ArticlePDF Available
Un idéal de beauté masculine en tant que perturbation de l’image corporelle
Dysmorphie musculaire: à quelle
entité diagnostique appartient-elle?
Prof. Dr phil. Simone Munsch; Tom Kirsch, BSc Psychologe
Klinische Psychol ogie und Psychotherapie, Departement für Psychologie, Uni versität Freiburg, S chweiz
L’idéal physique masculin caractérisé par un corps
musclé et une faible proportion de masse grasse est
largement répandu dans les cultures occidentales. La
comparaison de leur propre corps avec cet idéal peut
être à l’origine, chez les hommes, d’inquiétudes et d’in-
satisfaction. Dans ce contexte, par exemple, % d’un
groupe d’étudiants de sexe masculin venant de France
ont déclaré ne pas être satisfaits de la musculature de
leur corps []. Actuellement, le problème de la survalo-
risation du développement musculaire pour la santé
psychique est considéré sous plusieurs angles.
Du point de vue de la recherche sur les troubles obses-
sionnels compulsifs, la préoccupation obsessionnelle à
l’égard de la musculature du corps occupe l’avant-plan.
En assignant la dysmorphie musculaire à la catégorie
des dysmorphophobies dans le cadre des troubles ob-
sessionnels compulsifs et connexes de la classication
du DSM- [], la priorité est attribuée au comportement
répétitif de réassurance et à la comparaison obsession-
nelle de son propre corps avec l’idéal. Il est par ailleurs
supposé que s’abstenir de pratiquer par exemple le dé-
veloppement musculaire obsessionnel par l’inter-
diaire du sport ou d’une alimentation correspondante
peut entraîner des états prononcés de tension et d’an-
xiété, bien que ce comportement ne puisse que partiel-
lement être catégorisé comme étant égodystonique [].
La classication en comportement obsessionnel est
soutenue par des données accordant aux symptômes
dysmorphophobiques et au comportement obsession-
nel une plus forte valeur associative et prédictive pour
la dysmorphie musculaire par rapport aux symptômes
de troubles alimentaires [, ].
La classication diagnostique de la dysmorphie mus-
culaire dans l’entité des troubles de la dépendance est
discutée comme une autre possibilité []. Il est postulé
que les personnes concernées développent une cer-
taine dépendance à l’image corporelle, cette dernière
étant dénie comme les perceptions, cognitions et
émotions relatives à son propre corps. Cette dépen-
dance entraîne un comportement résolument axé sur
l’obtention d’un corps musclé, même si cela peut nuire
aux objectifs sociaux et professionnels et si l’activité
physique permanente ou la prise d’anabolisants ont
des répercussions négatives sur la santé. De même, les
personnes concernées semblent ressentir une certaine
euphorie due à l’entraînement []. An de maintenir
cet eet à long terme, un entraînement de plus en
plus intense est nécessaire (développement d’une
tolérance) et des symptômes de sevrage surviennent
lorsque les individus concernés se voient contraints de
renoncer à leur comportement excessif. Par ailleurs, la
forte tendance à la récidive est considérée comme un
indice supplémentaire du rapport avec des troubles de
la dépendance.
En utilisant le modèle transdiagnostique, la dysmor-
phie musculaire peut aussi être classée parmi les
troubles alimentaires []. Il existe des données indi-
quant que la dysmorphie musculaire s’accompagne
également d’un perfectionnisme inapproprié, d’une
faible estime de soi, de dicultés interpersonnelles et
d’une intolérance émotionnelle. Elle semble ainsi sur-
venir de manière similaire à d’autres troubles alimen-
taires et peut aussi être traitée de façon correspondante
[]. La dysmorphie musculaire se manifeste en outre par
un compor tement de régime rigide e t une pratique spor-
tive excessive, associés à des préoccupations physiques
et une consommation d’aliments en l’absence de faim
[]. Si ce comportement de régime n’est pas respecté, de
fortes tensions et angoisses apparaissent []. Dans le do-
maine des t roubles alimentai res, la dysmorphie muscu-
laire présente des similitudes en particulier avec l’ano-
rexie mentale et est évoquée comme une forme
sexospécique de l’anorexie chez les hommes [].
La confrontation avec des corps masculins musclés
dans les médias joue un rôle essentiel dans la survenue
de la dysmorphie musculaire, et ce en particulier chez
les hommes qui présentaient déjà auparavant des in-
quiétudes relatives à la masse musculaire de leur cor ps
[]. Par ailleurs, l’internalisation de l’idéal physique
d’un corps musclé prédit des symptômes d’une dys-
morphie musculaire chez les hommes []. Les body-
builders, dont les comportements, cognitions et émo-
tions poursuivent l’objectif de correspondre à un idéal
corporel intériorisé, représentent une population à
haut risque []. Toutefois, un idéal corporel irréaliste
et la confrontation médiatique quotidienne avec des
Tom Ki rsc h
Simone Mun sch
SWISS MEDICAL FORUM – FORUM MÉDICAL SUISSE 2019;19(9–10):147–148
ÉDITORIAL 147
Published under the copyright license “Attribution – Non-Commercial – NoDerivatives 4.0”. No commercial reuse without permission. See: http://emh.ch/en/services/permissions.html
idéaux physiques ne constituent pas une explication
susante pour le développement d’un trouble psy-
chique. D’autres facteurs étiologiques peuvent inclure
une anxiété générale et liée à l’apparence physique ac-
crue [], une aectivité négative [], des dicultés à
reconnaître et exprimer ses émotions (alexithymie)
[] et des moqueries durant l’enfance [].
Les résultats de recherche jusqu’à présent disponibles
sur la dysmorphie musculaire présentent diverses li-
mites. La plupart des études reposent sur de petits
échantillons et se limitent à des étudiants masculins
qui pratiquent le bodybuilding ou la musculation. Des
preuves relatives à l’évolution font par ailleurs défaut
[]. Les diérentes estimations concernant la préva-
lence de la dysmorphie musculaire, comprise entre 
et plus de % [], soulignent la nécessité d’utiliser des
critères et instruments diagnostiques homogènes.
L’article de Halioua et al. publié dans ce numéro []
ore un aperçu complet de l’état actuel des recherches
sur la dysmorphie musculaire et met en lumière le rap-
port entre l’inuence croissante d’un idéal de beauté
masculine et l’appar ition d’une perturbat ion de l’image
corporelle et d’une dysmorphie musculaire.
Disclosur e statement
Les auteu rs n’ont pas déclaré d es obligations  nancières ou p erson-
nelles e n rapport avec l’ar ticle soum is.
Références
Valls M, B onvin P, Chabrol H. Ass ociation bet ween muscula rity
dissatisfac tion and body dissatisfact ion among normal-weight
French m en. Internat ional Jour nal of Men’s Health . ;():–.
Amer ican Psychia tric Associ ation, A., Dia gnostic and St atistical
Manua l of Mental Disord ers (th ed.). Washi ngton, DC; .
Pope CG, Pope HG , Menard W, Fay C, Oliva rdia R, Phil lips KA.
Clin ical featur es of muscle dysmor phia among ma les with body
dysmorp hic disorder. Bo dy Image. ;():– .
C handler CG, Gri eve FG, Derry berry WP, Pegg PO. A re anxiet y and
obsessive -compulsive s ymptoms relate d to muscle dysmor phia?
Intern ational Jour nal of Men’s Health . ;().
M aida DM, Arm strong SL. The c lassication o f muscle dysmor phia.
Intern ational Jour nal of Men’s Health . ;().
Fos ter AC, Shorter GW, Gri ths MD. Muscle d ysmorphia: cou ld it
be clas sied as an addi ction to body im age? J Behav Addic t.
;():–.
Mu rray SB, Rieger E , Karlov L, Touyz SW. A n investigation of t he
trans diagnosti c model of eating d isorders in t he context of musc le
dysmorphia. Europea n Eating Disorders Review. ;():–.
Pop e Jr HG, Gruber AJ, Ch oi P, Oliva rdia R, Phi llips KA. Mus cle
dysmorp hia: An under recognize d form of body dysmor phic
disorder. Psychosomatics. ;():–.
M angweth B, Pop e Jr HG, Kemmler G, Ebe nbichler C, Hau smann A,
De Col, et a l. Body image a nd p--sychop athology in ma le
bodybuilder s. Psychotherapy and psychosomatics. ;():–.
 Mu rray SB, Touyz SW. Muscl e dysmorphia: Towa rds a diagnost ic
consens us. Austral ian & New Zeala nd Journal of Ps ychiatry.
;():–.
 Ar bour KP, Ginis KA M. Eects of ex posure to musc ular and
hyper muscular me dia images on you ng men’s muscular ity
dissatisfaction and body dissatisfaction. Body image.
;():–.
 Heath B , Tod DA, Kannis-D ymand L, Lo vell GP. The relationsh ip
betwe en objectic ation theor y and muscle dysmor phia
char acteristi cs in men. Psych ology of Men & Masc ulinity.
;():.
 Sch neider C, Roll itz L, Voracek M, Hen nig-Fast K. Biol ogical,
psychol ogical, and s ociocult ural factor s contributi ng to the drive
for muscu larity in we ight-train ing men. Frontie rs in psycholo gy.
;:.
 E bbeck V, Watkins PL , Concepcion RY, Card inal BJ, Hamm ermeister
J. Muscle d ysmorphia sy mptoms and thei r relationshi ps to
self-c oncept and negat ive aect among c ollege recre ational
exerci sers. Journ al of Applied Spor t Psychology. ; ():–.
 Leon e JE, Wise KA, Mu llin EM, Ha rmon W, Moreno N, Drew niany J.
The eec ts of puberta l timing and a lexithym ia on symptoms
ofmuscle d ysmorphia and t he drive for musc ularit y in men.
Psycholo gy of Men & Mascu linity. ;():.
 Wol ke D, Sapouna M. Big me n feeling sma ll: Childh ood bullyi ng
exper ience, musc le dysmorphia a nd other menta l health
problems i n bodybuild ers. Psycholog y of Sport and Exe rcise.
;():–.
 Dos Santo s Filho CA, Ti rico PP, Stefano SC, Touy z SW, Claudino AM.
Systemat ic review of the d iagnostic c ategory muscl e dysmorphia .
Austra lian & New Zea land Journa l of Psychiatr y. ;(): –.
 Ha lioua R, Deuts chmann M, Vet ter S, Jäger M, Sei fritz E,
Clausse nMC. Dysmorph ie musculai re. Forum Méd Su isse.
;(–):–.
Correspondance:
Prof. Dr ph il. Simone Mu nsch
Departement für
Psychologie
Universität Frei burg
Rue P.-A.-de -Faucigny 
CH- Freiburg
simone.munsch[at]unifr.ch
SWISS MEDICAL FORUM – FORUM MÉDICAL SUISSE 2019;19(9–10):147–148
ÉDITORIAL 148
Published under the copyright license “Attribution – Non-Commercial – NoDerivatives 4.0”. No commercial reuse without permission. See: http://emh.ch/en/services/permissions.html
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Article
Full-text available
The drive for muscularity and associated behaviors (e.g., exercising and dieting) are of growing importance for men in Western societies. In its extreme form, it can lead to body image concerns and harmful behaviors like over-exercising and the misuse of performance-enhancing substances. Therefore, investigating factors associated with the drive for muscularity, especially in vulnerable populations like bodybuilders and weight trainers can help identify potential risk and protective factors for body image problems. Using a biopsychosocial framework, the aim of the current study was to explore different factors associated with drive for muscularity in weight-training men. To this purpose, German-speaking male weight trainers (N = 248) completed an online survey to determine the extent to which biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors contribute to drive for muscularity and its related attitudes and behaviors. Using multiple regression models, findings showed that media ideal body internalization was the strongest positive predictor for drive for muscularity, while age (M = 25.9, SD = 7.4) held the strongest negative association with drive for muscularity. Dissatisfaction with muscularity, but not with body fat, was related to drive for muscularity. The fat-free mass index, a quantification of the actual degree of muscularity of a person, significantly predicted drive for muscularity-related behavior but not attitudes. Body-related aspects of self-esteem, but not global self-esteem, were significant negative predictors of drive for muscularity. Since internalization of media body ideals presented the highest predictive value for drive for muscularity, these findings suggest that media body ideal internalizations may be a risk factor for body image concerns in men, leading, in its most extreme form to disordered eating or muscle dysmorphia. Future research should investigate the relations between drive for muscularity, age, body composition, internalization, dissatisfaction with muscularity and body-related self-esteem using longitudinal study designs. Limitations concern the cross-sectional design of the study, self-reported body composition measures and the homogeneity of the sample.
Article
Full-text available
Objectification theory has yielded mixed results when utilized to explain male’s body image concerns. This study investigated whether a revised model of objectification theory would represent the processes associated with male’s engagement in muscle dysmorphia (MD) characteristics. Specifically the mediating role of body shame, which has previously been used to explain the psychological consequences of self-objectification among women, was substituted for muscular dissatisfaction to capture the male experience. A sample of 257 male (Mage = 29.7, SD = 11.2), the majority from Australia, completed an online questionnaire assessing measures of internalization of the mesomorphic ideal, body surveillance, self-objectification, muscular dissatisfaction, and MD characteristics. Path analyses were used to investigate the relationships among these variables. Results indicated that internalization of the mesomorphic ideal mediated body surveillance through self-objectification; consistent with previous research on objectification theory. Muscular dissatisfaction mediated the link of body surveillance with MD characteristics. Additionally, muscular dissatisfaction mediated the link between internalization of the mesomorphic ideal and MD characteristics. Taken together, these findings support the utility of objectification theory in understanding the processes under which MD characteristics are likely to emerge.
Article
Full-text available
Relationships between pubertal timing and alexithymia on the development of muscle dysmorphia (MD) and drive for muscularity (DM) in men are unknown. Our purpose was to determine if pubertal timing and alexithymia effect the development of MD and DM. The sample included 304 men (Mage = 22.49, SD = 4.38). We used the Modified Pubertal Development Scale, Twenty-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale, Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory, and the Drive for Muscularity Scale. Multivariate analysis of variance analyses were used to measure the effects of alexithymia on muscle dysmorphic disorder and DM. There was a significant mean vector difference (Λ = .93, F(3, 238) = 6.17, p < .05) between men with low and high levels of alexithymia such that men with low alexithymia scored lower on the three subscales of the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory. Men with higher levels of alexithymia are more likely to report MD symptoms but not DM. A shortened version of the Modified Pubertal Development Scale did not significantly predict symptoms of MD or DM. Implications are discussed.
Article
Full-text available
Background: Muscle dysmorphia (MD) describes a condition characterised by a misconstrued body image in which individuals who interpret their body size as both small or weak even though they may look normal or highly muscular.MD has been conceptualized as a type of body dysmorphic disorder, an eating disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder symptomatology. METHOD AND AIM: Through a review of the most salient literature on MD, this paper proposes an alternative classification of MD--the ‘Addiction to Body Image’ (ABI) model--using Griffiths (2005)addiction components model as the framework in which to define MD as an addiction. Results: It is argued the addictive activity in MD is the maintaining of body image via a number of different activities such as bodybuilding, exercise,eating certain foods, taking specific drugs (e.g., anabolic steroids), shopping for certain foods, food supplements,and the use or purchase of physical exercise accessories). In the ABI model, the perception of the positive effects on the self-body image is accounted for as a critical aspect of the MD condition (rather than addiction to exercise or certain types of eating disorder). Conclusions: Based on empirical evidence to date, it is proposed that MD could be re-classified as an addiction due to the individual continuing to engage in maintenance behaviours that may cause long-term harm.
Article
Full-text available
The present study examines how muscle dysmorphia (MD), a clinically significant preoccupation that one's body is inadequately muscular, relates to trait anxiety and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. 97 college-age men completed the MD Inventory, the Drive for Muscularity Scale, the Male Body Attitudes Scale, the Social Physique Anxiety Scale, the trait scale of the Speilberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory , and an abbreviated version of the Yale Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale. Bivariate correlation analyses revealed that trait anxiety and obsessivecompulsive symptoms demonstrated strong relationships with both social physique anxiety and overall MD symptomology. Path analysis indicated that anxiety-related variables accounted for 77 percent of the variance in MD symptoms. The findings lend support to the assertion that MD should be placed within the obsessive-compulsive spectrum of disorders.
Article
Full-text available
For some time, society’s emphasis on appearance has negatively affected women. Now we’re finding increasing numbers of men who are also overly dissatisfied with their bodies. This trend has led to a new disorder, muscle dysmorphia (MD), which is charac- terized by a preoccupation with muscularity accompanied by per- ceptual, affective, and behavioral components that interfere with daily activities. Currently, MD is not included in the DSM-IV, although it is purported to be a kind of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), which in turn is a somatoform disorder. This study investi- gated relationships among symptoms of MD and variables most relevant to a DSM classification of men who lift weights regularly. No relationship was found between MD and a measure of somato- form disorder. Instead, BDD, OCD (obsessive-compulsive disor- der), body dissatisfaction, and hostility are the main predictors of MD. This suggests that MD is an OCD spectrum disorder, rather than a somatoform disorder.
Article
Background: Even though muscularity dissatisfaction has important health and psychological implications, the co-occurrence of body dissatisfaction and muscularity dissatisfaction in men's body image disturbances and disordered eating is not well established. Furthermore, men's body image disturbances are associated with depression and low levels of self-esteem. The aim of the present study is to identify a typology of young men based on levels of muscularity dissatisfaction, body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem, and to explore differences between cluster groups according to levels of depression and media influences. Methods: Participants completed a figure-rating scale to assess dissatisfaction with muscularity and self-report questionnaires assessing body dissatisfaction, self-esteem, depressive symptoms, media influences, and disordered eating. All variable values were centered. Results: The sample consisted of 328 normal-weight French men (mean age 21.9; SD=2.4). Cluster analyses yielded three groups characterized by high levels of muscularity dissatisfaction and intermediate levels of body dissatisfaction and self-esteem for Cluster 1 by low levels of muscularity dissatisfaction and body dissatisfaction and high levels of self-esteem for Cluster 2, and by high levels of muscularity dissatisfaction and body dissatisfaction and low levels of self-esteem for Cluster 3. Cluster 3 had the highest levels of depressive symptoms and a significant rate of disordered eating. Conclusion: Dissatisfaction with muscle mass and body dissatisfaction may co-occur in a significant minority of young men, and this association can lead to a greater risk for depression and disordered eating. These results may have implications in the understanding and prevention of men's body image disturbances, knowing that normal-weight men are usually considered a low-risk group for body image disturbances.