed most often when girls were 5-9 years old. Almost all procedures (97.5%) were performed by dayas; 1.3% were performed by barbers. A razor was used in 80.7% of the cases, and a knife in 18.5%; in less than 1% (0.7%) of the procedures were medical instruments used. The most prevalent reason for FGM was that it followed customs and traditions (77%). Serious bleeding (5.7%) and pain (3%) were the most commonly reported complications of the procedure.
The study raises a number of questions about the experience of FGM by young girls, the reasons for maintaining this practice and the kinds of interventions which might be effective in eliminating it.
We describe the individual and household characteristics associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) in the Philippines, using data from the Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey (CLHNS). We also examine 56 in-depth interview transcripts to explore the context of IPV. We focus our analysis on patterns of household decision-making as a measure of the interpersonal dynamics between husbands and wives. Thirteen percent of women in our sample reported IPV. While economic factors are often implicated in the cycle of violence in households, we find employment status and relative earnings do not predict IPV. Lower levels of household wealth and urban residence are associated with a higher likelihood of IPV. Patterns of household decision-making emerge as strong predictors of violence. The greater the number of decision-making domains men dominate, the more likely they are to use IPV; however, we also find that when women dominate household decisions, they are also more likely to experience IPV. Only 6% of women reported IPV when all household decisions were made jointly compared to 25% when no decisions were made jointly.
Evidence that 97 percent of ever-married Egyptian women were circumcised in 1995 fueled interest to understand the levels, determinants, and consequences of this practice. Qualitative data suggest that ideologies of femininity, pressure to conform to behaviors characterizing womanhood, and constraints to other opportunities perpetuate women's support for female genital cutting in Minia, Egypt. While the practice remains prevalent in Minia, age-specific probabilities of genital cutting are lower among daughters than mothers and among younger than older daughters. A mother's education is negatively associated with, and her circumcision status positively associated with, her intent and decision to circumcise a daughter. Increasing reliance on doctors to perform the procedure is positively associated with urban residence and father's education, indicating a need to understand local meanings of modernity. Overall, increasing girls' access to higher education may contribute to further declines in female genital cutting in this setting.
In this article, I analyze women's decisions to have their daughters circumcised based on data from 7,873 women in Kenya collected in the 1998 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey. I use multilevel models to assess the degree to which women s decisions are correlated with the decisions of other women in their community, in addition to studying the effects of socioeconomic characteristics measured at both the individual and community levels. I find some support for modernization theories, which argue that economic development leads to gradual erosion of the practice of female circumcision. However, more community-level variation is explained by the convention hypothesis, which proposes that the prevalence of female circumcision will decline rapidly once parents see that a critical mass of other parents have stopped circumcising their daughters. I also find substantial variation among different ethnic groups in the pace and onset of the decline of female genital cutting.
Reliable evidence about the effect of female genital mutilation (FGM) on obstetric outcome is scarce. This study examines the effect of different types of FGM on obstetric outcome.
28 393 women attending for singleton delivery between November, 2001, and March, 2003, at 28 obstetric centres in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan were examined before delivery to ascertain whether or not they had undergone FGM, and were classified according to the WHO system: FGM I, removal of the prepuce or clitoris, or both; FGM II, removal of clitoris and labia minora; and FGM III, removal of part or all of the external genitalia with stitching or narrowing of the vaginal opening. Prospective information on demographic, health, and reproductive factors was gathered. Participants and their infants were followed up until maternal discharge from hospital.
Compared with women without FGM, the adjusted relative risks of certain obstetric complications were, in women with FGM I, II, and III, respectively: caesarean section 1.03 (95% CI 0.88-1.21), 1.29 (1.09-1.52), 1.31 (1.01-1.70); postpartum haemorrhage 1.03 (0.87-1.21), 1.21 (1.01-1.43), 1.69 (1.34-2.12); extended maternal hospital stay 1.15 (0.97-1.35), 1.51 (1.29-1.76), 1.98 (1.54-2.54); infant resuscitation 1.11 (0.95-1.28), 1.28 (1.10-1.49), 1.66 (1.31-2.10), stillbirth or early neonatal death 1.15 (0.94-1.41), 1.32 (1.08-1.62), 1.55 (1.12-2.16), and low birthweight 0.94 (0.82-1.07), 1.03 (0.89-1.18), 0.91 (0.74-1.11). Parity did not significantly affect these relative risks. FGM is estimated to lead to an extra one to two perinatal deaths per 100 deliveries.
Women with FGM are significantly more likely than those without FGM to have adverse obstetric outcomes. Risks seem to be greater with more extensive FGM.
In African populations practicing female genital cutting (FGC), beliefs exist that these procedures enhance reproduction and that their medicalization may diminish adverse effects, yet available findings are mixed in part for methodological reasons. We use data from a representative sample of ever-married women aged 17-55 years in Minya, Egypt, to examine the effects of type of FGC and type of circumciser on a woman's risks of primary infertility and pregnancy loss. Contrary to previous studies in Egypt, neither type of circumcision nor type of circumciser is associated with adverse fertility outcomes among circumcised women in Minya.