ArticlePDF Available

Rare Earth Elements: therapeutic and diagnostic applications in modern medicine

Authors:
Ellen C Giese at Center of Mineral Technology
Ellen C Giese
  • Center of Mineral Technology
Download full-text PDF
Read full-text
Download citation
Available via license: CC BY
Content may be subject to copyright.
Editorial
Clinical and Medical Reports
Clin Med Rep, 2018 doi: 10.15761/CMR.1000139 Volume 2(1): 1-2
ISSN: 2516-5283
Rare earth elements: erapeutic and diagnostic
applications in modern medicine
EC Giese*
Center for Mineral Technology, CETEM, Av Pedro Calmon 900, CEP 21941 908, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
*Correspondence to: EC Giese, Center for Mineral Technology, CETEM,
Av Pedro Calmon 900, CEP 21941 908, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, E-mail:
ellengiese@gmail.com
Received: December 03, 2018; Accepted: December 12, 2018; Published:
December 14, 2018
e rare earth elements (REE) are a group of metals comprised
of fourteen lanthanide elements [lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce),
praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), promethium (Pm), samarium
(Sm), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium
(Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb),
lutetium (Lu)] , yttrium (Y) and scandium (Sc) [1]. eir unique
physical and chemical properties have rendered them indispensable
for a growing number of high-tech technologies as high-performance
permanent magnets, magnetic resonance image scanning systems,
superconductors and laser technology [2,3].
Lanthanides are also used in many health and medical applications,
such as in anti-tumor agent, kidney dialysis medicine and surgical
equipment. Due to their optical properties, REE has been used in many
imaging techniques such as computed tomography scans, magnetic
resonance image (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET) imaging
and X-rays [4,5]. e medical applications of REE are summarized in
(Table 1).
Gadolinium is the most used REE in medical diagnosis in the
MRI. Gd (III) ions enhance MRI images and have also been used
in intravenous radio-contrast agents to improve the sensitivity and
specicity of diagnostic images. In this technique, it is possible to
visualize the morphology of the body with a very high resolution once
Gd (III) ions are the best paramagnetic compounds of the periodic
table. e contrast of the images is dependent on magnetic relaxation of
the nuclei, and this relaxation can be enhanced by Gd (III) ions, which
improves the contrast in magnetic resonance imaging scans with very
low toxicity [6,7].
Besides, a considerable variety of luminescent bioassays and sensors
also have been developed based on lanthanides that preserve a relatively
long-lived emission. Living tissue researchers rely on the Europium
for the sensitive luminescence in molecular genetics to mark specic
strands of DNA when attached as a tag to complex biochemicals [8].
Nowadays, rare earth elements have also been considered on the anti-
cancer treatment because of their therapeutic radioisotopes, especially
as agents in radioimmunotherapy and photodynamic therapy [9]
e use of REE into health and medical applications is now well
established. However, much of the future of diagnostic imaging analysis
could depend on these paramagnetic elements. Demand for REE is
expected to exceed its supply soon. It also considers the possibility of
reclaiming the used or worn out REE and reutilizing them; highlighting
some companies that have started to recycle the elements, those
derived from medical use as well, reducing the demand for newly
mined elements. e recycle of REE will be imperative to continue the
advancement of RMI and radioisotopes technologies. e future holds
many new innovative ideas.
References
1. Kumari A, Panda R, Jha MK, Kumar JR, Lee JY (2015) Process development to recover
rare earth metals from monazite mineral: A review. Minerals Engineering 79: 102-115.
2. Riba JR, López-Torres C, Romeral L, Garcia A (2016) Rare-earth-free propulsion
motors for electric vehicles: A technology review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 57: 367-379.
3. Cui J, Kramer M, Zhou L, Liu F, Sellmyer D (2018) Current progress and future
challenges in rare-earth-free permanent magnets. Acta Materialia 158: 118-137.
4. Townley HE (2013) Applications of the rare earth elements in cancer imaging and
therapy. Current Nanoscience.
5. Kostelnik TI, Orbig C (2019) Radioactive main group and rare earth metals for imaging
and therapy. Chemical Reviews 119: 902-956.
REE Medical applications
La Lanthanum oxide nanoparticles can be used for MRI [10]
Ce Cerium-doped lutetium orthosilicate is a scintillator that has been mainly used for
PET imaging, a type of test that reveals tissue and organ function [11]
Pr Praseodymium oxide nanoparticles have been used in radiotherapy techniques [12]
Nd Neodymium has been used in lasers as crystals and is employed in the treatment of
skin cancers, as well as laser hair removal [13]
Sm A radioisotope Sm-153 has been used to treat severe pain in patients whose tumors
have advanced into bone tissues [14]
Eu
Europium presents bioapplications due to its optical properties as nanoprobes with
an emphasis on their heterogeneous/homogeneous biodetection as well as in vitro
and in vivo bioimaging [15]
Gd Gadolinium enhances MRI images of tumors, and its magnetic properties are also
of use in intravenous radio-contrast agents in MRI scans [6]
Tb A radioisotope Tb-149 has been used in targeted cancer therapy [16]
Dy A radioisotope Dy-165 has been employed in the treatment of rheumatoid knee
eusions [17]
Ho Holmium based solid-state lasers have been used for non-invasive medical
procedures for treating cancers and kidney stones [18]
Er Erbium-based lasers have been used in medical and dental practice [19]
Tm A radioisotope Tm-167 has been used as power sources in portable X-ray devices
[20]
Yb A radioisotope Yb-176 can be used to produce Lu-177 which is known to be a
promising radioisotope for a medical application [21]
Lu Lutetium is being researched for its potential uses in targeted radiotherapy, for the
advancement of new cancer therapies as prostate cancer [22]
Table 1. Medicine applications of rare earth elements
Giese EC (2018) Rare earth elements: erapeutic and diagnostic applications in modern medicine
Volume 2(1): 2-2
Clin Med Rep, 2018 doi: 10.15761/CMR.1000139
6. Atar E (2004) Gadolinium-based magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents in
interventional radiology. Israel Medical Association Journal 6: 412-414.
7. Mitsumori LM, Bhargava P, Essig M, Maki JH (2014) Magnetic resonance imaging
using gadolinium-based contrast agents. Topics in Magnetic Resonance Imaging 23:
51-69.
8. Nishioka T, Yuan J, Yamamoto Y, Sumitomo K, Wang Z, et al. (2006) New luminescent
Europium (III) chelates for DNA labeling. Inorganic Chemistry 45: 4088-4096.
9. Kostova I (2005) Lanthanides as Anticancer Agents. Current Medicinal Chemistry -
Anti-Cancer Agents 5: 591-602.
10. Lanthanum Oxide (La2O3) Nanoparticles - Properties, Applications (2013).
11. Daghighian F, Shenderov P, Pentlow KS, Graham MC, Eshaghian B, et al. (1993)
Evaluation of cerium doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) scintillation crystal for
PET. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 40: 1045.
12. Bakht MK, Sadeghi M, Ahmadi SJ, Sadjadi SS, Tenreiro C (2013) Preparation of
radioactive praseodymium oxide as a multifunctional agent in nuclear medicine:
expanding the horizons of cancer therapy using nanosized neodymium oxide. Nuclear
Medicine Communications 34: 5-12.
13. Littler CM (1999) Hair removal using an Nd: YAG laser system. Hair Restoration and
Laser Hair Removal 17: 401-430.
14. Sartor O (2004) Overview of Samarium Sm 153 lexidronam in the treatment of painful
metastatic bone disease. Reviews in Urology 6: 3-12. [Crossref]
15. Tu D, Zheng W, Huang P, Chen X (2019) Europium-activated luminescent nanoprobes:
From fundamentals to bioapplications. Coordination Chemistry Reviews 378: 104-120.
16. Allen BJ, Blagojevic N (1996) Alpha- and beta-emitting radiolanthanides in targeted
cancer therapy: the potential role of terbium-149. Nuclear Medicine Communications
17: 40-47.
17. English RJ, Zalutsky M, Venkatesan P, Sledge CB (1986) Therapeutic application of
Dysprosium-165-FHMA in the treatment of rheumatoid knee eusions. Journal of
Nuclear Medicine Technology 14: 18-20.
18. Sandhu AS, Srivastava A, Madhusoodanan P, Sinha T, Gupta SK, et al. (2007)
Holmium: YAG laser for intracorporeal lithotripsy. Medical Journal Armed Forces
India 63: 48-51. [Crossref]
19. Diaci J, Gaspirc B (2012) Comparison of Er: YAG and Er, Cr: YSGG lasers used in
dentistry. Journal of the Laser and Health Academy 2012. [Crossref]
20. Scholz KL, Sodd VJ, Blue JW (1976) Production of Thulium- 167 for medical use by
irradiation of lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, and tungsten with 590-MeV protons. The
International Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes 27: 263-266. [Crossref]
21. Park H, Kwon D-H, Cha YH, Kim T-S, Han J, et al. (2008) Stable isotope production of
168Yb and 176Yb for industrial and medical applications. Journal of Nuclear Science
and Technology 6: 111-116. [Crossref]
22. Emmett L, Willowson K, Violet J, Shin J, Blanksby A, Lee J (2017) Lutetium 177
PSMA radionuclide therapy for men with prostate cancer: a review of the current
literature and discussion of practical aspects of therapy. Journal of Medical Radiation
Sciences 64: 52-60. [Crossref]
Copyright: ©2018 Jlalia Z. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
... REE play a crucial role in advancing various aspects of the materials industry (e.g. catalysis, magnets, metallurgy, information storage, military technologies, transport of energy) [3,4]. In addition, REE offer the remarkable ability to substantially modify material properties even in minute amounts. ...
... The extraction of REE is associated with technological advancements that emerged in the mid-20th century. During this period, only europium could be industrially extracted on a significant scale, primarily as EuSO 4 . This is attributed to the fact that europium ions undergo an easier reduction from trivalent to divalent states compared to other REE. ...
View
... Combining RE-HEOs with other functional materials could be also advantageous in the field of material science. Hybrid systems, integrating RE-HEOs with carbon-based materials such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, or porous carbons, could address challenges related to mass transport and active site dispersion [141]. Similarly, incorporating RE-HEOs within metal-organic frameworks or anchoring them to zeolite supports could enhance their selectivity and efficiency in catalytic reactions. ...
Overview of Recent Advances in Rare-Earth High-Entropy Oxides as Multifunctional Materials for Next-Gen Technology Applications
Article
Full-text available
Rare-earth high-entropy oxides are a new promising class of multifunctional materials characterized by their ability to stabilize complex, multi-cationic compositions into single-phase structures through configurational entropy. This feature enables fine-tuning structural properties such as oxygen vacancies, lattice distortions, and defect chemistry, making them promising for advanced technological applications. While initial research primarily focused on their catalytic performance in energy and environmental applications, recent research demonstrated their potential in optoelectronics, photoluminescent materials, and aerospace technologies. Progress in synthesis techniques has provided control over particle morphology, composition, and defect engineering, enhancing their electronic, thermal , and mechanical properties. Rare-earth high-entropy oxides exhibit tunable bandgaps, exceptional thermal stability, and superior resistance to phase degradation, which positions them as next-generation materials. Despite these advances, challenges remain in scaling up production, optimizing compositions for specific applications, and understanding the fundamental mechanisms governing their multifunctionality. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the recent developments in rare-earth high-entropy oxides as relatively new and still underrated material of the future.
View
... Rare earth elements (REEs) encompass the metals in the lanthanide series of the periodic table ranging from lanthanum (La) to lutetium (Lu); scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y), while not part of the lanthanide series, are also included as REEs due to their analogous chemical and physical properties [1]. The distinct magnetic, luminescent, catalytic, and electrochemical properties of REEs underpin their application in sectors ranging from healthcare, petroleum refining, defense and clean energy technologies, and electronic vehicles, signifying their critical role in facilitating technological advancements and a sustainable future [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9]. With a growing demand, the market value of REEs is anticipated to exceed 9.5 billion dollars annually by 2026. ...
View
... These reactions have been investigated extensively due to their crucial role in generating and analyzing superheavy elements in the past few decades [1][2][3][4]. They have contributed to the advancement of nuclear reactor technology [5], comprehension of astrophysical processes within stars [6], and numerous other applications [7][8][9][10]. In central-type collisions, complete nuclear fusion (CNF) of the participating nuclei has been observed, which leads to the formation of a single entity, i.e., the compound nucleus (CN). ...
View
... Rare earth elements are used in many contemporary technologies, including magnets, mobile phones, and semiconductors, because of their high supply chain risks and strategic importance to economies, they are regarded as critical raw materials, and (Ozturk et al. 2023) even see a high demand in agriculture and in the field of biotechnology. The United States generated about 160,500 tons of mineral concentrates between 2018 and 2021, according to data from the U.S. Geological Survey (Summaries, 2021 Their special chemical and physical characteristics enable them to use cutting-edge technologies like lasers, superconductors, MRI scanners, and magnets (Giese 2018, Balaram 2022. The demand of REEs is rising globally due to their usage in advanced technologies. ...
THE UTILIZATION OF WILLOW (SALIX SPP.) IN THE PHYTOEXTRACTION OF RARE EARTH ELEMENTS FROM CONTAMINATED WATERS THROUGH FLOATING WETLAND
Thesis
Full-text available
  • May 2024
To date, the accumulation of REEs in Salix plants and their impacts on growth have not been extensively examined. In this context, Salix schwerinii and Klara were grown hydroponically in the multi−solvent of two REE metals, lanthanum (La) and neodymium (Nd), with three different doses. The treatments were designated as T1 (tap water without REE), T2 (10µM La + 10µM Nd), T3 (20µM La + 20µM Nd), and T4 (40µM La + 40µM Nd). The study aimed to investigate the effects of REE on willow growth height, dry biomass, REE concentrations, and accumulation, in willow organs for 8 weeks. Results have revealed that the mean height for SW and KL varied from 152 to 192 cm. The total dry weight for SW was 25 g observed in low-dose treatments T1 and KL; the highest TDW was 32 g observed in the control treatment T0. The tolerance index for SW was found to be between 0.95-1.14 and 0.55-0.96 for cultivar KL. The concentrations of La and Nd for SW and KL were recorded to be maximum in leaves and stems with low dose treatment T1, treatment T2, while concentrations for both metals were high in roots with treatment T3. The accumulation of La and Nd was high in stems and leaves for both SW and KL, within low doses to medium T1 and T2. Willow retained the maximum REEs in roots, which exhibit bioconcentration factors La (6.04-13.81) and Nd (3.82-8.95), defining both as potential phytoextractors with the ability to grow at sites polluted by La and Nd concentrations. The findings highlight the need to conduct further research on the phytoremediation capabilities of willow species and their potential application in mitigating REE pollution in contaminated environments.
View
... Because of unique properties that no other metals can match, such as high electrical conductivity, slight variation in solubility, and their ability to occur together in minerals [21], they are essential to the production of nearly everything from electric cars and wind turbines to smartphones, LED light bulbs, and televisions [19]. There are several uses for rare earth metals such as, in medical applications, Gadolinium (III) ions are utilized in intravenous radio-contrast medications to increase the sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic pictures in medical diagnosis using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) [22], they are used in industrial applications to create permanent magnets, fluorescent lamps, phosphors in color television tubes, and electronic and computer equipment [23], [24], and other applications of rare earth metals were narrated by Duchna [23]. ...
View
... These lanthanides are traditionally divided into light REEs (La to Gd) and heavy REEs (Tb to Lu, including Y) [2]. REEs are increasingly essential due to their unique properties [2,3], making them crucial in various applications, such as catalysis, magnets, metallurgy, information storage, military technologies, and energy transport [4,5]. As their importance grows, REEs are receiving heightened attention. ...
View
... In oncology, neodymium serves as a laser crystal to treat skin cancer. Technical radiotherapy is also increasingly using praseodymium oxide nanoparticles (Giese, 2018). In agriculture and animal husbandry, China is currently the country best known for using REEs for soil fertilization, animal growth and egg production (Rim, 2016). ...
View
A comprehensive review of spinel ferrites and their magnetic composites as highly efficient adsorbents of rare earth elements
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
Rare earth elements (REEs), comprising 17 % of known elements, are pivotal in diverse industries. Despite their name, they are not geologically rare but dispersed, posing challenges for economically viable mining. This review explores the environmental and health implications of REEs, emphasizing their emerging status as contaminants in aquatic environments, raising health concerns through the food chain. The necessity to recover REEs from wastewater demands efficient methods, particularly focusing on adsorption. Spinel ferrites (SFs), characterized by superparamagnetism and thermal stability, are gaining prominence in this context. Utilizing metal cations like Fe, Co, Ni, Mn, Zn, and Cu, SF-based magnetic nanocomposites exhibit remarkable efficiency in adsorbing REEs. This article delves into adsorption mechanisms, including electrostatic interactions and ion exchange, highlighting the advantages of stability, biocompatibility, and cost-effectiveness associated with SFs. SF-based nanocomposites, offering scalability and effectiveness at low concentrations, emerge as a promising solution for addressing environmental concerns related to REEs while meeting the escalating demand for these essential elements.
View
Design of the gel for stopping massive bleeding
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • Apr 2024
This project provides valuable insights into the design and preparation of a chitosan- based gel for stopping massive haemorrhage. The combination of chitosan, gallic acid, gelatine, and NaCl shows promise in achieving effective hemostasis.
View
Current progress and future challenges in rare-earth-free permanent magnets
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2018
  • ACTA MATER
Permanent magnets (PM) are critical components for electric motors and power generators. Key properties of permanent magnets, especially coercivity and remanent magnetization, are strongly dependent on microstructure. Understanding metallurgical processing, phase stability and microstructural changes are essential for designing and improving permanent magnets. The widely used PM for the traction motor in electric vehicles and for the power generator in wind turbines contain rare earth elements Nd and Dy due to their high maximum energy product. Dy is used to sustain NdFeB's coercivity at higher temperature. Due to the high supply risk of rare earth elements (REE) such as Dy and Nd, these elements are listed as critical materials by the U.S. Department of Energy and other international institutes. Other than Dy, finer grain size is also found to have effect on sustaining coercivity at higher temperature. A proper control of phase stability and microstructures has direct impact on mitigating REE supply risk. Compared to rare earth PMs, non-rare earth (non-RE) PMs typically have lower maximum energy products, however, given their small supply risks and low cost, they are being intensively investigated for less-demanding applications. The general goal for the development of non-RE PMs is to fill in the gap between the most cost-effective but low performing hard ferrite magnet and the most expensive but high performing RE PMs. In the past five years great progress has been made toward improving the microstructure and physical properties of non-RE PMs. Several new candidate materials systems were investigated, and some have showed realistic potential for replacing RE PMs for some applications. In this article, we review the science and technology of various types of non-RE materials for PM applications. These materials systems include Mn based, high magnetocrystalline anisotropy alloys (MnBi and MnAl compounds), spinodally decomposing alloys (Alnico), high-coercivity tetrataenite L10 phase (FeNi and FeCo), and nitride/carbide systems (such as α” based, high saturation magnetization Fe16N2 type phase and Co2C/Co3C acicular particle phase). The current status, challenges, potentials as well as the future directions for these candidates non-RE magnet materials are discussed.
View
Lutetium 177 PSMA radionuclide therapy for men with prostate cancer: a review of the current literature and discussion of practical aspects of therapy
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2017
Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is a receptor on the surface of prostate cancer cells that is revolutionising the way we image and treat men with prostate cancer. New small molecule peptides with high-binding affinity for the PSMA receptor have allowed high quality, highly specific PET imaging, in addition to the development of targeted radionuclide therapy for men with prostate cancer. This targeted therapy for prostate cancer has, to date, predominately used Lutetium 177 (Lu) labelled PSMA peptides. Early clinical studies evaluating the safety and efficacy of Lu PSMA therapy have demonstrated promising results with a significant proportion of men with metastatic prostate cancer, who have already failed other therapies, responding clinically to Lu PSMA. This review discusses the practical issues of administering Lu PSMA, and gives an overview of the findings from currently published trials in regards to treatment response rates, expected toxicities and safety.
View
Process development to recover rare earth metals from monazite mineral: A review
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2015
  • MINER ENG
The escalating demand of rare earth metals (REMs) in various applications and their continuous depleting ores have laid emphasis to produce metals from their complex resources by developing energy efficient and eco-friendly processes. Present review reports the commercial processes based on pyro–hydro or hybrid techniques as well as systematic research for process development to recover rare earth from monazite. The salient findings on mining and physical beneficiation of different beach sand deposits containing monazite are reviewed. Monazite concentrate obtained are processed under different condition of time, temperature and concentration using acidic or alkaline solution. They are usually processed using thermal treatment followed by REMs recovery under optimized conditions of leaching and their extraction via solvent extraction, precipitation, etc. to produce salts/concentrate of REMs from the leached solution. The processes developed to recover REMs are reviewed and recommendations are made in respect to various methodologies and objectives.
View
Stable Isotope Production of 168 Yb and 176 Yb for Industrial and Medical Applications
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2014
We have developed a laser isotope separation technology for the production of the 168Yb and 176Yb isotopes. 168Yb is very useful for the generation of a non destructive testing source, 169Yb. 176Yb can be used to produce 177Lu which is known to be a promising radioisotope for a medical application. For these applications, the abundances of 168Yb and 176Yb isotopes should be enriched to more than 15% and 97%, respectively. Our developed system consists of three dye lasers pumped by a diode-pumped solid-state laser, a Yb evaporator, and a photo-ion extractor. Up to now, we could enrich 168Yb to more than 31% with a productivity of 0.5 mg/h. Also, we succeeded in enriching 176Yb to more than 97% with a productivity of 27 mg/h.
View
Therapeutic application of dysprosium-165-FHMA in the treatment of rheumatoid knee effusions
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 1986
Radiation synovectomy utilizing a variety of radionuclides has proven to be an effective technique in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. The recent introduction of the short-lived radionuclide, Dysprosium-165 (/sup 165/Dy), as a replacement for the longer-lived radiocolloids has reduced nontarget dosimetry caused by leakage of the agent from the articular cavity. A review of the methods and status of radiation synovectomy, and the application of /sup 165/Dy-ferric hydroxide macroaggregates (FHMA) as an alternative therapeutic agent is described.
View
Europium-activated luminescent nanoprobes: From fundamentals to bioapplications
Article
  • Nov 2017
  • COORDIN CHEM REV
Trivalent europium ions (Eu³⁺) activated inorganic materials, known as one of the most important red-emitting phosphors, are emerging as an attractive class of luminescent materials over the past decades. Specifically, Eu³⁺ ion is considered as an ideal spectroscopic probe to decipher the local environment in view of its non-degenerate ground state of ⁷F0 and excitation state of ⁵D0. Benefiting from the intense long-lived luminescence from ⁵D0, Eu³⁺-activated inorganic nanoparticles are also frequently reported as luminescent probes in biological assays and medical imaging. With the development of advanced synthesis strategies and characterization techniques, more new understanding or progress in Eu³⁺-activated luminescent nanoprobes have been gained with regard to their fundamental photophysics/photochemistry properties and versatile bioapplications. As such, it is urgent to renew the knowledge in this field. Rather than being exhaustive, this review aims to highlight the latest progress in the electronic structures, optical properties and emerging bioapplications of Eu³⁺-activated nanoprobes, which covers from spectroscopic site symmetry, excited-state dynamics, downshifting/upconversion luminescence enhancement strategies, and luminescent biosensing, with an emphasis on their heterogeneous/homogeneous biodetection as well as in vitro and in vivo bioimaging. Some future prospects and efforts toward this rapidly developing field are also discussed.
View
View
View
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Using Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents
Article
  • Jan 2014
The purpose of this article was to review the basic properties of available gadolinium-based magnetic resonance contrast agents, discuss their fundamental differences, and explore common and evolving applications of gadolinium-based magnetic resonance contrast throughout the body excluding the central nervous system. A more specific aim of this article was to explore novel uses of these gadolinium-based contrast agents and applications where a particular agent has been demonstrated to behave differently or be better suited for certain applications than the other contrast agents in this class.
View
Applications of the Rare Earth Elements in Cancer Imaging and Therapy
Article
  • Aug 2013
Abstract: There remains a great need for improved imaging technology in oncology both for screening, localization, and to follow the progress of treatments. With the exception of gadolinium, which has a history of use in MRI, other rare earth elements have been largely under-used for in vivo imaging. The unique properties of this class of elements are described and the possibilities for their application in cancer imaging illustrated. Furthermore, recent discoveries show how rare earth elements can provide novel therapeutics in the fight against cancer.
View