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Redoing by Repair: The Search for
Tacit KnowledgeTransfer in
Furniture Design Education
!
Mehmet Ali ALTIN
Anadolu University, Interior Design Department
maaltin@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract:
Michael Polanyi indicates “We know more than we can
tell”. He points a hidden and greater dimension - the tacit
knowledge. Tacit knowledge is also the personal knowledge which is
hard to transfer and in reality people use it more effectively than the
other explicit dimension.
Cognitivistic, rationalist and utilitarian approaches made the reality
be understood as explicit and knowledge has been reduced. Except
a reduction, better ways of knowledge transfer are being
researched. The transfer of tacit knowledge is an important point,
especially between design and production. And furniture design is
no exception. In a design approach which is isolated from
production the tacit knowledge from production phase will be
missing. From this perspective, an applied class for furniture design
has been setup on the theme “repair”.
In this paper, tacit knowledge and its transfer methods, repair as a
constructive element for dialogue and observations will be
discussed.
Keywords:
Tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge, repair, furniture
design, education
1. Introduction
One of the most prominent elements in Interior design is the furniture. For this
reason interior designers must have knowledge about design and production of
the furniture. Some of this knowledge is given in schools but most of them are
acquired in professional life by practical experience. Interior designers must have
relations with craftsmen in order to direct them to make produce his/her desired
custom furniture. In order to have this relation correctly, designers need to speak
the same language as craftsmen do and have similar production knowledge. Most
of this knowledge depends on the know-how and practice which is developed
during production. Practical knowledge depends mostly on skill and skill depends
on hand-eye coordination or manual dexterity. (Christopher Winch, 283) In the
case of interior design education, it would be impossible to expect a bachelor’s
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candidate to reach this type of experience, knowledge and skill. It is also
unnecessary. It will be easier to establish a dialogue with craftsmen for interior
designer if he/she experienced furniture production, observed the use of material,
production techniques and necessary tools during his/her education. If interior
designer has experience in production, it will be a benefit for him/her to have
empathy with craftsmen to the problems in production.
For interior designer candidates it is also important to have personal experience in
furniture production for revealing the unforeseen design inputs that come out of
contact with material and production techniques. In many cases furniture design
classes are held in such a manner that design and production are continuous but
separate phases. Conceptual structure and finding brilliant ideas are well
evaluated but other facts that are more important in design and production of
unique furniture could not be practiced. Some of these are facts as production
techniques and details, materials and designer-producer dialogues. These diverse
facts need diverse types of knowledge.
2. Knowledge
Aristotheles, classifies knowledge to 3 main topics: Techne is the knowledge of
how a thing is made. It is context based and cannot be generalised. Phronesis is
the deep thinking on doing something. It is the wisdom on doing something, is
context based and pragmatic and aims the action on doing something. Episteme is
the general scientific knowledge. It is theoretical and free from context and
variables (Pitman & Kinsella, 2012) (Smith, 2015). Aristotheles puts episteme to a
higher place than other (Long, 2001). Episteme is more open and it spreads. At the
other hand techne is full of secrets; it depends on the harmony of hand and the
tool and it is grown by this harmony. Techne primarily was a word in ancient
Greece which is referred to knowledge of art and craftsmanship. In present time,
know-how is a word referring to Techne (Brogan, 2005). Another word which
refers to episteme is knowing-that which is also known as theoretical knowledge
(Gascoigne & Thornton, 2013). The relation between know-how and knowing-that
is the topic of a continuing debate. According to Ryle’s anti intellectualist
approach know how and knowing that are different from each other. Stanley and
Williamson assert that know-how is a part of knowing that (Fantl, 2008) (Stanley
& T., 2001) (Ryle, 1946).
There are also differences between two types of knowledge in the sense of
transferring the knowledge. As an open source knowledge, knowing that is
transferred freely from past to present. At the other hand, know-how supports
practical transfer. Craft knowledge depends on tactile experiences therefore it
cannot be transferred written or verbally. Christopher Winch uses words
“technique” and “skill” in order to define the difference between know-how and
knowing-that. In order to do a task, it is necessary to know some kind of
techniques but knowing those techniques does not mean that it is solely sufficient
for doing the task (Winch, 2013). Most of the techniques need special skills
depending on the task and the material. It is possible to transfer techniques by
demonstration but the same is not possible for skill. Michael Polanyi defines this
kind of knowledge that depends on skill as “tacit knowledge” which is also
designated as personal knowledge (Polanyi, 1966). Skills are indescribable
interactions between the material and the tool, the hand and the mind.
Redoing by Repair
: The Search for Tacit KnowledgeTransfer in Furniture Design E
ducation
!
!
2.1 Knowledge transfer
Theoretical knowledge is also termed as explicit knowledge. It is also the written
and tellable information that is transferred via diverse mediation. Cognitivism and
rationalism evaluated knowledge of the world as an independent fact of the
human body and emotions and utilitarianism took the reality as an objectively
codified data. Carthesian theory seperates the mind from the body and the mind
becomes the source and engine of human knowledge (Gill S. P., 2015). In fact this
a very old dualistic paradigm since Sokrates and Plato. Many philosophers as
Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, Gadamer, Buber, Heidegger and Wittgenstein developed
new conceptions of knowledge that include spiritual, the body, culture and
emotions. Polanyi termed the untellable, bodily knowledge as tacit knowledge and
he dealt with transfer of the tacit dimension. Polanyi claims that we can
understand something explicit if we can relate to it through practice (Gill J. H.,
2000). Polanyi describes the knowledge as a whole and he criticizes the attempts
to break it apart to make it explicit. Brock exemplifies the fact on a well-known
experiment proposed by John Searle (Searle, 1980)
“Imagine a person, who doesn’t speak Chinese, is locked in a room.
Inside the room is a set of instructions, written in English, which link
sets of characters in Chinese to other groups of Chinese letters. If
questions in Chinese are fed into the locked room, the imprisoned
person can follow the instructions and pass seemingly fluent
answers in Chinese out from the room. To an observer outside, the
room’s occupier appears to be fluent in Chinese, but the person is
merely following a series of procedures, without comprehending the
meaning of the output they produce (Brock, 2017) .”
Polanyi exemplifies practical classes and the act of pointing to things to connect
words to things as methods of passing on tacit knowledge. (Gill S. P., 2015). John
Dewey describes learning by doing as:
“In attempting to practice an art or skill, we indwell it to the extent
that it eventually comes to indwell us, even though we generally
cannot say how this happens. In learning a new dance step, a new
language, or how to think philosophically, there is no substitute for
practice (Dewey, 1975).”
Figure 1 shows a graph demonstrating the condition of knowledge while it’s being
transferred from tacit to explicit and vice versa (Talisayon, 2017). It can be seen
that there is a reduction in knowledge while going from tacit to explicit and a
growth in knowledge while going from explicit to tacit. It also could be seen that
knowledge acquisition is more in practice while going from explicit to tacit.
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Figure 1. Transfers from tacit to explicit and explicit to tacit
Differences in explicit and tacit knowledge can be discovered best in the
comparison between the novice and the expert, the apprentice and the master.
The famous example of an expert pianist explains it well. The pianist plays
intuitionally without concentrating on his finger movements, he plays the score
without any mistake but if he began to think of those movements he will be
mistaken by pressing on a wrong note or untimely stroke. An expert uses more of
the subjective and less of the objective aspects of the knowledge. An expert has
the ability to grasp the situation in front of him and make judgements about it. A
novice at the other hand, can only calculate by using explicit rules to make sense
of what appears to him to be a mass of data (Cooley, 1987).
Organizations are mostly dealing with transfer of knowledge between diverse
groups in the organization. Nonako & Takeuchi (1995) proposed the SECI model
for making it clear. Figure 2 shows the diagram of the model. The model is
consisted of 4 diverse ways to combine and convert knowledge, it explains how
knowledge is created and shared in the organization. As seen from the figure Tacit
to tacit knowledge is shared from individual to individual by direct experience,
tacit to explicit is externalization and the knowledge is shared by dialogue, from
explicit to explicit is a combination of the knowledge systematically, from explicit
to tacit is an internalization process and knowledge is learnt through practice.
Redoing by Repair
: The Search for Tacit KnowledgeTransfer in Furniture Design E
ducation
!
!
Figure 2. The SECI model
Dialogue creates a string between the expert who has the tacit knowledge and the
novice who has the explicit. In order to create the dialogue a kind of mediator is
needed. In most cases this mediator is a third person who keeps the dialogue. The
mediator could be a situation through which the dialogue continues. The dialogue
continues on practice of a subject and the knowledge transfer occurs.
3. “Making Repairs”
According to Aristhoteles, eidos(form) of a being is determined before techne
takes action. Process of being doesn’t possess design or planning as we
understand today, design and planning is embedded in the action of techne which
also means design and planning is in crafting. After industrial revolution, there
became changes in the structure of working process of crafting and in the
relationship between the artisan and his apprentice. By mass production machines
took place of skill. Rationalization of mass production and new labour division
principles rearranged the work system, and then it was impossible for workers to
be aware of the whole process. Ancient synergy of production of an item and its
repair is also rationalized and the image of assembly line became also image of
repair (Harper, 1987).
Afore mentioned situation suits for most cases of mass production but for unique
products, the production goes on in craftsman’s workshops. Even though formal
education has taken the place of apprenticeship, skill improvement, watching and
repetition are still basic parts of craft education.
"Making and fixing are eventually guided by different kinds of
knowledge, making being dominated by the limited knowledge of
the machine tender and fixing by the knowledge of the earlier mind
that stood in the same relation, as its inventor, to the technique.
This, however, is a lag rather than a permanent separation. As
making becomes increasingly rationalized there are, for a time,
individuals with knowledge that allows them to see beyond the
elements of a technique to its overall purpose and coherence. This
knowledge is the ‘live intelligence, fallibly attuned to the actual
circumstances’ of life. It is the knowledge in which making and fixing
are parts of a continuum (Harper, 1987)."
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“Put simply, it is by fixing things that we often get to understand
how they work. The simplest way to make a repair is to take
something apart, find and fix what’s wrong, then restore the object
to its former state (Sennett, 2008).”
According to Aristhoteles, eidos(form) of a being is determined before techne
takes action. Process of being doesn’t possess design or planning as we
understand today, design and planning is embedded in the action of techne which
also means design and planning is in crafting. After industrial revolution, there
became changes in the structure of working process of crafting and in the
relationship between the artisan and his apprentice. By mass production machines
took place of skill. Rationalization of mass production and new labour division
principles rearranged the work system, and then it was impossible for workers to
be aware of the whole process. Ancient synergy of production of an item and its
repair is also rationalized and the image of assembly line became also image of
repair (Harper, 1987).
Afore mentioned situation suits for most cases of mass production but for unique
products, the production goes on in craftsman’s workshops. Even though formal
education has taken the place of apprenticeship, skill improvement, watching and
repetition are still basic parts of craft education.
"Making and fixing are eventually guided by different kinds of knowledge, making
being dominated by the limited knowledge of the machine tender and fixing by
the knowledge of the earlier mind that stood in the same relation, as its inventor,
to the technique. This, however, is a lag rather than a permanent separation. As
making becomes increasingly rationalized there are, for a time, individuals with
knowledge that allows them to see beyond the elements of a technique to its
overall purpose and coherence. This knowledge is the ‘live intelligence, fallibly
attuned to the actual circumstances’ of life. It is the knowledge in which making
and fixing are parts of a continuum (Harper, 1987)."
“Put simply, it is by fixing things that we often get to understand how they work.
The simplest way to make a repair is to take something apart, find and fix what’s
wrong, then restore the object to its former state (Sennett, 2008).”
In this sense, it is a must to understand the object in whole and to achieve this, it
must be disassembled to its smaller parts. This process compels to understand the
parts relationship between each part and their associated functions in order to
assemble them to form the object again. In order to do this parts are examined for
their conditional states and their functions and it is tried to be understood in
whole. After all the processes, the malfunctioning part could be discovered and
repaired. In rationalized repair of mass produced products, the part, which is an
assembly of several sub-components, is replaced completely. The worker doesn’t
ponder how the malfunctioning part works or how it could be fixed. In repair of
unique craft products parts are not in stock for replacement they have to be
reproduced or have to be fixed with accessible materials, tools and repairman’s
skills. In crafts production craftsman is a repairman and the repairman is a
craftsman also. Repairman’s knowledge in the process is a tactile, experience
based and difficult to transfer tacit knowledge. While repairman is working on a
piece, he interprets the know-how which is embedded on that piece with his own
know-how. While repairman is disassembling a piece and trying to analyse
relations of parts, he aims to reveal the embedded know-how.
Repairing is also an exceptional situation to identify the explicit and tacit
knowledge. In automation while producing something, instructions and rules are
followed in the best available way for efficiency (Winograd & Flores, 1986). But
when a breakdown occurs in the course, computers lack to innovate or improvise
Redoing by Repair
: The Search for Tacit KnowledgeTransfer in Furniture Design E
ducation
!
!
a way to fix the problem. Repair needs the tacit knowledge of the experts.
Because human’s rule following is dependent on the situation of the user, it is
dependent to personal knowledge and intuition. Repair could be the mediator for
the dialogue between the expert and the novice, between the tacit and the
explicit.
3.1 Repair as a tool to transfer the tacit dimension
In most design courses, usually, design is handled as a brand-new problem.
Students are encouraged to develop ideas for a production start-up. In order to
make students understand the wider tacit dimension of furniture design and
production an applied studio has been set up. Studio is set up on the classification
of repair that is previously mentioned by Richard Sennett in his well-known book
“The Craftsman”.
Studio is handled in two main topics: Static and dynamic repair. According to
Sennett (2008), static repair is finding the problems of an object, fixing them and
putting it in its initial state. If the functionality and/or form of the repaired object
changes, then the process is a dynamic repair.
Sennett’s classification for repair has been helpful in the construction of the studio.
Studio aims the applied experience of static and dynamic repair on a very
common object in furniture design: the chair. The other aim of the studio is
revealing the imbedded tacit knowledge of material and craft techniques through
the theme “repair” which is the mediator for the dialogue between workshop
craftsmen, tutor and the students. In this sense tutor (T) is the resource for explicit
knowledge, workshop craftsmen (C) are the resources for the tacit knowledge. T
and C are analogous to experts. Students (S) are analogous to novice who receive
explicit (E) knowledge from T and interprets and transfers E to C then receives the
tacit knowledge through techniques and skill.
As a furniture repairing subject, the most common, easily found object, the chair is
chosen.
In order to hold a hands-on experience, materials and production techniques are
limited to wood crafting. This approach also provides a vision to capture the limits
of design which are determined by production.
The course has been divided into two phases as mentioned in Sennett’s repair
model.
Static repair
Static repair is evaluated as an effort of recovering the chair to its initial brand-
new state. In order to achieve that extensive analysis is necessary. Sub-phases of
static repair in analysis are as follows:
• Measuring and drafting the chair,
• Questionnaire,
• Removing the finishing material on chair,
• Disassembly of the chair,
• Creating the build of materials (BOM).
• Documenting
The effort of restoration of the chair to its initial state was consisted of below sub
phases:
• Restoration of parts,
• Assembly,
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• Documenting.
Dynamic repair
Dynamic repair includes an upgrade in design and production. These changes
effect the product design. For this reason, instead of holding a successive process
dynamic repair phase aims a harmony of design and production. It is aimed for
students to reveal production related tacit knowledge and know-how which is
imbedded in chairs.
Dynamic repair was divided into two phases:
• Design,
• Production.
Design phase is divided into sub phases as:
• Design research,
• Elimination,
• Selection,
• 1/1 scale modelling,
• Documenting.
The production phase is consisted of following sub phases:
• Production research,
• Material selection,
• Production method selection,
• Finishing method selection
• Creating the production patterns,
• Parts sizing,
• Parts processing,
• Assembly,
• Finishing,
• Documenting.
In each phase students worked in the wood workshop of the institution by
guidance of the tutor and the wood workshop’s craftsmen.
At the end of the class students are asked to create a comprehensive report of the
whole process from the beginning to the end.
Classroom progress and Observations
Students are asked to find and bring an old chair from their surroundinsg or buy
an old wooden chair from flea-market. They are not informed about the schedule
and program of the class. Required aspects of the chair are explained. In the
second lesson students brought their chairs which are mostly bought from flea
market. Chairs were varying in design and functionality aspects. (Figure 3)
Students are asked to draw 1/5 scaled drawings of their chairs. They measured the
parts and transferred their data to drawings from facades and top view. They are
asked to draw whatever they see on the chair including malfunctioning parts and
obsolescence and all the invisible production details are ignored. By this exercise
analysis phase initiated.
Redoing by Repair
: The Search for Tacit KnowledgeTransfer in Furniture Design E
ducation
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!
In the third lesson, students are asked to evaluate their chairs themselves.
Evaluation requires 3 main topics:
• esthetical,
• functional,
• production techniques.
These main topics and evaluations related to them then are used to create a
questionnaire. Students are asked to have interviews with at least 10 people who
are then requested to experience the chair and answer questions. Questionnaire
includes questions about user experience but also about user himself or herself.
Figure 3. Students found the chairs from flea market
In the fourth lesson, students are asked to disassemble their chairs until they reach
the raw materials. This procedure has been taken in wood workshop by guidance
and support of workshop’s craftsmen. (Figure 4) Students marked every piece
with a number and they created a BOM (Build of Materials) explaining every part
on a table about their condition and how many of those parts were used to
manufacture that chair. Every moment of disassembly has been documented by
photos and remarks. Every piece has been taken to a procedure of renovation.
Bended, broken parts are repaired individually. At the end of the disassembly
procedure students are asked to redraw the chair with its assembly details. They
are also asked to draw an elaborated exploded view of the chair explaining the
assembly process.
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Figure 4. Disassembly
In the fifth lesson students are asked to realise static repair on the chair. They are
asked to determine malfunctioning parts and find solutions to repair unusable
parts. Students repaired some parts and renewed some others that could not be
repaired. At the end of the repair and renewal of parts chairs are assembled.
Assembly is not applied as a permanent procedure in order to use same parts in
the dynamic repair phase for this reason assembly methods such as gluing which
are difficult to reverse back are not used. After the temporary assembly, chairs are
documented with photos. (Figure 5)
Figure 5. The initial chair and the one after static repair
In the sixth lesson, students are asked to research about improvements that they
will make on their chair in dynamic repair phase. Some of the students found
images of other chairs which look like similar to their chairs and tried to figure out
visual changes that were made on them. Some students found examples which are
totally different from their chair and have multifunctional features. Most of the
information was delivered from internet and most of them were visual. Most of the
students took dynamic repair as a functional upgrade to chair. For this reason,
most of the proposals were about hybridization. For example, cloth- hanger +
chair, storage unit + chair or ladder + chair.
Redoing by Repair
: The Search for Tacit KnowledgeTransfer in Furniture Design E
ducation
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Redesigning phase was compelling for students. They had spent so much time on
developing a concept. They are encouraged to focus on design of the tactile
product instead of its concept. They were still avoiding to enter an unknown world
full of requirements from craft experience. In order to have 1/1 scaled real
dimensions, students are guided to use cardboard mock-ups in order to develop
new ideas. This approach has awaken them to proceed.
In the eighth week, matured primal designs are planned for production. Production
planning started with research of additional material and parts to be used in
production. Additional needs of wood have been provided by institute and other
more specific materials have been provided by students. This made students
check for a specific component in stores and catalogues.
Students created drawings of the desired parts in order to be used in assembly.
With guidance of the workshop craftsmen they organized a request for the limited
wood to be cut effectively to avoid material waste. After consent of tutor,
students could make the cut be done through their 1/1 scaled templates.
Students rearranged their design through the critics of the tutor and the workshop
craftsmen. For some of those, design has been changed or evolved due to crafting
limits and production requirements. Each student has had an individual approach
to production. Some of them has chosen to have a hand-on experience and tried
to craft themselves, some others have had dialogues with craftsmen and
experienced management of the process but did not use power tools. (Figure 6)
Figure 6. Hands on experience and the final product
The final evaluation was mean of 2 different types of submissions. These
submissions were finished prototype of the chair and a comprehensive report on
the course which explains all the phases based on the timeline. This report was as
a written documentary of the course containing photos, sketches and drawings.
For evaluation of the incomes, a survey has been prepared and shared online with
students.
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4. Methodology
The course has been evaluated through observations in class and final reports. The
research includes findings from 3 years and 45 students. The same program has
been held and the same research methodology applied on all of them.
4.1 Findings and Review
Course observation evaluation:
From the dialogues with students it was understood that the explicit knowledge
gained from the tutor, interpreted by the student and it is transferred to the
craftsmen, the tacit feedback reflected from the craftsmen to the student and it
was transferred to the tutor. The loop was cycled several times during the course.
(Figure 7)
Figure 7. Knowledge transfer in the class.
The transfer of tacit and explicit knowledge and their interpretations varied during
every phase of the course. Students received most of the explicit knowledge from
the tutor but for reaching other explicit knowledge referring to production was
achieved by coaching of craftsmen from catalogues or with direct dialogues with
other craftsmen whom are referred by wood workshop’s craftsmen. Tutor directed
students to internet resources in order to receive explicit knowledge especially for
the design sub-phase of dynamic repair. In some phases students needed physical
support in some of the sub-phases of production and analysis They needed
knowledge support in some sub-phases and guiding in others. Figure 8 shows the
phases and types of support by craftsmen or tutor.
Tutor Student Craftsmen
Explicit
Explicit
Tacit
Tacit
Redoing by Repair
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ducation
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Figure 8. Graph showing the participation of the tutor and craftsmen in classroom phases
Reports Evaluation:
Students, mentioned in their reports:
• They have learnt, materials, production techniques and names of
production tools,
• the dialogues between craftsmen and the designer.
• They have comprehended that new techniques and methods could be
developed during production which will affect the design also.
• They have learnt the production order while they were disassembling
the chair.
• They have understood that during production not only tools are used
but also hand crafting is necessary.
• They have learnt to plan the production phase and the importance of
getting involved to production to optimize the plan.
• They have understood that different user types have different needs
and these needs affect the design.
Most of the reports show that students have got involved in every phase of the
production. It is also understood from reports that students have had lots of
mistakes and these made them to return and change the design.
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5. Conclusion
The famous quote from Polanyi (1966) “We know more than we can tell.” explains
the most for tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is the untellable knowledge
embedded in the product. The best way to reveal it is to have a dialogue who has
the knowledge. Once the tacit has been made explicit to make it one’s own tacit
knowledge it is needed to be practiced. In interior design furniture class these
methods are evaluated through repair theme as the mediator of the dialogue.
Repair is an act of seeing the product as a whole and not as the parts specifically.
This situation suits to Polanyi’s thoughts on tacit knowledge that knowledge is a
whole and cannot be separated. In furniture class, the chair is treated as an object
to be repaired by a craftsman. Students approached the chair to reveal the tacit
knowledge and create a dialogue to whom have this knowledge.
The purpose of the class has not been to make each student a repairman or a
crafts person. It has been to make students understand that there is a greater tacit
dimension in production of furniture, even greater than the explicit knowledge
thought in the class. And this knowledge can change the design itself. There must
be a dialogue with the producer during the design of the furniture and it should
not be forgotten that design does not finish before the production of product
finishes.
Through the evaluations of the reports and outcomes of the class it could be
understood that students comprehended the purpose. The practical class has
been a great fun for them to see the production phase.
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About the Author:
Mehmet Ali ALTIN
is an Asst. Professor at Interior Design Department,
Anadolu University, Turkey. His main study topics are furniture design,
design education, computer aided design and manufacturing. He is
interested in knowledge transfer in design and crafts knowledge. He also
deals with computer aided form finding in interior design, performance
based design and manufacturing and CAAD applications.
Acknowledgements:
Images in this paper are from one of the 45 different
chairs designed and produced during 3 years. The selected chair is from
Beyza Tozan who is from class of 2015.
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