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Air Pollution at College Football Games: Developing a Methodology for Measuring Air Pollutant Exposure in a Sport Event Microenvironment
Abstract
International organizations such as the United Nations have begun to recognize the connection between sport events and air pollution. However, to date, there has been a dearth of research attempting to measure air pollution at sporting events. To address the lack of research on air pollution at sporting events, in this article we developed a methodology for measuring the air pollution at a college football game utilizing both stationary and mobile monitoring systems. Stationary monitors allowed for the creation of a microenvironment wherein we could examine the overall particulate matter exposure within the stadium and tailgate lot areas. Mobile monitors allowed for the examination of specific causes of spikes in air pollution. We found grills, generators, and cars caused pollutant spikes, which were, at times, over 20 times worse than the recognized levels for moderate air quality. Additionally, while the overall pollution in the microenvironment was elevated, pollutant levels during postgame (i. e., where there is a rush of individuals leaving at the same time) were consistently and considerably higher. Implications for practice and future research include event policy considerations and the application of the methodology across alternative sporting venues/contexts.
... Air quality is a major topic relating to increased pollution that has garnered extensive attention due to its impacts on both the environment and human health. In addition to being a major contributor to climate change and overall worsening environmental quality, air quality also affects human physical and mental performance [1,2]. Particulate matter (PM), which are solid particles or liquid droplets in the air, are the primary drivers of environmental and health concerns from worsening air quality [3]. ...
... Despite this, the impacts of air pollution on physical activity and sports performance have received limited attention relative to the economic and environmental burdens of air pollution, even though large-scale sporting events have been shown to affect both of these factors. For instance, air quality is significantly worse around sporting events to the level where it is often a health concern due to tailgating, cooking, and high traffic [1,25]. Interestingly, while indoor air quality is generally better than outdoor air quality, this is not necessarily the case for sports arenas, particularly in places such as ice rinks where the indoor environment is substantially altered and has been shown to adversely impact athlete health and performance [26][27][28]. ...
Air quality is a growing environmental concern that has implications for human physical and mental health. While air pollution has been linked to cognitive disease progression and declines in overall health, the impacts of air quality on athletic performance have not been extensively investigated. Much of the previous research focused on endurance sports indicates that air quality negatively impacts athletic performance; however, the effects of air quality on non-endurance elite team performance remains largely unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of air quality on errors committed by Major League Baseball (MLB) teams, interceptions thrown by quarterbacks in the National Football League (NFL), and overall quarterback performance in the NFL. Linear regression analysis was used to determine the impact of the median air quality index (AQI) of counties with MLB and NFL teams on errors, interceptions, and overall quarterback performance of players on those MLB and NFL teams. AQI was a significant positive predictor of errors and interceptions, indicating increased errors and interceptions with decreased air quality. Similarly, quarterback performance was significantly reduced for quarterbacks from teams in counties with worse air quality. These findings suggest that air quality has a significant impact on performance in the MLB and NFL, indicating impairments in physical and cognitive performance in professional athletes when competing in areas with poorer air quality. Hence, it is likely that air quality impacts athletic performance in numerous sports that have not yet been investigated.
... For example, the direction of the wind may constantly change, and thus shift pollution so that it is not captured by the monitor, despite there being a large volume of smog in the area. Another similar issue arises in that the data set used within this study uses daily measures; recent work measuring AQI levels at a single college football stadium show there can be greater variation in the pollution levels at the minute-by-minute level [29]. Additionally, the study of college football air pollution also highlights that the positioning of monitors and their proximities to stadiums can play a critical role in obtaining proper measurements of air pollution. ...
(1) Background: Prior research has found that large-scale sporting events may potentially impose negative consequences on the environment, thus impeding the sustainability goals of the sport industry. Along these lines, the current study extends the literature by examining the impact that National Football League (NFL) games have on local-area air pollution. (2) Methods: Air Quality Index (AQI) data measuring six major forms of air pollution were gathered from air monitors positioned close to NFL stadiums and matched with the number of attendees at games. From this, multiple regression analysis was utilized to estimate whether the number of fans was related to changes in air pollution. (3) Results: The regression models found that Ozone and Nitrogen Dioxide levels increased as more individuals attended NFL games. Additional robustness checks and falsification tests suggest that the average NFL event results in an approximately two-percent increase in Ozone levels. (4) Conclusions: The findings from this study contribute to the literature by providing evidence that highly attended sporting events increase pollution levels in the areas near stadiums. Thus, governments and sport organizations should consider low-emission methods to get fans to travel to games in order to reduce their environmental impact.
... Football matches take place in the stadiums of major sporting events, these matches usually have environmental and climate impacts, as large stadiums use direct energy, generate waste from fan consumption and other associated emissions to the operations of the running of the sporting match. (Bunds et al. 2019). ...
Our study presents a research framework that examines the implementation of social accountability development within football clubs, taking into account the social accounting practices that should be regulated in the football industry. We use a methodological model proposed by A. G. Puxty and developed by the research work of Peter Miller in order to highlight the role of football club accounting as a social practice. We show that the progressive development of social responsibility in the football industry requires the establishment of a sectoral framework for the strategic integration of social responsibility that takes into account the specificities of football. To develop our integrative research framework, we conduct a methodical review of 181 empirical studies of corporate social responsibility (CSR) implementation to provide a status quo of the current state of affairs. Our integrative framework is based on four levels: a normative level, a strategic level, an operational level and a higher level. We find that the strategic integration of corporate social responsibility (CSR) into the sports industry is also subject to continuous change. The results of the study confirm that further cross-review processes between literature on strategic CSR integration and research on integrated reporting in the football industry have the power to moderate the next stage of the research.
... Air pollution: Sport events and facilities have been shown to increase air pollution near the site due to increased levels of traffic (Bunds, Casper and Frey 2019). In cases where gas generators are used, these can also affect air quality near the generator. ...
Sport is both deeply dependent and connected to nature - without a healthy planet, there is no playing field for sport. Sport is a highly visible sector with billions of participants and fans who consume its products and regularly engage with sports brands and media, its reach is unprecedented. Inspired by the UNFCCC’s Sport for Climate Action Framework (2018), along with IUCN and IOC's guidance, and in support of the nature MTS pillar, the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, the post-2020 Biodiversity Framework and the Sustainable Development Goals, the Sports for Nature: Setting a Baseline handbook will support sport to be a critical partner for change. Developed by the UN Environment Programme with the support of the International Olympic Committee, along with Loughborough University and GRID Arendal, the handbook investigates and highlights the urgency, dependency and impact of sport on nature, demonstrating the opportunities already underway - with guidance and case studies to inspire and innovate. To set a baseline for nature conscious work in the sport sector, focus groups were conducted with 109 sport organisations from 30 different sports and 48 countries. The handbook shows how sport can move forward positively working together to adapt their games for a greener future.
... This field's relevant research may be divided into functional and service management streams. Studies focusing on the functional attributes of sports facilities utilize technical approaches to evaluate specific building services management characteristics such as air quality (Bunds et al., 2019;Silva & Ricketts, 2016), thermal condition (Bonser et al., 2020;Losi et al., 2021), and heating energy consumption (Bonser et al., 2020;Sofotasiou et al., 2014). Sports facilities' technical performance was evaluated using engineering investigations (such as computer simulations and physical measurements) in these studies, often undertaken from a financial or environmental aspect. ...
The emergence of sports tourism has compelled sports managers to rethink the management and improvement of sports facilities. Through service quality analysis, sports managers can identify the strengths and weaknesses of their activities for possible advancement. Hence, this study aims to develop a decision support model based on integrating online reviews and data envelopment analysis to measure the degree of tourist satisfaction and provide benchmarking goals for service improvement. The proposed model employs text mining techniques to discover service quality attributes from text reviews. According to the discovered service quality attributes, we conduct sentiment analysis to reveal the sentiment polarities of the text reviews. Then, we refine the polarities and ratings of online reviews into linguistic distribution assessments. Furthermore, we develop a linguistic distribution output-oriented non-discretionary bestpoint slack-based measure (BP-SBM) to compute the degree of tourist satisfaction and benchmarking goals. The linguistic distribution output-oriented non-discretionary BP-SBM can handle both positive and negative data values, thus overcoming the flaws of the traditional model. Meanwhile, the proposed decision support model investigates how the service-quality attributes interact to provide improvement pathways for an underperforming stadium based on association rule mining. We test the applicability of the proposed decision support model on some Elite stadia in Europe.
... A game at a stadium is an event, and events in their own right contribute to their larger carbon footprint as a separate measurement from tourists' transport, lodging, and food consumption and waste production (Collins & Potoglou 2019). Mega sporting events' stadiums especially have large environmental impacts through their direct energy consumption, extra waste production, and other emissions associated with event operations (Bunds et al. 2019). Hedayati et al. (2014) recognized the unique polluting potential for stadium structures and quantified a carbon footprint for one Australian-rules football match by using a life cycle assessment (LCA) that takes into account the construction and eventual destruction of the facility. ...
The idea of the Southeastern United States as a region has long infatuated the popular American imagination. While it is a site of historic and present trauma for some, collective Southern regional identity is constructed as a geographic imagined community of belonging. This place-based identity is expressed in many ways, one of which is through college football fandom. Southeastern Conference (SEC) football has long been associated with the presumed region of the South, and a popular expression of both SEC football fandom and southeastern regional identity is the tourism act of attending college football games. This thesis is a critical environmental investigation into that tourism.
The global tourism industry contributes to global anthropogenic climate change through the emission of greenhouse gasses. As such, carbon footprinting can help quantify the sustainability of individual tourism events in terms of emissions. This case study seeks to assess the carbon footprint of six seasons of University of Tennessee college football, an SEC institution with one of the largest football stadiums in the United States. Using an extensive geographic sample of ticketing data from Tennessee’s home games during the 2014-2019 seasons, a total carbon footprint was estimated to be 232,864,549 kg CO2eq.
This study presents both a methodology for studying spectator sporting events in sport tourism and evidence for the need for tourism organizations and governments to account for and reduce the impact of greenhouse gas emissions. It also demonstrates grounded consequences for the often trivialized ideas of fandom and place-based identity in a fresh way by examining an environmental impact of an identity expression. This thesis highlights the paradox that Tennessee football fandom, an expression of place-based identity, is simultaneously an agent in social placemaking and environmental place-destroying.
... A game at a stadium is an event, and events in their own right contribute to their larger carbon footprint as a separate measurement from tourists' transport, lodging, and food consumption and waste production (Collins & Potoglou, 2019). Mega sporting events' stadiums especially have large environmental impacts through their direct energy consumption, extra waste production, and other emissions associated with event operations (Bunds, Casper, Frey, & Barrett, 2019). Hedayati, Iyer-Raniga, and Crossin (2014) recognized the unique polluting potential for stadium structures and quantified a carbon footprint for one Australian-rules football match by using a life cycle assessment (LCA) that takes into account the construction and eventual destruction of the facility. ...
Anthropogenic climate change is an imminent threat. In order to curb the effects of climate change, economic industries including tourism must assess their contributions to the overall phenomenon and develop creative solutions. As carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions represent a major reason why global tourism is contributing to climate change, carbon footprinting can help identify which aspects of individual tourism events are least sustainable. This case study seeks to assess the total carbon footprint of four seasons of American college football. The fan journey to the college football spectate represents a tourism experience and therefore can and should be assessed for its ecological impact. The subject of this case study is the University of Tennessee, an institution with one of the largest football stadiums in the United States. Using an extensive geographic sample of ticketing data from Tennessee’s home games during the 2015–2018 seasons, a carbon footprint was estimated for each game, each contributing polluter, and each season. The total season footprint over the four years was estimated to be 154,717,114 kg CO2eq. This study presents both a methodology for studying spectator sporting events in sport tourism and a framework by which tourism can begin to assess its contributions to the global carbon footprint. It also demonstrates grounded consequences for often trivialized ideas of fandom and place-based identity. Additionally, it highlights the need for tourism organizations and governments to consider policy and management practices that account for and reduce the impact of greenhouse gas emissions.
... For example, researchers have started collecting and linking actors who were not previously considered in sport spectatorship. Bunds and colleagues [9] discovered that tailgating increased air pollutants before and after sport events. By including more actors with sustainability concerns, stadia are more likely to be built to satisfy pragmatic and normative sustainability criteria. ...
Sport stadia are political objects that carry an environmental cost. The purpose of this research is to add to previous literature by theorizing the political process of stadium construction in a way that accounts for how environmental issues are introduced into the political process and, therefore, offers a more accurate lens through which to interpret how sustainable stadia are constructed. We conducted a case study of SC Freiburg’s carbon-neutral stadium construction process to theorize the object-oriented politics of sport facility construction. SC Freiburg is a German football club, playing in the Bundesliga. To examine the case, we employed a key informant interview and document analysis using Nexis Uni searches, local newspaper articles, official city documents, and social media websites. The case study of SC Freiburg’s carbon neutral stadium construction process showed that environmental concerns were included through a political process that incorporated the interests of a diverse public of human and nonhuman actors (while excluding some actors whose interests could not be reconciled) to produce a sustainable matter of fact. Additionally, we propose a pragmatic definition of stadium sustainability and suggest that environmental activists should make sure that both human and nonhuman actors with sustainability concerns are included in the stadium’s material public.
While athletes have high exposures to air pollutants due to their increased breathing rates, sport governing bodies have little guidance to support events scheduling or protect stadium users. A key limitation for this is the lack of hyper-local, high time-resolved air quality data representative of exposures in stadia. This work aimed to evaluate whether air quality sensors can describe ambient air quality in Athletics stadia. Sensing nodes were deployed in 6 stadia in major cities around the globe, monitoring NO2, O3, NO, PM10, PM2.5, PM1, CO, ambient temperature, and relative humidity. Results demonstrated that the interpretation of hourly pollutant patterns, in combination with self-organising maps (SOMs), enabled the interpretation of probable emission sources (e.g., vehicular traffic) and of atmospheric processes (e.g., local vs. regional O formation). The ratios between PM size fractions provided insights into potential emission sources (e.g., local dust re-suspension) which may help design mitigation strategies. The high resolution of the data facilitated identifying optimal periods of the day and year for scheduling athletic trainings and/or competitions. Provided that the necessary data quality checks are applied, sensors can support stadium operators in providing athlete communities with recommendations to minimise exposure and provide guidance for event scheduling.
To link to this chapter: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003003694
The purpose of the book is to outline the current research on sport and environmental sustainability (sport-ES) and to encourage additional research that propels sport to fully enact sport-ES. This chapter outlines sport’s dependence on the natural environment as a place for sport, as well as how sport can cause damage to our natural world. The discussion promotes that it is the responsibility of all members within sport to act to utilize practices that maintain the natural resources for sport. Research on sport-ES is the focus of each subsequent chapter and over 225 publications are reviewed. This chapter, thus, establishes the parameters guiding the research examined, including that each manuscript focuses on competitive sport; is published between 2000-2019; outlines the breadth of topics, and the journals included in the examination. A synopsis of each manuscript examined will outline the research method, setting, area/sector of sport, theoretical foundations, themes, conclusions. In particular, the research gaps will be highlighted and filling in the gaps is promoted.
To link to this chapter: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003003694
The chapters in this text outlined over 225 manuscripts on sport-ES. This represents a growing body of literature on the topic. Overall, this text outlined the most comprehensive body of research published in academic journals on sport-ES and promoted a call for researchers to advance knowledge within an array of topics. Undergraduate and graduate students, along with faculty members, and industry personnel are encouraged to research the plethora of topics on sport-ES. This call is related to sport fulfilling its shared societal responsibility of being part of the solution for safeguarding the natural environment. This includes the impacts of sport on the environment and the impacts of the environment on the future of sport.
To link to this book: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003003694
This text is an edited chapter book that offers a critical evaluation of contemporary research on the relationship between sport, the natural environment, and sustainability.
The aim of this book is to celebrate, inspire, promote, and guide researchers, including students and faculty members, to understand the current state of the research, to complete research projects that can fill in the gaps to expand our knowledge on the topic, and to work with practitioners to move sport-ES forward.
This book provides the most comprehensive assessment of peer-reviewed research on sport-ES available. In total, 13 contributing authors evaluated 229 sport-ES manuscripts published across 88 journals.
This book is intended to be a companion to the Routledge Handbook of Sport and the Environment (Brian P. McCullough and Timothy B. Kellison, Eds.), as well as Sport Management and the Natural Environment: Theory and Practice (Jonathan Casper and Michael Pfahl, Eds.).
This literature review attempts a systematic and organized overview of the relevant literature on the economic impact of attendees’ consumption at sporting events. The discussion focuses on (a) how and to what extent events may influence travel and spending behavior of persons living ”in” (locals) and ”outside” (non-locals) the region under investigation and (b) what is the economic stimulus for the host region of event-related money flows from both groups’ consumption. According to the economic effects on the local economy, expenditures made by both groups – locals and non-locals – are categorized as positive, neutral, or negative. Furthermore, based on a theoretical discussion based on the review, a practical framework for determining the composition of event attendees according to their primary economic stimulus to a host region is presented. Finally, avenues for future research are identified.
Posed as a question that an event organizer might contemplate in terms of how best to attract and retain event volunteers, this study adds to the event volunteering literature by cluster analyzing volunteers sampled at four sports events using items from the Special Event Volunteer Motivation Scale (SEVMS). The 28 items were first subjected to Exploratory Factor Analysis resulting in four factors (Solidary, Purposive, External Traditions/Commitments, and Spare Time), followed by a two-step clustering procedure and a series of post hoc tests to describe and validate the clusters. As a result of this procedure, three distinct clusters were formed: the Altruists, Socials, and Indifferents. The Altruists and Socials were primarily driven by two distinct internal factors, which respectively represented the Purposive and Solidary factors. The Indifferents appeared to be pushed into volunteering by external forces, rather than intrinsic motivations. Validation revealed that the Indifferents were significantly less satisfied with their volunteer experience than the other two clusters and were also less likely to volunteer in the future. Across the four events sampled, there were distinct patterns of cluster representation, with one event in particular substantially overrepresented by the more negatively inclined Indifferents. The management and research implications of these findings are discussed.
Organizations within the sport industry are facing increasing pressure to both maintain profitability and behave in socially acceptable ways, yet researchers have provided little information on how consumers perceive and react to corporate social responsibility (CSR). This mixed-design study examined the relationship between CSR activities and fans' assessments of reputation and patronage intentions. In addition, the study sought to determine the role of team identification in the aforementioned relationship. Fans of two NFL teams were sampled (N=297), with quantitative results suggesting that CSR is an important predictor of reputation, and that two types of patronage could be significantly impacted as well. The moderating effect of team identification was significant yet influenced the outcomes in different ways. Qualitative findings reinforced the quantitative discussion by providing support for the general conclusions that CSR was viewed favorably by most fans, and is an important aspect of the overall business strategy of a sport organization.
Fifteen years ago the study of events as a specific field of inquiry did not exist. Today, students' interest in taking up courses in event management is met with rapid growth of programs catering to this specialized body of knowledge. These developments are parallel to the increasing
number of events being held around the world. Events are now seen as important phenomena, with cities and nations recognizing the social, economic, and cultural potential of major, hallmark, and mega-events. Not only are these seen as a vital part of tourism's export economy, events can also
provide people with meaningful social and cultural encounters, eventuate in lasting memories, and give hosting destinations a competitive advantage. The growth of events, however, comes with concerns of sustainable practices and leadership. While the first has been addressed by a number of
events scholars, sustainable leadership remains largely unchartered territory in the domain of Event Studies. This article addresses some of the key issues and developments in the events sector, and outlines the more problematic areas concerning leadership and sustainability by drawing on
the Rhineland/Honeybee leadership model.
Climate change is an ongoing issue for governments internationally, driving them to seek more ways in which to encourage the general public to engage with the sustainability agenda. Despite substantial research into consumer behavior, behavior change, and social marketing, there are
still opportunities to find innovative messaging tools that may help to persuade people to change their habits. This article reports on initial exploratory research into the use of events as a space for proenvironmental behavior messaging, and concludes that although significant research is
needed, some events have potential to become environmental learning spaces for attendees.
Both nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3) are powerful oxidants in ambient air that are intimately linked through atmospheric chemistry and which continuously interchange over very short timescales. Based upon atmospheric chemistry alone, there is a strong, a priori, reason for considering O3 and NO2 together in epidemiological studies, rather than either of the two pollutants separately in single-pollutant models. This paper compares two approaches to this, using Ox, defined as O3 + NO2, as a single metric and also using O3 and NO2 together in two-pollutant models. We hypothesised that the magnitude of the association between Ox and daily mortality would be greater than for NO2 and O3 individually. Using collocated hourly measurements for O3 and NO2 in London, from 2000 to 2005, we carried out a time series analysis of daily mortality. We investigated O3, NO2 and Ox individually in single-pollutant Poisson regression models and NO2 and O3 jointly in two-pollutant models in both all-year and season-specific analyses. We observed larger associations for mean 24-h concentrations of Ox (1.30 % increase in mortality per 10 ppb) than for O3 (0.87 %) and NO2 (0 %) individually. However, when analysed jointly in two-pollutant models, associations for O3 (1.54 %) and NO2 (1.07 %) were comparable to the Ox association. Season-specific analyses broadly followed this pattern irrespective of whether the Ox concentrations were driven by O3 production (summer) or depletion (winter). This novel approach in air pollution epidemiology captures the simultaneous impact of both oxidants whilst avoiding many of the statistical issues associated with two-pollutant models and potentially simplifies health impact calculations.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11869-014-0249-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Daily commutes may contribute disproportionately to overall daily exposure to urban air pollutants such as particulate matter less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) and carbon monoxide (CO). PM2.5 and CO concentrations were measured and compared across pedestrian, bus, and car modes during lunchtime and the afternoon peak hour within a 3-week time period on preselected round-trip routes. Variability in the concentration ratios of PM2.5 and CO for the selected transportation modes was quantified, and factors affecting variability in concentrations were identified. Exposure concentrations of transportation modes were sensitive to mode and were affected by factors such as vehicle ventilation and proximity to on-road emission sources. In general, pedestrian and bus modes had higher PM2.5 concentrations than did the car mode. However, the car mode had the highest average CO concentrations among the selected modes. Near-road pedestrian PM2.5 concentrations generally covaried with fixed site monitor (FSM) measurements, but there was little correlation between pedestrian CO concentrations and FSM data. Field studies such as this one are needed to develop input data for simulation models of population-based exposure to predict more accurately exposure concentrations for transportation modes.
Quantifying human exposure to air pollutants is a challenging task. Ambient concentrations of air pollutants at potentially harmful levels are ubiquitous in urban areas and subject to high spatial and temporal variability. At the same time, every individual has unique activity-patterns. Exposure results from multifaceted relationships and interactions between environmental and human systems, adding complexity to the assessment process. Traditionally, approaches to quantify human exposure have relied on pollutant concentrations from fixed air quality network sites and static population distributions. New developments in sensor technology now enable us to monitor personal exposure to air pollutants directly while people are moving through their activity spaces and varying concentration fields. The literature review on which this paper is based on reflects recent developments in the assessment of human exposure to air pollution. This includes the discussion of methodologies and concepts, and the elaboration of approaches and study designs applied in the field. We identify shortcomings of current approaches and discuss future research needs. We close by proposing a novel conceptual model for the integrated assessment of human exposure to air pollutants taking into account latest technological capabilities and contextual information.
College sports events have the potential to increase city revenue and community spirit, while increasing traveler's awareness of the local community. This two-part study focuses on the tourism-related behaviors of fans who follow the University of Florida (USA) football team (the Gators). In the fall of 1999, 181 Gator fans were surveyed. Descriptive statistics illustrated that Sport Excursionists and Sport Tourists spent money on food and shopping while attending games, but their main motivation was to see the game. In the fall of 2000, 20 Gator fans took part in follow-up face-to-face interviews. Three themes emerged from the data about their travel-related behaviors when attending football games: (a) being a fan; (b) pilgrimages to the mecca of Gator football; and (c) on the road with the team. Further analysis of the results revealed that Gator fans are more likely to engage in traditional tourist behaviors while attending away games. Therefore, it is hypothesized that the tourism benefits for small communities may lie in leveraging the events to the visiting team's fans.
Our goal was to quantify the short-term effects of particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter < or = 10 microm (PM10) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) on respiratory health of asthmatic children from published panel studies, and to investigate the influence of study and population characteristics as effect modifiers.
After a systematic literature review, we extracted quantitative estimates of the association of PM10 and/or NO2 with respiratory symptoms and peak expiratory flow (PEF). Combined effect estimates for an increase of 10 microg/m3 were calculated by random effects meta-analysis for all studies and for different strata defined by study characteristics. The effect of publication bias was investigated with Egger's and Begg's tests and "trim-and-fill" analyses.
We identified 36 studies; 14 were part of the European Pollution Effects on Asthmatic Children in Europe (PEACE) study. Adverse associations of PM10 with asthma symptoms were statistically significant [odds ratio (OR) = 1.028; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.006-1.051]. There were also associations, although not statistically significant, of PM10 with cough (OR = 1.012; 95% CI, 0.997-1.026) and on PEF (decrease of -0.082 L/min; 95% CI, -0.214 to 0.050). NO2 had statistically significant associations with asthma symptoms in the overall analysis considering all possible lags (OR = 1.031; 95% CI, 1.001-1.062), but not when we evaluated only the 0-1 lag. We found no publication bias, although it appeared when excluding the PEACE studies. When we applied the trim-and-fill method to the data set without the PEACE studies, the results were similar to the overall estimates from all studies. There was an indication for stronger PM10 associations for studies conducted in summer, outside of Europe, with longer lags, and in locations with higher NO2 concentrations.
We found clear evidence of effects of PM10 on the occurrence of asthma symptom episodes, and to a lesser extent on cough and PEF. The results for NO2 are more difficult to interpret because they depend on the lag times examined. There was an indication of effect modification by several study conditions.
Although many studies have linked elevations in tropospheric ozone to adverse health outcomes, the effect of long-term exposure to ozone on air pollution-related mortality remains uncertain. We examined the potential contribution of exposure to ozone to the risk of death from cardiopulmonary causes and specifically to death from respiratory causes.
Data from the study cohort of the American Cancer Society Cancer Prevention Study II were correlated with air-pollution data from 96 metropolitan statistical areas in the United States. Data were analyzed from 448,850 subjects, with 118,777 deaths in an 18-year follow-up period. Data on daily maximum ozone concentrations were obtained from April 1 to September 30 for the years 1977 through 2000. Data on concentrations of fine particulate matter (particles that are < or = 2.5 microm in aerodynamic diameter [PM(2.5)]) were obtained for the years 1999 and 2000. Associations between ozone concentrations and the risk of death were evaluated with the use of standard and multilevel Cox regression models.
In single-pollutant models, increased concentrations of either PM(2.5) or ozone were significantly associated with an increased risk of death from cardiopulmonary causes. In two-pollutant models, PM(2.5) was associated with the risk of death from cardiovascular causes, whereas ozone was associated with the risk of death from respiratory causes. The estimated relative risk of death from respiratory causes that was associated with an increment in ozone concentration of 10 ppb was 1.040 (95% confidence interval, 1.010 to 1.067). The association of ozone with the risk of death from respiratory causes was insensitive to adjustment for confounders and to the type of statistical model used.
In this large study, we were not able to detect an effect of ozone on the risk of death from cardiovascular causes when the concentration of PM(2.5) was taken into account. We did, however, demonstrate a significant increase in the risk of death from respiratory causes in association with an increase in ozone concentration.
Revenue generation for event planners traditionally comes from sponsorships, ticket and registration sales, merchandising, and additional income streams; however, these sources can at times be limited due to a lack of data and ability to substantiate an event's positioning within an industry or marketplace. A variety of new methodologies exist for such agencies to generate funding, particularly through demonstration of economic impact. To date, many event planning organizations are not familiar with this process or the use of such data. The following provides a conceptual model for understanding and engaging in economic impact analysis to secure traditional and new sources of funding. An overview of Tourism Improvement Districts (TID) is provided and a step-by-step process for utilizing the data is proposed. Finally, the San Diego Bay Wine & Food Festival (SDBWFF) is used as a case study demonstrating the process.
Most event organizations rely on the commitment of volunteers to prepare for and stage events. An attempt to understand factors that affect volunteers' engagement and retention has received much attention from a substantial number of published studies. This article provides a systematic quantitative review of 71 original, peer-reviewed research articles published in English language academic journals on volunteer management in events. The review examines the nature of the research, methods, key concepts and theories, and types of research questions posed in studies associated with volunteer management in events. Published studies on event volunteer management are geographically concentrated in several countries but published in 35 different journals across a range of fields. Volunteer management in events has been the focus of rapidly increasing research attention in recent years with almost two thirds of the articles included in the review published in the 6 years leading to 2014. The majority of published research has not clearly articulated a theoretical framework and most studies have used survey methods to collect data from volunteers at mega-sport events. It was concluded that to advance knowledge of event volunteer management there is a need for increased collaboration internationally between researchers. Moreover, it is essential to engage with relevant theory in order to better understand and predict the effectiveness of volunteer management strategies in recruiting, retaining, and building a sense of community among volunteers in events.
This study aims at identifying the dimensions of exhibition service quality and examines the interrelationships among exhibition service quality, perceived value, emotions, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions for exhibition attendees. Data were collected using a convenience sample of 596 attendees who were leaving the 4th Macau International Education Expo (MIEE) in the Venetian Macau Resort Hotel. The findings indicate that there are 4 primary dimensions and 13 subdimensions of exhibition service quality perceived by exhibition attendees. The results of this study will assist exhibition management in developing and implementing market-orientated service strategies to increase exhibition service quality, enhance satisfaction, and create favorable future behavioral intentions.
Active sport tourism has been defined as travel away from the home environment to actively participate in sport. However there is a dearth of research focusing on active sport tourists. Furthermore, researchers also identified a significant gap existed in the sport tourism literature regarding elite athletes. Although research focusing on hallmark sport events has been abundant, several researchers have identified a lack of research on small-scale sport events. Thus, the purpose of this research was to provide an analysis of elite active sport tourists' expenditures and the resultant direct economic impact of these expenditures, as well as their perceptions of the host destination in a small-scale international sport event: East Asian Games. A total of 140 elite athletes from eight different countries and regions in East Asia participated in this study.
Investment in mega-sport events is frequently justified on the basis that there are infrastructure and social legacies that remain after the event. This research explores the claims of a social legacy through a pre- and post-Games survey of volunteers at the Sydney world Masters Games 2009 (SwMG). Through online surveys the research explores pre-and post-volunteer motivations, postevent volunteering intentions before the Games and actual volunteer behavior after the Games. The pre-Games survey supports previous research that a desire to be involved in the event motivates people to volunteer. however, the postevent expression of motivations shifted to a more altruistic focus. The postevent volunteering intentions as indicated in the preevent survey would support the claim of a social legacy; however, this was not supported by the postevent measures of volunteering levels. The use of a pre- and postevent survey has highlighted that the timing of measures of motivations can influence responses and one may not depend on preevent intentions as an indicator of postevent behaviors.
Although companies are devoting significant resources to corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives, insights into the optimal formulation, implementation, and effectiveness estimation of CSR strategies are currently scarce. This article takes an indepth look at when, why, and how CSR works from a consumer's perspective. In contrast to the simple, monotonie relationships between CSR and consumer purchase behavior evident in marketplace polls, this article proposes a more complex, contingent model of consumer responses to CSR. It articulates both the internal outcomes (e.g., awareness, attitudes, attachment) and external outcomes (e.g., word of mouth, purchase, loyalty) of CSR initiatives for not just the company, but also the consumer and the CSR issue/cause. This article delineates the key factors that are likely to moderate the extent to which the inputs lead to the internal outcomes and the internal outcomes lead to the external ones. This framework can help guide companies in not only formulating and implementing their CSR initiatives, but also measuring the effectiveness of these initiatives.
This study explores the relationship between large-scale sporting events (LSSEs) and education for sustainable development (EfSD) from the perspective of the host communities in which they take place. Over the past decade there has been an increasing acknowledgement by both the owners
of these types of events and their hosting communities that they offer meaningful opportunities to engage in practices linked to EfSD. This acknowledgement, however, has not been accompanied by any discernible interest by researchers. This exploratory study goes some way towards redressing
this situation and in so doing provides a platform upon which future research in this area can be built. Additionally, its findings are intended to be of value to communities who are bidding for, or hosting, LSSEs. A case study-based explorative research approach was employed in this inquiry
utilizing the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games (SOG). This event was chosen in part because its practices in the sustainability area are generally well documented, but more importantly because it represents a watershed event in terms of the engagement of a LSSE with a sustainable development agenda.
The conceptual framework used to guide this study drew upon stakeholder theory and the limited literature associated with sustainable development and LSSEs. Secondary data in the form of reports, studies, audio visual, and other material, along with personal interviews, were used to explore
the elements of this proposed framework and their relationship to one another. The study found the process of EfSD in the context of the SOG to be: dominated by the government sector; involve a diverse range of programs and initiatives; largely of an informal educational nature; and to have
impacted organizations, groups, and individuals (to varying degrees) across the community. The EfSD process was also found to have been influenced by a number of factors, with some serving to strengthen the process, while others acted as constraints upon it. Additionally, the study identified
a number of host community EfSD legacies, along with the potential for such legacies to extend to non-hosting communities.
Personal measurements of exposure to particulate air pollution (PM10, PM2.5, PM1) were simultaneously made during walking and in-car journeys on two suburban routes in Northampton, UK, during the winter of 1999/2000. Comparisons were made between concentrations found in each transport mode by particle fraction, between different particle fractions by transport mode, and between transport microenvironments and a fixed-site monitor located within the study area. High levels of correlation were seen between walking and in-car concentrations for each of the particle fractions (PM10: r2=0.82; PM2.5: r2=0.98; PM1: r2=0.99). On an average, PM10 concentrations were 16% higher inside the car than for the walker, but there were no difference in average PM2.5 and PM1 concentrations between the two modes. High PM2.5:PM10 ratios (0.6–0.73) were found to be associated with elevated sulphate levels. The PM2.5:PM10 and PM1:PM2.5 ratios were shown to be similar between walking and in-car concentrations. Concentrations of PM10 were found to be more closely related between transport mode than either mode was with concentrations recorded at the fixed-site (roadside) monitor. The fixed-site monitor was shown to be a poor marker for PM10 concentrations recorded during walking and in-car on a route over 1km away.
A favorite activity of many sports fans involves tailgating at sporting events. Tailgaters have been interacting with one another in large numbers for over a century and yet academic discourse on this communal activity is nearly nonexistent. The sociological study of the social aspects of tailgating reveals that tailgaters form a cohesive bond with one another and develop and reaffirm a sense of community to the point where a distinctive subculture is formed based on a number of social activities. This article provides a brief introductory insight into the social world of sports tailgaters.
Ultrafine particles (UFPs, <100 nm) are produced in large quantities by vehicular combustion and are implicated in causing several adverse human health effects. Recent work has suggested that a large proportion of daily UFP exposure may occur during commuting. However, the determinants, variability and transport mode-dependence of such exposure are not well-understood. The aim of this review was to address these knowledge gaps by distilling the results of 'in-transit' UFP exposure studies performed to-date, including studies of health effects. We identified 47 exposure studies performed across 6 transport modes: automobile, bicycle, bus, ferry, rail and walking. These encompassed approximately 3000 individual trips where UFP concentrations were measured. After weighting mean UFP concentrations by the number of trips in which they were collected, we found overall mean UFP concentrations of 3.4, 4.2, 4.5, 4.7, 4.9 and 5.7 x 10(4) particles cm(-3) for the bicycle, bus, automobile, rail, walking and ferry modes, respectively. The mean concentration inside automobiles travelling through tunnels was 3.0 x 10(5) particles cm(-3). While the mean concentrations were indicative of general trends, we found that the determinants of exposure (meteorology, traffic parameters, route, fuel type, exhaust treatment technologies, cabin ventilation, filtration, deposition, UFP penetration) exhibited marked variability and mode-dependence, such that it is not necessarily appropriate to rank modes in order of exposure without detailed consideration of these factors. Ten in-transit health effects studies have been conducted and their results indicate that UFP exposure during commuting can elicit acute effects in both healthy and health-compromised individuals. We suggest that future work should focus on further defining the contribution of in-transit UFP exposure to total UFP exposure, exploring its specific health effects and investigating exposures in the developing world.
The aim of this study was to review and summarise the levels of particulate air pollution, its elemental composition, its determinants, and its potential health effects in metro systems. A number of studies have been conducted to assess the levels of particulate matter and its chemical composition in metro systems. The monitoring equipment used varied and may have led to different reporting and makes it more difficult to compare results between metro systems. Some of the highest average levels of particulate matter were measured in the London metro system. Whereas some studies have reported higher levels of particulate matter in the metro system (e.g. London, Helsinki, Stockholm) compared to other modes of transport (London) and street canyons (Stockholm and Helsinki), other studies reported lower levels in the metro system (e.g. Hong Kong, Guangzhou, and Mexico City). The differences may be due to different material of the wheel, ventilation levels and breaking systems but there is no good evidence to what extent the differences may be explained by this, except perhaps for some elements (e.g. Fe, Mn). The dust in the metro system was shown to be more toxic than ambient airborne particulates, and its toxicity was compared with welding dust. The higher toxicity may be due to the higher iron content. Although the current levels of particulate matter and toxic matter are unlikely to lead to any significant excess health effects in commuters, they should be reduced where possible. It will be difficult to introduce measures to reduce the levels in older metro systems, e.g. by introducing air conditioning in London, but certainly they should be part of any new designs of metro systems.
Potential health effects of material emissions in new motor vehicles are of great public concern in China. To estimate the pollution levels, air samples were taken from 802 new cars parked in a well-ventilated underground parking garage in Beijing, China. These vehicles were all manufactured in and after 2003, and represented three different price ranges. For comparison, 20 older vehicles (manufactured before 2003) were also examined. Monitoring items included benzene, toluene, xylene, and formaldehyde. Preliminary results indicate that 82% of the vehicles studied had toluene levels exceeding the Chinese National Indoor Air Quality Standard. For benzene, xylene, and formaldehyde, the rates of noncompliance were 75%, 25%, and 24%, respectively. For all the pollutants, newer vehicles had higher concentrations than older ones. There seems a connection between the types of interior materials used in the passenger cabins and the concentrations of certain air pollutants.
In-use, fuel-based motor vehicle emission factors were determined using measurements made in a highway tunnel in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Concentrations of PM2.5 mass, CO, CO2, and NOx were measured continuously. Filter-based measurements included PM2.5 mass, organic and elemental carbon (OC and EC), inorganic ions and metals. Fuel-based emission factors for each pollutant were calculated using a fuel-carbon balance. The weekday traffic volume and fleet composition varied in a consistent diurnal pattern with the estimated fraction of fuel consumed by heavy-duty diesel vehicle (HDDV) traffic ranging from 11% to 36%. The emission rate of most species showed a significant dependence on sample period. NOx, PM2.5, EC and OC emission factors were significantly larger during the early morning, truck-dominated period. Emissions of particulate metals associated with brake wear (Cu, Sb, Ba and potentially Ga) were emitted at higher rates during the rush-hour period, which is characterized by slower, stop-and-go traffic. Emission rates of crustal elements (Fe, Ca, Mg, Li), Zn and Mn were highest during the early-morning period when there was more heavy-truck traffic. A seasonal shift in average OC/EC ratio for the rush-hour period was observed; fall and summer OC/EC ratios are 1.0±0.6 and 0.26±0.06, respectively. Potential causes for this shift are increased partitioning of semi-volatile organic compounds into the gas phase during the summer months and/or effects of seasonal changes in fuel formulation. Emission factors for HDDV and light-duty vehicles (LDV) classes were estimated using a linear regression of emission factor as a function of fleet composition. The extrapolated emission factors generally agree with previously published measurements, though a substantial range in published values is noted.
In this paper, we report the results and analysis of a recent field campaign in August 2007 investigating the impacts of emissions from transportation on air quality and community concentrations in Beijing, China. We conducted measurements in three different environments, on-road, roadside and ambient. The carbon monoxide, black carbon and ultrafine particle number emission factors for on-road light-duty vehicles are derived to be 95 g kg−1-fuel, 0.3 g kg−1-fuel and 1.8 × 1015 particles kg−1-fuel, respectively. The emission factors for on-road heavy-duty vehicles are 50 g kg−1-fuel, 1.3 g kg−1-fuel and 1.1 × 1016 particles kg−1-fuel, respectively. The carbon monoxide emission factors from this study agree with those derived from remote sensing and on-board vehicle emission testing systems in China. The on-road black carbon and particle number emission factors for Chinese vehicles are reported for the first time in the literature. Strong traffic impacts can be observed from the concentrations measured in these different environments. Most clear is a reflection of diesel truck traffic activity in black carbon concentrations. The comparison of the particle size distributions measured at the three environments suggests that the traffic is a major source of ultrafine particles. A four-day traffic control experiment conducted by the Beijing Government as a pilot to test the effectiveness of proposed controls was found to be effective in reducing extreme concentrations that occurred at both on-road and ambient environments.
The World Health Organization estimates that particulate matter (PM) air pollution contributes to approximately 800,000 premature deaths each year, ranking it the 13th leading cause of mortality worldwide. However, many studies show that the relationship is deeper and far more complicated than originally thought. PM is a portion of air pollution that is made up of extremely small particles and liquid droplets containing acids, organic chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles. PM is categorized by size and continues to be the fraction of air pollution that is most reliably associated with human disease. PM is thought to contribute to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease by the mechanisms of systemic inflammation, direct and indirect coagulation activation, and direct translocation into systemic circulation. The data demonstrating PM's effect on the cardiovascular system are strong. Populations subjected to long-term exposure to PM have a significantly higher cardiovascular incident and mortality rate. Short-term acute exposures subtly increase the rate of cardiovascular events within days of a pollution spike. The data are not as strong for PM's effects on cerebrovascular disease, though some data and similar mechanisms suggest a lesser result with smaller amplitude. Respiratory diseases are also exacerbated by exposure to PM. PM causes respiratory morbidity and mortality by creating oxidative stress and inflammation that leads to pulmonary anatomic and physiologic remodeling. The literature shows PM causes worsening respiratory symptoms, more frequent medication use, decreased lung function, recurrent health care utilization, and increased mortality. PM exposure has been shown to have a small but significant adverse effect on cardiovascular, respiratory, and to a lesser extent, cerebrovascular disease. These consistent results are shown by multiple studies with varying populations, protocols, and regions. The data demonstrate a dose-dependent relationship between PM and human disease, and that removal from a PM-rich environment decreases the prevalence of these diseases. While further study is needed to elucidate the effects of composition, chemistry, and the PM effect on susceptible populations, the preponderance of data shows that PM exposure causes a small but significant increase in human morbidity and mortality. Most sources agree on certain "common sense" recommendations, although there are lonely limited data to support them. Indoor PM exposure can be reduced by the usage of air conditioning and particulate filters, decreasing indoor combustion for heating and cooking, and smoking cessation. Susceptible populations, such as the elderly or asthmatics, may benefit from limiting their outdoor activity during peak traffic periods or poor air quality days. These simple changes may benefit individual patients in both short-term symptomatic control and long-term cardiovascular and respiratory complications.
In 2004, the first American Heart Association scientific statement on "Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Disease" concluded that exposure to particulate matter (PM) air pollution contributes to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. In the interim, numerous studies have expanded our understanding of this association and further elucidated the physiological and molecular mechanisms involved. The main objective of this updated American Heart Association scientific statement is to provide a comprehensive review of the new evidence linking PM exposure with cardiovascular disease, with a specific focus on highlighting the clinical implications for researchers and healthcare providers. The writing group also sought to provide expert consensus opinions on many aspects of the current state of science and updated suggestions for areas of future research. On the basis of the findings of this review, several new conclusions were reached, including the following: Exposure to PM <2.5 microm in diameter (PM(2.5)) over a few hours to weeks can trigger cardiovascular disease-related mortality and nonfatal events; longer-term exposure (eg, a few years) increases the risk for cardiovascular mortality to an even greater extent than exposures over a few days and reduces life expectancy within more highly exposed segments of the population by several months to a few years; reductions in PM levels are associated with decreases in cardiovascular mortality within a time frame as short as a few years; and many credible pathological mechanisms have been elucidated that lend biological plausibility to these findings. It is the opinion of the writing group that the overall evidence is consistent with a causal relationship between PM(2.5) exposure and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. This body of evidence has grown and been strengthened substantially since the first American Heart Association scientific statement was published. Finally, PM(2.5) exposure is deemed a modifiable factor that contributes to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.
Evidence on risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) hospitalization associated with short-term exposure to outdoor carbon monoxide (CO), an air pollutant primarily generated by traffic, is inconsistent across studies. Uncertainties remain on the degree to which associations are attributable to other traffic pollutants and whether effects persist at low levels.
We conducted a multisite time-series study to estimate risk of CVD hospitalization associated with short-term CO exposure in 126 US urban counties during 1999-2005 for >9.3 million Medicare enrollees aged > or =65 years. We considered models with adjustment by other traffic-related pollutants: NO2, fine particulate matter (with aerodynamic diameter < or =2.5 microm), and elemental carbon. We found a positive and statistically significant association between same-day CO and increased risk of hospitalization for multiple CVD outcomes (ischemic heart disease, heart rhythm disturbances, heart failure, cerebrovascular disease, total CVD). The association remained positive and statistically significant but was attenuated with copollutant adjustment, especially NO2. A 1-ppm increase in same-day daily 1-hour maximum CO was associated with a 0.96% (95% posterior interval, 0.79%, 1.12%) increase in risk of CVD admissions. With same-day NO(2) adjustment, this estimate was 0.55% (0.36%, 0.74%). The risk persisted at low CO levels <1 ppm.
We found evidence of an association between short-term exposure to ambient CO and risk of CVD hospitalizations, even at levels well below current US health-based regulatory standards. This evidence indicates that exposure to current CO levels may still pose a public health threat, particularly for persons with CVD.
There are unexplained geographical and seasonal differences in the short-term effects of fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) on human health. The hypothesis has been advanced to include the possibility that such differences might be due to variations in the PM(2.5) chemical composition, but evidence supporting this hypothesis is lacking.
To examine whether variation in the relative risks (RR) of hospitalization associated with ambient exposure to PM(2.5) total mass reflects differences in PM(2.5) chemical composition.
We linked two national datasets by county and by season: (1) long-term average concentrations of PM(2.5) chemical components for 2000-2005 and (2) RRs of cardiovascular and respiratory hospitalizations for persons 65 years or older associated with a 10-microg/m(3) increase in PM(2.5) total mass on the same day for 106 U.S. counties for 1999 through 2005.
We found a positive and statistically significant association between county-specific estimates of the short-term effects of PM(2.5) on cardiovascular and respiratory hospitalizations and county-specific levels of vanadium, elemental carbon, or nickel PM(2.5) content.
Communities with higher PM(2.5) content of nickel, vanadium, and elemental carbon and/or their related sources were found to have higher risk of hospitalizations associated with short-term exposure to PM(2.5).
In order to investigate a specific area of short-term, non-occupational, human exposure to fine particulate air pollution, measurements of personal exposure to PM2.5 in transport microenvironments were taken in two separate field studies in central London, UK. A high flow gravimetric personal sampling system was used; operating at 16 l min(-1); the sampler thus allowed for sufficient sample mass collection for accurate gravimetric analysis of short-term travel exposure levels over typical single commute times. In total, samples were taken on 465 journeys and 61 volunteers participated. In a multi-transport mode study, carried out over 3-week periods in the winter and in the summer, exposure levels were assessed along three fixed routes at peak and off-peak times of the day. Geometric means of personal exposure levels were 34.5 microg m(-3) (G.S.D.= 1.7, n(s) = 40), 39.0 microg m(-3) (G.S.D. = 1.8, n(s) = 36), 37.7 microg m(-3) (G.S.D. = 1.5, n(s) = 42), and 247.2 microg m(-3) (G.S.D. = 1.3, n(s) = 44) for bicycle, bus, car and Tube (underground rail system) modes, respectively, in the July 1999 (summer) measurement campaign. Corresponding levels in the February 2000 (winter) measurement campaign were 23.5 microg m(-3) (G.S.D. = 1.8, n(s) = 56), 38.9 microg m(-3) (G.S.D. = 2.1, n(s) = 32), 33.7 microg m(-3) (G.S.D. = 2.4, n(s) = 12), and 157.3 microg m(-3) (G.S.D. = 3.3, n(s) = 12), respectively. In a second study, exposure levels were measured for a group of 24 commuters travelling by bicycle, during August 1999, in order to assess how representative the fixed route studies were to a larger commuter population. The geometric mean exposure level was 34.2 microg m(-3) (G.S.D. = 1.9, n(s) = 105). In the fixed-route study, the cyclists had the lowest exposure levels, bus and car were slightly higher, while mean exposure levels on the London Underground rail system were 3-8 times higher than the surface transport modes. There was significant between-route variation, most notably between the central route and the other routes. The fixed-route study exposure was similar in level and in variability to the 'real' commuters study, suggesting that the routes chosen and the number of samples taken provided a reasonably good estimate of the personal exposure levels in the transport microenvironments of Central London. This first comprehensive PM2.5 multi-mode transport user exposure assessment study in the UK also showed that mean personal exposure levels in road transport modes were approximately double that of the PM2.5 concentration at an urban background fixed site monitor.
Although many time-series studies of ozone and mortality have identified positive associations, others have yielded null or inconclusive results, making the results of these studies difficult to interpret.
We performed a meta-analysis of 144 effect estimates from 39 time-series studies, and estimated pooled effects by lags, age groups, cause-specific mortality, and concentration metrics. We compared results with pooled estimates from the National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study (NMMAPS), a time-series study of 95 large U.S. urban centers from 1987 to 2000.
Both meta-analysis and NMMAPS results provided strong evidence of a short-term association between ozone and mortality, with larger effects for cardiovascular and respiratory mortality, the elderly, and current-day ozone exposure. In both analyses, results were insensitive to adjustment for particulate matter and model specifications. In the meta-analysis, a 10-ppb increase in daily ozone at single-day or 2-day average of lags 0, 1, or 2 days was associated with an 0.87% increase in total mortality (95% posterior interval = 0.55% to 1.18%), whereas the lag 0 NMMAPS estimate is 0.25% (0.12% to 0.39%). Several findings indicate possible publication bias: meta-analysis results were consistently larger than those from NMMAPS; meta-analysis pooled estimates at lags 0 or 1 were larger when only a single lag was reported than when estimates for multiple lags were reported; and heterogeneity of city-specific estimates in the meta-analysis were larger than with NMMAPS.
This study provides evidence of short-term associations between ozone and mortality as well as evidence of publication bias.
Evidence on the health risks associated with short-term exposure to fine particles (particulate matter < or =2.5 microm in aerodynamic diameter [PM2.5]) is limited. Results from the new national monitoring network for PM2.5 make possible systematic research on health risks at national and regional scales.
To estimate risks of cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions associated with short-term exposure to PM2.5 for Medicare enrollees and to explore heterogeneity of the variation of risks across regions.
A national database comprising daily time-series data daily for 1999 through 2002 on hospital admission rates (constructed from the Medicare National Claims History Files) for cardiovascular and respiratory outcomes and injuries, ambient PM2.5 levels, and temperature and dew-point temperature for 204 US urban counties (population >200,000) with 11.5 million Medicare enrollees (aged >65 years) living an average of 5.9 miles from a PM2.5 monitor.
Daily counts of county-wide hospital admissions for primary diagnosis of cerebrovascular, peripheral, and ischemic heart diseases, heart rhythm, heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and respiratory infection, and injuries as a control outcome.
There was a short-term increase in hospital admission rates associated with PM2.5 for all of the health outcomes except injuries. The largest association was for heart failure, which had a 1.28% (95% confidence interval, 0.78%-1.78%) increase in risk per 10-microg/m3 increase in same-day PM2.5. Cardiovascular risks tended to be higher in counties located in the Eastern region of the United States, which included the Northeast, the Southeast, the Midwest, and the South.
Short-term exposure to PM2.5 increases the risk for hospital admission for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.
Heavy alcohol consumption has been associated with collegiate sporting events, but little is known about specific levels of consumption over the course of an entire sports season. Ongoing web-based daily monitoring at the University of Texas at Austin allowed assessment of drinking levels of students (n=541) over two full football seasons. High-profile football game days were among the heaviest days for alcohol consumption, comparable to consumption on other well-known drinking days such as New Years Eve and Halloween weekend. Men increased their drinking for all games, and women with greater social involvement were more likely to drink heavily during away games. Among lighter drinkers, away games were associated with a greater likelihood of behavioral risks as intoxication increased.
Chapter 1: Protection of the environment and sustainable development
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