Death by Disowning: An Account of Words and Expressions That Will Die

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Death by Disowning: An account of words and expressions that will die
1Tariq Khan and 2Panchanan Mohanty
1, 2Centre for ALTS, University of Hyderabad
Abstract:
The research on language endangerment has witnessed two strikingly different approaches. In
one, the language in concern is taken in its entirety. Accordingly, the language is categorized
as safe, endangered or extinct. This approach may be called „Whole Language Approach.‟ In
the second approach, certain aspects of a language that are undergoing changes / loss are
studied. It may be called „Part Language Approach.‟ The first one presents a macroscopic
view of the language while the second presents a microscopic view of it. In this paper, we
adopt the second approach to study the language endangerment, shift and loss in Magadh
region of Bihar. It has been observed that the linguistic heterogeneity of the speech
community in Magadh region of Bihar is undergoing changes. Consequently, hundreds of
indigenous words and expressions and those genetically related to Magahi, Bangla and Odia
are gradually disappearing from the verbal repertoire of this speech community.
In this paper we look at the nature and pattern of words and expressions that are
disappearing and examine the internal and external forces that are causing this loss. Three
observations have been made regarding the currency of the words and expressions that are
threatened: The older generation (40 years and above) uses them, the middle generation (20-
40 years old) understands them but does not use them. While the younger generation (20
years and below) does not know them at all. In some cases these word forms and expressions
get replaced by their counterparts from Hindi-Urdu while in others nothing comes in
exchange. In some cases they exist as distortions of their older or standard forms while in
others they simply cease to be.
The use of these expressions has been falling and their transmission across generation
has been shrinking. We arrive at these observations on the basis of self-assessment, grading,
peer-interaction and a survey conducted across various age groups. This paper is at first an
attempt towards developing a first-hand account of what is endangered / lost with respect to
this language. It also attempts to analyze the nature and pattern of loss and tries to reason out
the forces that are resulting in this kind of situation.
Keywords: Language endangerment, Extinct, Disowning, Macroscopic View, Microscopic
View, Approaches, Documentation.
Introduction:
This paper deals with the language endangerment situation from a microscopic view. It
presents a small sample of hundreds of words which would become extinct over time, even
though the language in concern would survive. The methodological approaches that study a
language in its entirety fail to notice this kind of loss. As a result the language enthusiasts are
often confronted with situations where a language to be rescued has lost a significant part of
it. In this paper, these methodological aspects have been dealt with. A new diagnostic scale
has been adopted so as to handle this situation. Taking a cue from Austin and Sallabank
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(2011) “the documentation efforts have in turn led to a number of developments in the field
of linguistics, language technology, and elsewhere” a small corpus of words and expressions
has been created. By way of six tables and grading the endangerment situations of some
words and expressions that are threatened have been presented in this paper. The grading
ranged from 1-3 reflects the currency of these words and expression among the middle
generation (20-40 years old). Since, the older generation (40 years and above) employs them
in interactions and the younger generation (below 20 years) does not know them, it is obvious
that the transmission is interrupted at this level. It is this population that has disowned these
usages and brought them at the brink of extinction. It is at this level that necessary the
documentation and revitalization activities should begin. The claims made here are supported
by sample data presented in six tables. The tabular presentation of data is followed by an
analysis of nature and pattern of loss. Then, the internal and external factors that are
responsible for this situation have been examined and discussed.
On the one hand this paper has its significance on the endangerment situation, on the
other hand its significance lies on methodology and approaches employed for the study of the
lexicon that is in danger of extinction. The loss of words/phrases and expressions is a stronger
indicator of language endangerment than loss / change of the grammatical or combinatorial
properties. The crux of the problem is that the situation is not yet known to the advocates of
the language maintenance and revitalization. This paper embarks upon the methodological
issues and adopts an approach that specifically addresses the language, the speakers, the
culture and the ecology in concern.
Methodological concerns:
Why is it that most often it is quite / too late before a stock of the situation is taken and the
remediation process is initiated? One reason that can be assigned to it is that the researchers
have often adopted the „Whole Language Approach.‟ Subsequently the findings, too, wears a
macroscopic outlook. The problem with the whole language approach is that by the time a
shift or loss is noticed a significant amount of linguistic and cultural information has already
disappeared. While, on the fly approach would identify the trends towards degeneration and
alarm the concerned agencies for affirmative actions. This in turn requires a dynamic and
vigilant participation. The involvement with speaker community whether as a member of it or
an outsider is a tricky but rewarding activity.
Language contact and loss have two dimensions; one is structure and the other is
semantic and pragmatic. At the structural level the combinatorial properties of a language is
altered. However, at the semantic and pragmatic levels the change / loss have cultural
connotations. It is at the level of words and expressions that the vital cultural information is
encoded. Thus, it is important to identify any negative trend in them and initiate rescue
measures. In this connection the dynamic approach adopted here has an added value. As it
focuses on words and expressions, their currency and transmission across various
generations, one of the advantages is that it helps in developing a good rapport with the
informants. As one of the first interactions between fieldworker and native speaker in a
formal interview setting, word list gives the fieldworker the opportunity to set a positive tone
at the beginning of their working relationship (Chelliah and Reuse, 2011).
Diagnostics:
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Dwyer (2011) analyzes the following three tools developed for the assessment of language
endangerment: (a) Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS; Fishman, 1991) (b)
Extended Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS; Simon and Lewis, 2006) and
(c) UNESCO Nine Factors (Ad Hoc Expert Group, 2003). The matter of concern here is not
whether one tool is better than the other. In fact the concern here is that all of these tools treat
the endangered language as a whole. So, the loss at microscopic level, the loss of words and
expressions, for instance, goes unnoticed. In this connection, only two factors suggested by
the UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group are relevant. Therefore, for the purpose of assessment of
language endangerment this paper has adopted a three point scale wherein; 1 refers to no use
(extinction), 2 refers to restricted use (endangered), 3 refers to common use (safe)
expressions. Consider the tables 1-6 given below;
Names
Reference
Category
Grade
ser
1kg
Uncountable Solid
2
ɟɔɽa
Pair
Countable Solid
3
ɡənda
Set of four
Countable Solid
1
pəseri
5 kg
Uncountable Solid
2
d
̪ərɟən
Set of 12
Countable Solid
3
kɔɽi
Set of 20
Countable Solid
1
mən
40 kg
Uncountable Solid
1
kənu
> 100 ml
Liquids
1
cʰətak
<100 ml
Liquids
1
Table 1: Names of the units and tools of measurement
Besides, other non-standard units of measurements have also been observed in this study. For
instance, some small and big containers of oil are used as a unit of weigh and measurement
especially in home domains. The reason for not including them in the above table is that they
do not have specific names. However, a generic term „nəpna‟ literally meaning „that which
can measure‟ is used. Yet another generic term „pəlli‟ has been employed for measuring
liquids. Unfortunately, these terms are on the brink of extinction now.
Name
Reference
Length
Use
Grade
ɡulli
Bell like very small
sticks
< 0.5 meter
1
2
cʰəɽi
Small sticks
1-2 meters
2
3
spəkka
Medium size stick
with elasticity
1-2 meters
2
1
pæna
Medium size but
non elastic stick
1-2 meter
2
1
dənta
Stick generic
1-3 meters
2
3
laʈʰi
Big size stick
3-5 meters
3
3
bəlla
Very big size stick
5-8 meters
4
2
bim
Enormously big size
stick
> 8 meters
4
1
Table 2: Sticks' names in increasing order of size
dənta which is a variant of the word dənda meaning „stick‟ is also used as the generic term for
the sticks. The numeric values under the column „Use‟ corresponds to the following uses: 1 in
games and linking materials, 2 in punishment and guiding cattle, 3 in support as pillar and 4
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in building construction.
Words
Gloss
Grade
sɘnɘbɘt̺t̺i
Evening lamp
1
ɖʰibri
Lamp
1
ɖʰɔkɾi
Pocket in general
1
bɘɡli
Pocket on top
2
cʰilka
Small water body
1
pæn
Lake
1
bihan
Morning
2
lahi
Birds droppings
2
ɘkɔsa
Curse
1
nareti
Neck
1
Table 3: General vocabulary loss
The words presented in this table belong to several categories. The purpose behind clubbing
them together is to emphasize that the words belonging to an endangered vocabulary need not
belong to a single domain and that they cover a very vast range of geographical and cultural
information. Some of these words have lost relevance due to change in times, cultural
practices as well as technology. However, a good number of them deserve retention and
revitalization.
Traits
Gloss
Grade
hulculɪa
Very active
1
hɘwɘnnɘk
Mischievous
2
raɽ
Notorious
2
kɘmasut̪
Laborious
2
kuɖʰɘ̃ɡa/i
Ill-mannered
1
bɘd
̪hɘwas
Unconscious
2
lɘbɽa
Motor mouth
1
sutuk
Stealthy
1
bɘt̪laha/i
Unskilled
1
Table 4: Words for behavioural traits
The list presented here is very small subset of a rich and varied vocabulary the speaker
community has maintained for referring to various kinds of behavioural traits. Unfortunately,
the community finds it lowly to employ them in formal situations and has restricted them for
expressing anger and disgust. It is interesting to note that a good percentage of these words
actually exhibit morphological behavior similar to the Hindi-Urdu words. They are
endangered and approaching extinction mainly because their communities have started
disowning them.
Expression
Translation
Grade
be sɪr ka/i pʰɔʝ
Uncontrolled persons
1
kanunci ka/ɪ ʝɘɽ
Too much into rules
3
ɘ̃ɡɪja d
̪e ke bɪʝʝe
ɡajɘb
Invitation but no
reception
1
lɪkʰa pɘɽi
Legal documentation
2
kauɽi ka t̪in
Worthless person
1
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upɘd
̪d
̪ɘr kɘrna
Create trouble
3
sɘkarna
Accept / admit
2
Table 5: Multi word expressions
This appears to be one of the most negatively affected cases. Multi word expressions
including idioms, phrases and proverbs are usually frozen in nature. That is to say,
morphologically they are not very productive and that is why they do not have many variant
forms. In the data obtained for this study a good number of endangered and extinct
expressions belong to this group. The speaker community finds it embarrassing to use these
expressions in the presence of people educated in other „canonical varieties.‟
Word + affixes
Gloss
Grade
ɘkɘl + mɘnd
̪
Intelligent
2
nemɘt̪ + kʰana
Almira
2
Table 6: Words with affixes
The purpose of this list is to show that a significant number of the expressions on the verge of
extinction are in fact results of derivation. It is interesting to see that many of them have been
formed by the use of Sanskrit and Persian affixes. The same affixes are in use in Hindi-Urdu
and have resulted in some most frequently used words.
Nature and pattern of loss:
Whatever may be the quantum, the nature and pattern of language loss has some common
thread that includes the loss of an exclusive way to perceive and articulate the experiences
and disadvantage to the speaker community. Sometimes when the speakers are aware that
theirs is less valued variety and that it is used by illiterate people or people of lower social
stratum the zeal to use and transmit the language dies out. As Austin and Sallabank (2011)
observe speakers of minority languages often suggest that it would be more useful to teach a
major national or international language to their children than a useless endangered language.
The six tables presented above showcase only small sets of what is at the risk of loss.
Needless to say, that all the words and expressions that are graded ONE will eventually
disappear from the lexicon. Also, it goes without contest that they embody vital information
with regards to human behavior, geography and culture. At this juncture a distinction needs
to be maintained between contact-induced changes and endangerment or extinction. Quite
often it has been observed that it is actually language loss in the guise of shift and change.
Causes of loss:
The most intuitive reason behind endangerment and loss of a language is contact. Languages
and language varieties usually become endangered because their speakers are in contact with
a group whose language or variety has, or is gaining, greater social, political and economic
prestige in the local or wider arena (Shannessy, 2011). In the present case it is the exposure
and contact with the literary variety of Hindi and Urdu. Odé and Graaf (2006) categorizes the
forces causing language endangerment into two groups; external and internal. According to
them; Language endangerment may be caused by external forces, such as military, economic,
religious, cultural, or educational subjugation. It may also be caused by internal forces, such
as a community's negative attitude towards its own language or by a general decline of group
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identity (Odé and Graaf, 2006). However, as indicated in the title of this paper, the main
factor resulting in this situation is the disowning (of these words, phrases and expressions) by
the concerned speaker community.
A tendency towards mocking and hyper-correction at the level of everyday language use
can be observed. Since the socio-economic and cultural factors do not contribute positively,
the intergenerational transmission of the endangered and extinct words and expression has
stopped. While on the other hand the words and expressions that come as replacements often
have added value and possibilities of upward social mobility. It is interesting to note that loss
also happens to those languages which are assumed to be dominant and safe. If they are
widely spoken and have a standard variety too, the losses incurred by the non-standard
varieties often go unnoticed. This is applicable to the present case as well. Neither, Magahi
nor Hindi-Urdu as such is considered to be endangered but their loss in this form is taking
place at high pace.
Affirmative actions:
What can be done? Keeping in mind the extent and pace of deterioration of the indigenous
vocabulary, it appears quite natural that documenting tasks should be taken up first. The
documentation efforts have in turn led to a number of developments in the field of linguistics,
language technology, and elsewhere (Austin and Sallabank, 2011). However, unless it is
known what is already lost and how much is lost, conservation programmes cannot be
prepared, the community cannot be motivated to retain the forms and moreover the
digitization and archiving too cannot be initiated. Also, it is important to motivate the
speakers to retain the forms by providing them a published document of their language
behavior. The documentary effort is driven by concern for endangered languages and enabled
by advances in technology which have facilitated the recording, analysis and archiving of
audio and video data in ways which were unimaginable not long ago (Austin and Sallabank,
2011). Given the enabling support available through technological advancements there are
two vital prospects; (a) that which is degrading can be retained and (b) that which has become
extinct can be revived.
Conclusions:
This paper began with a methodological concern. It discussed out how the macroscopic views
and the Whole Language Approach cannot account for language loss of all kinds. The
language loss situation discussed here requires a dynamic approach and a microscopic view.
By way five tabular description this paper has highlighted the fact that perpetual loss at the
level of words and expressions is taking place whereas the language still enjoys a majority
and dominant position. The data sets presented and graded in this paper constitutes a certain
proportion of verbal repertoire. The termination of the intergenerational transmission has
rendered them unsafe and dead. The words and expressions that are threatened or have
become extinct are fine examples of how geographic, psychological and cultural information
is embodied in them. As for the reasons behind these losses, this paper rates, disowning by
the native population first and other socio-economic factors next.
Note 1: The grading scale of 1-3 is exclusive to this paper; where 1 refers to no use (extinct),
2 refers to restricted use (endangered) and 3 refers to common use (safe) expressions.
Note 2: a/i correspond to the male female gender distinction carried by the words.
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Note 3: The data presented in this paper has been extracted out from a larger document and it
is beyond the scope of this paper to display them all. So, only a representative sample has
been used.
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Austin, Peter K. and Julia Sallabank (eds.). 2011. The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered
Languages. Cambridge & Delhi: Cambridge University Press.
Brenzinger, Matthias et al. (eds.). 2003. Language Vitality and Endangerment. In Ad Hoc
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Dwyner, Arienne M. 2011. Tools and Techniques for Endangered-Language Assessment and
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Languages. Delhi: Cambridge University Press. Page 78
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