Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate Matter and Ozone in Santiago, Chile

Abstract

Most Latin American cities have air quality problems owing to high levels of particulate matter and ozone. By 2050, it is expected that more than 80% of Latin Americans will live in urban areas, leading to an increment in pollution problems. Santiago, Chile shows a high level of pollution from PM10 and PM2.5, especially during the autumn–winter period and from ozone (O3) during the spring–summer period owing to natural and anthropogenic causes. Information for this chapter was obtained from the official monitoring system of pollutants, but also from scientific papers and experimental work developed in our laboratory. The chapter contains a general description of the particulate matter, some analytical methods of studying it, and their officially reported sources; also, some new findings are included. For tropospheric ozone, a similar procedure was followed. The result is essentially focused on considering the ability of urban trees in capturing PM, while at the same time emitting minimal amounts of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) that can potentially generate ozone. Available information shows that native species and a few exotic species were the most frequently appropriated to accomplish both requirements. As the vegetation of Santiago is mainly composed of exotic tree species that lose their leaves during the winter and produce high quantities of BVOCs during spring–summer, it does not contribute to the improvement of air quality; on the contrary. This situation should be remedied as soon as possible through the correct choice of trees and urban planning measures. The chapter also includes some similar variables reported in the literature from other countries of Latin America.

Full text

Chapter 8
Urban Trees and Their Relationship
with Air Pollution by Particulate Matter
and Ozone in Santiago, Chile
Margarita Préndez, Mauricio Araya, Carla Criollo, Claudia Egas,
Iván Farías, Raúl Fuentealba, and Edgardo González
Abstract Most Latin American cities have air quality problems owing to high
levels of particulate matter and ozone. By 2050, it is expected that more than 80%
of Latin Americans will live in urban areas, leading to an increment in pollution
problems. Santiago, Chile shows a high level of pollution from PM
10
and PM
2.5
,
especially during the autumn–winter period and from ozone (O
3
) during the spring–
summer period owing to natural and anthropogenic causes. Information for this
chapter was obtained from the official monitoring system of pollutants, but also from
scientific papers and experimental work developed in our laboratory. The chapter
contains a general description of the particulate matter, some analytical methods of
studying it, and their officially reported sources; also, some new findings are
included. For tropospheric ozone, a similar procedure was followed. The result is
essentially focused on considering the ability of urban trees in capturing PM, while
at the same time emitting minimal amounts of biogenic volatile organic compounds
(BVOCs) that can potentially generate ozone. Available information shows that
native species and a few exotic species were the most frequently appropriated to
accomplish both requirements. As the vegetation of Santiago is mainly composed of
exotic tree species that lose their leaves during the winter and produce high quan-
tities of BVOCs during spring–summer, it does not contribute to the improvement of
air quality; on the contrary. This situation should be remedied as soon as possible
through the correct choice of trees and urban planning measures. The chapter also
includes some similar variables reported in the literature from other countries of
Latin America.
M. Préndez (*) · C. Criollo · C. Egas · I. Farías · R. Fuentealba · E. González
Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas Laboratorio de Química de la Atmósfera y
Radioquímica, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
e-mail: mprendez@ciq.uchile.cl
M. Araya
Departamento de Salud Ambiental, Instituto de Salud Pública de Chile, Santiago, Chile
©Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
C. Henríquez, H. Romero (eds.), Urban Climates in Latin America,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97013-4_8
167

Keywords Air quality · PM
10
and PM
2.5
· Ozone · Chemical analysis · Urban
vegetation
8.1 Introduction
Most Chilean cities have air quality problems due to high levels of particulate matter
(PM) and ozone. In particular, Santiago (the capital city of Chile), shows a high level
of pollution from PM
10
and PM
2.5
, especially during the autumn–winter period and
from ozone (O
3
) during the spring–summer period. These pollutants produce several
health effects such as asthma attacks and heart attacks. Even several studies
performed by different disciplines from universities and government agencies show-
ing the effects, consequences, and establishing tactics and strategies for addressing
air pollution, the problem re-appears every year. The economic impact associating
PM
2.5
with medical expenses and lost work productivity is US$ 670 million
annually, and can rise to US$ 1,900 million when considering the loss in social
welfare and risk of death, due to air quality (World Bank 1994). These values (the
last available) underestimate the real impact and do not consider all environmental
pollutants. According to data from the national monitoring stations, 44% of cities or
regions exceeded the annual limit of PM
10
and 15% exceeded the daily PM
10
level,
whereas 67% did so with the annual PM
2.5
threshold and 77% with the daily limit of
PM
2.5
(CEPAL/OCDE 2016).
On the other hand, the problems of greatest concern worldwide due to ozone
pollution are increased hospital admissions, exacerbation of asthma, and lung
inflammation. The World Bank (1994) made an estimated savings in public health
to Santiago of US$ 1,315 per ton of O
3
reduction; the average value varies
depending on the conditions of pollution and vegetation cover of the communes of
the city of Santiago.
The reduction of air pollution by urban trees has been recognized as a cost-
effective component of pollution reduction strategies in several cities, such as
Chicago (Yang et al. 2008), New York (Morani et al. 2011), Beijing (Yang et al.
2005), Santiago (Escobedo et al. 2006), London (Tiwary et al. 2009), and Toronto
(Millward and Sabir 2011). The urban forest provides many direct and indirect
ecosystem services. Direct contribution occurs when PM deposits on the leaves of
trees or intercepts PM by leaves, branches, and twigs, or absorbs ozone and other
gases through the stomata or dissolution of contaminants in the moist surfaces of the
leaves; the capture or interception of PM depends on many characteristics of each
species, e.g., leaf structure, pubescence, the presence of wax on the leaf surface, the
size of the petioles, and the structure of the canopy that need to be assessed in the
local conditions. Among the air pollutants removed by vegetation, PM, carbon
dioxide (CO
2
), and tropospheric ozone (O
3
) are dominant (Altimir et al. 2004).
However, vegetation also emits biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs),
principally isoprene and monoterpenes (scents), and thus potentially contributes to
168 M. Préndez et al.

ozone production in the atmosphere, especially in an urban environment. Every tree
emits a particular mix of chemical compounds, which reacts in a different way
depending on site-specific conditions in the atmosphere generating secondary
pollutants, ozone between them. The speed of BVOC emission (emission factors
[EFs]) is characteristic of each tree and needs to be studied in relation to the real
places where they are going to live (climatic, geographic, hydric, and other
conditions) (Préndez et al. 2013a).
Also, some trees produce bio-aerosols such as allergenic pollen and alternaria
mold spores. Trees are also affected by pollution in both structure and performance.
There is information at an international level, but in Chile information is scarce.
In this context, the atmospheric pollution of Santiago has two principal implica-
tions: economical loss and human health problems. In this chapter, we show some of
the efforts of our laboratory (Química de la Atmósfera y Radioquímica) interested in
looking for solutions to improve the air quality of the city. The studies consider the
use of the ability of special urban trees to capture PM, which, at the same time, does
not emit too many BVOCs, potentially generating ozone. Our first results show that
native species and a few exotic species are those most frequently appropriated to
accomplish the two requirements. However, the urban forest of Santiago is princi-
pally formed by exotic species, which lose the leaves during the winter period and
produce high quantities of BVOCs during the spring–summer period; this means that
most do not contribute to the improvement of air quality. Therefore, our proposition
is the gradual replacement of the actual urban forest by selected species according to
the scientific bases exposed in this chapter.
This chapter is structured in five sections:
(1) Atmospheric pollution of Santiago
(2) Atmospheric pollution by PM
(3) Atmospheric pollution by tropospheric ozone
(4) Effects of the atmospheric pollution
(5) Discussion, and a conclusion. Additionally, Sects. 8.1,8.2,8.3 and 8.4 explore
similar variables analyzed for Santiago with the information obtained from other
countries of Latin America.
8.2 Atmospheric Pollution of Santiago
At present, 54% of the world’s population lives in urban centers. In Chile, it is 89.5%
of the population of the country, which in 2025 will rise by over 90% (UN 2016).
The effects of urban air pollution on health will worsen, and air pollution could
become the leading environmental cause of premature mortality in 2050, despite
national and international interventions and reductions in major pollutant emissions
(Sigman et al. 2012). Air pollution in urban centers is related to various health
problems, from minor eye irritations to short-term respiratory symptoms, and
chronic respiratory disorders such as asthma, cardiovascular disease, and lung cancer
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 169

in the long term. Children and the elderly are particularly vulnerable (Cakmak et al.
2007). Pollution also affects the natural and the built environment.
Santiago is a complex city of studying and modeling of natural and anthropogenic
causes. It hosts 40% of the country’s population, generates 48% of the PGB and
presents the problems of PM and ozone distributed in a spatially and temporally
nonhomogeneous manner. Figure 8.1 shows the location of the official monitoring
stations of contaminants belonging to the Sistema de Información Nacional de la
Calidad de Aire (SINCA). The yellow circles show the representative area assigned
to each station. There is no homogeneous distribution of the stations and it is
possible to group three rough sectors, west, downtown, and east.
8.2.1 The Contaminants
Figure 8.2 shows a temporal representation, corresponding to the monthly average of
24 h for the last 7 years (2009–2015) of the concentrations of PM
10
,PM
2.5
, and
ozone, reported by SINCA (2016). Values correspond to the mean concentrations
reported for 10/11 urban monitoring stations. Only Talagante station is not included.
The maximum concentrations for PM occur during the autumn–winter period
(March to September) and for ozone during the spring–summer period (September
to March). The PM
2.5
varies approximately from the 30% of the PM
10
during the
spring–summer period to 50% during the autumn–winter period. The period March
Fig. 8.1 Location of the official monitoring stations of the contaminants: West: MSQ ¼Quilicura,
MSCN ¼Cerro Navia MSP ¼Pudahuel, and MSC ¼Cerrillos; Downtown: MSI ¼Independencia,
MSPO ¼Parque O’Higgins and MSEB ¼El Bosque; East: MSLC ¼Las Condes, MSLF ¼La
Florida and MSPA ¼Puente Alto. The yellow circles show the representative area assigned to each
station (2 km)
170 M. Préndez et al.

to September is always above the annual national standard (20 μg/m
3
) with a larger
standard deviation. Note that during this period the critical episodes occur (Préndez
et al. 2011) and that only during October and November the PM
2.5
is below the
national standard. The spatial differences throughout the city are shown in Fig. 8.3.
Figure 8.3 shows the monthly average from 24 h values for the last 7 years
(2009–2015) of the concentrations of PM
10
,PM
2.5
, and ozone grouped in three
regions of the city: East Santiago, including the monitoring stations MSLC, MSLF,
and MSPA; Downtown Santiago, including the monitoring stations MSI, MSPO,
and MSEB; West Santiago including the monitoring stations MSQ, MSCN, MSP,
and MSC. Statistical calculations for the period 2009–2015 show that the concen-
trations of PM
2.5
corresponding to West Santiago are similar to those of Downtown
Santiago, but both regions have higher concentrations than East Santiago (around
7% and 8% respectively); the concentrations of PM
10
corresponding to West
Santiago are around 1% higher than those of Downtown Santiago, but around
12.5% higher than those of East Santiago. In turn, concentrations of ozone
corresponding to East Santiago are around 12.5% higher than those of Downtown
Santiago and around 8% greater than those of West Santiago.
It is important to note that autumn–winter of 2014 and 2015 showed especially
high concentrations of PM
10
and PM
2.5
in West Santiago. Spring–summer of the
same years show especially high concentrations of ozone, but in East Santiago.
8.2.2 The Sources
Contaminants reach the atmosphere from well-defined and diffuse or indefinite
sources. To evaluate their contributions, the so-called emission inventories are
used to assign responsibilities to the different sources. According to the last official
Fig. 8.2 Temporal representation of the monthly average from 24 h values for the last 7 years
(2009–2015) of the concentrations of PM
10
,PM
2.5
, and ozone. (Source: Data from (SINCA 2016))
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 171

inventory, Fig. 8.4 shows that the principal source of PM
10
is transport (44%), the
second largest source being the consumption of firewood in homes (33%). Much less
significant are the industrial contributions (11%). However, considering only the
sources of PM
2.5
, the most significant sources are domestic emissions (95%),
Fig. 8.3 Monthly average from 24 h values for the last 7 years (2009–2015) of the concentrations
of PM
10
,PM
2.5
, and ozone grouped in three regions of the city: East Santiago, Downtown Santiago,
and West Santiago. (Source: SINCA 2016)
172 M. Préndez et al.

followed by building, agriculture, industries, and transport, PM
2.5
always forming
more than 80% of the total PM
10
.
The fine fraction of the PM
10
, the PM
2.5
, is the most dangerous for human health
and Préndez et al. (2007) reported that around 80–90% of particles coming from
light and medium diesel vehicles in Santiago are smaller than 0.5 μm in diameter. In
2014, of a total of 1,828,033 vehicles circulating in Santiago, 333,355 were fueled
by diesel; in 2015, there were circulating 358,296 diesel vehicles; these numbers
correspond to around 18–19% of vehicular parking (INE 2016). It is also important
to note that sales of light/medium vehicles (around 75% of the market) fell sharply
during 2014 only to start rising later and reaching record levels by the end of 2016 of
187,110 vehicles (ANAC 2016). Norms to circulate in Chile is given in mass, g/km
or mg/km. For instance, in Chile, there are vehicles circulating that are norm Euro
5 approved, which establishes 60 mg/km for gasoline vehicles and 180 mg/km for
diesel vehicles.
8.3 Atmospheric Pollution by Particulate Matter
Data from OECD (2016) published for Chile stated that the PM
2.5
level of atmo-
spheric particles is 18.5 μg/m
3
, which is higher than the average of 14.05 μg/m
3
in
the OECD countries. MMA (2016) reports 731 critical episodes (alerts,
pre-emergencies, and emergencies) in central and southern Chile in the last
2 years, 2015 and 2016, of which only 92 correspond to emergencies, distributed
in the following cities: Rancagua ¼45, Curico ¼62, Linares ¼94, Temuco ¼86,
Fig. 8.4 Contribution of the various sources of particulate matter (PM
10
and PM
2.5
) to the air
quality of the Metropolitan Region. (Source: USACH 2014))
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 173

Valdivia ¼120, Osorno ¼92 and Coyhaique ¼232. Declaration of an emergency
occurs for concentrations of PM
2.5
greater than 170 μg/m
3
. To date, in the Metro-
politan Region 48, 51, and 42 critical episodes of PM
2.5
have been decreed during
2014, 2015, and 2016 respectively (MMA 2016). This worrying situation could be
partially because in 2014, the declaration of a saturated zone according to PM
2.5
and
not to PM
10
began to operate, as it had been until then. Another cause could be the
unprecedented urban growth. A rapid and unorganized urbanization of the country
could lead to an increase in the release of PM into the atmosphere (PM
2.5
,PM
10
, and
PM
1
), owing to a marked increase in motorized traffic, the burning of fossil fuels and
firewood, and energy consumption (see Fig. 8.4). The cost has already been
observed in the greater effects on the health of the urban population of the country
exposing 10 million Chileans (60% of the population) to PM
2.5
concentrations above
the Chilean standards, and certainly also from other countries (USA and Europe) and
the World Health Organization (WHO 2005). Between 2009 and 2015, the annual
average of PM
2.5
surpassed the Chilean annual norm by 138.1% and the recommen-
dations of the WHO by 276.1%. In the same period, the annual average PM
10
exceeded the Chilean annual norm by 143.5% and the WHO recommendations by
358.7%. The standards and recommendations for different institutions and countries
are shown in Table 8.1.
The PM, technically called atmospheric aerosol, is a complex contaminant with
very different physical and chemical characteristics, the main ones being mass, size
(μm), morphology, concentration (μg/m
3
), and chemical composition. The size
Table 8.1 Standard values accepted in different countries and recommended by the WHO for a
24-h average and annual average for PM
2.5
and PM
10
Country or city
Average concentrations (μg/m
3
)
PM
10
PM
2.5
24 h Annual 24 h Annual Reference
Argentina, Buenos
Aires
150 50 65 15 D N198 (2006)
Bolivia/La Paz 150/
50
50/20 –/25 –/10 MMAYA (2015)
Brazil, Sao Paulo 120 40 60 20 D N59113 (2013)
Chile 150 50 50 20 DS N59 (1998) and DS N12
(2011)
Colombia 100 50 50 25 IDEAM (2016)
Costa Rica 150 50 –– UNA (2016)
Ecuador 150 50 65 15 NCAA (2011)
Mexico 75 40 45 12 NOM-025-SSA1 (2014)
Peru 150 50 25 –DS 74-2001-PCM (2001)
Dominican Republic 150 50 65 15 NA-AI-001 (2003)
WHO 50 20 25 10 WHO (2005)
USEPA 150 –35 15 USEPA (2009)
EU 50 40 –25 EU (2008)
174 M. Préndez et al.

frequently used is the so-called aerodynamic diameter (AD) defined as the diameter
of a sphere of density 1 gcm
3
, which has the same settling velocity. Thus, PM
10
describes particles equal to or smaller than 10 μm of AD; PM
2.5
describes particles
smaller than or equal to 2.5 of AD (usually named fine particles) and PM
10–2.5
to
particles with a size between 2.5 and 10 μm AD (usually named coarse particles).
The meteorological and geographical conditions of each locality and the particle
size determine the permanence and transport of PM; the PM
10
can remain in the
atmosphere from minutes to hours and travel 1–10 km from the source, whereas
PM
2.5
can remain in the atmosphere from days to weeks and travel 100–1,000 km
(Srimuruganandam and Nagendra 2012; Cheung et al. 2011). In Santiago, meteoro-
logical and geographical conditions are very important, many times determining the
concentrations of PM (Ortiz et al. 1993; Préndez et al. 1995,2011; Gramsch et al.
2014). The Chap. 9of this book consider different aspects of the climatology of
Santiago.
The shape of the particles is usually linked to their source (regular and irregular);
for example, spherical particles are related to combustion processes. The chemical
composition of the PM is also very diverse, including nitrates, sulfates, organic or
elemental carbon, organic compounds (e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons),
biological components (e.g., pollen, cell fragments, among others), metals (Fe, Cu,
Ni, Zn, V, among others) (Préndez et al. 1984,1991; Préndez 1993; Sienra et al.
2005; Richter et al. 2007; Villalobos et al. 2015).
Historically, the PM collection has been made using filters or other substrates,
which are subsequently analyzed in the laboratory. In this method, the selection of
the filter type is crucial at the time of the physical and/or chemical analysis of the PM
collected (Hitzenberger et al. 2004; Raynor et al. 2011). In the last few decades,
so-called “continuous or semi-continuous”methods have emerged, combining
collection (with or without filters) and reporting the results in almost real time
(Solomon and Sioutas 2008). Within the latter, we can mention the Tapered Element
Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM) and the Beta Attenuation Monitors, with different
properties, but widely used in air quality monitoring stations in Chile, which allow
the mass concentration to be determined in almost real time (SINCA 2016).
The chemical composition of PM varies greatly depending on the geography,
meteorological factors, and emission sources (Zereini and Wiseman 2010). In the
cities of Chile, the relationship between the formation of aerosol episodes and
meteorological–geographical conditions, in addition to its relationship with the
sources pattern, are not completely understood. Several analytical techniques
(destructive and nondestructive), consolidated for the analysis of various chemical
species, have been used in atmospheric aerosols to discover, for example, the sources
of the PM, the long-range transport identification, and the health assessment studies.
Among the destructive ones, the most frequently used are atomic absorption spec-
troscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS); among the
non-destructives X-ray fluorescence (XRF), instrumental neutron activation
(INAA), and proton-induced X-ray emission are frequently used (Maenhaut et al.
2011; Calzolai et al. 2015; Almeida et al. 2013). Recently, the portable XRF (pXRF)
has been proven to be a reliable elemental technique for environmental research,
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 175

especially for quantifying some elements: Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Sr, Cd, and Pb
(Rouillon and Taylor 2016). All these analytical techniques have been used in Chile.
For decades, several studies have focused on determining or re-determining the
physical and chemical properties of PM (Préndez et al. 1984; Ortiz et al. 1993;
Artaxo et al. 1999; Sienra et al. 2005; Toro et al. 2014; Villalobos et al. 2015;
Fuentealba 2017).
The first studies of PM in Santiago began in the 1970s. In 1998, the first plan for
the prevention and decontamination of the Metropolitan Region was established
(MMA 2014). Many strategies have been adopted throughout the years; however, at
present, Santiago continues to be one of the world capitals with the higher levels of
air pollution by PM (WMO/IGAC 2012; WHO 2014). Many researchers agree that
the air pollution persisting in the region is in large part due to meteorological–
geographical characteristics, but also to the anthropogenic activities developed in it
(Rubio et al. 2006; Préndez et al. 2011; Seguel et al. 2012). The PM events occur in
the winter months owing to meteorological factors that generate a low PM dispersion
of the contaminants (Préndez et al. 2011), whereas in the spring–summer months
better meteorological conditions generate the false perception that the air quality has
improved (Fuentealba 2015).
Study by Seguel et al. (2009) has quantified primary and secondary organic
aerosols (SOAs), determining that around 20% of the total organic aerosols
correspond to the secondary airborne PM
2.5
during winter time. Other studies of a
chemical fractionation analysis in PM
10
samples show that the elements with high
toxicity, such as Pb, Cd, and As, are highly concentrated in the bioavailable fraction
(Richter et al. 2007).
To contribute to the decontamination of the city, research in our laboratory is
using different physical and chemical analytical techniques (old and new) to analyze
the PM deposit on the leaves of trees and on streets (urban dust, UD), to better assign
the sources of that PM. The introduction of magnetic techniques (magnetic suscep-
tibility and Saturation Isothermic Remanent Magnetization [SIRM]) has permitted
us to identify magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
), which is a chemical compound closely related to
mobile sources and vehicular flows. The work by Muñoz et al. (2017) is pioneering
in Chile. These are promising techniques for experimentally evaluating the anthro-
pogenic fraction of UD coming precisely from vehicular flow, and allows us to
compile a comparative record of which arboreal species are the most efficient at
capturing PM. Also, the spatial resolution describes differences in the estimated
concentration of PM deposited on leaves at distances of a few meters. In a recent
work, Fuentealba (2017) re-treated the urban dust of the communes of Vitacura and
Recoleta reported by Muñoz et al. (2017), using pXRF, which is a faster and more
easily accessible technique than the INAA (Maenhaut et al. 2011; USEPA 1998,
2008; Weindorf et al. 2014). Figure 8.5a and b show correlations greater than 99%
and greater than 95% for 14 samples containing Fe and Cr respectively; around
35 elements can be quantified in theory, but the application limits of the technique
are the amount of UD collected, which must be greater than 5 g (Rouillon and Taylor
2016; Gazley and Fisher 2014). In this study, that quantity was not possible to collect
in every sampling place.
176 M. Préndez et al.

Similar magnetic techniques have also been applied in other Latin American
countries to study PM deposited on streets or leaves of plants used as biomonitors, as
shown in Table 8.2.
8.4 Atmospheric Pollution by Tropospheric Ozone
Tropospheric ozone formation results in the urban atmosphere from reactions
between nitrogen oxides (NOx ¼NO + NO
2
) and volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs) emitted from different natural (BVOCs) and anthropogenic
sources (AVOCs). BVOCs belong to a large group of compounds including
alkanes, alkenes, carbonyls, alcohols, esters, ethers, and acids (Kesselmeier and
Staudt 1999). Tropospheric ozone interacts with both solar short-wave (SW) and
terrestrial long-wave (LW) radiation and consequently changes in its distribution
can generate radiative forcing and lead to changes in climate. At an urban level,
the increase in temperature could reinforce local heat islands due to the urban
structure; the relationships of this parameter with temperature, wind, and air
quality have been assessed using numerical models and field measurements
(Stewart and Oke 2012). On a global level, changes in tropospheric ozone
between 1750 and 2010 had generated mean radiative forcing of +0.40 W m
2
(90% confidence interval: 0.20–0.60 W m
2
)(Myhreetal.2013).
Figure 8.6 shows the sources of VOCs and the percentage of the different
contributions in the Metropolitan Region. The major source corresponds to residen-
tial emissions. BVOCs represent 15%. However, in this inventory, as in preceding
official inventories of the Chilean government, the calculations were made using
emission factors obtained in other environments. In this case, the emission factors
come from Guenther et al. (2012) and the model used was the Model of Emissions of
Gases and Aerosols from Nature (MEGAN). MEGAN is a model system calculating
the temporal and spatial rates of emission of chemical compounds from terrestrial
Fig. 8.5 Correlations between elemental concentrations measured by pXRF and by INAA mea-
surements in urban dust collected in the northeastern sector of Santiago, Chile: (a) Fe (expressed in
wt %) and (b) Cr (expressed in mg/kg). (Source: Fuentealba 2017)
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 177

ecosystems to the atmosphere under varying environmental conditions. Thus, it is
possible that the results are biased because of the use of emission factors that are
different from those corresponding to local vegetation behavior.
Table 8.3 shows that the 8-h average standard values for ozone accepted in
different countries of Latin America are frequently above the recommendation of
the WHO, implying different degrees of damage to the population. The only
exception is Colombia, with a restricted standard.
Table 8.2 Environmental studies relating to vegetation, urban dust, and air pollution using
magnetic techniques in some Latin American cities
Country Objective Method Plant Sample Reference
Colombia,
Bogota
Magnetic survey
on environmental
samples. Evaluation
for pollution
markers: soils, urban
dust, and leaves
Susceptibility,
SIRM
Sambucus
nigra
Soils,
urban
dust,
leaves
Aguilar-
Reyes et al.
(2013)
Mexico,
Santiago de
Queretaro
Magnetic monitoring
air pollution in an
urban area with dif-
ferent exposures to
pollution
Susceptibility,
SIRM, SEM,
ICP-MS
Tillandsia
recurvata L.
Leaves Castañeda-
Miranda
et al. (2016)
Mexico,
Mexicali
Assessments of
magnetic enhance-
ment on urban dust
samples to evaluate
the environmental
contamination in
Mexicali
Susceptibility,
SIRM
Paved
and
unpaved
roads
Sánchez-
Duque et al.
(2015)
Mexico,
Morelia
Magnetic parameters
and concentration of
heavy metals to find
a proxy for the
atmospheric pollu-
tion monitoring in
Mexico City
Susceptibility,
SIRM
Ficus
benjamina
Leaves Aguilar-
Reyes et al.
(2012)
Argentina,
Tandil
Magnetic techniques
to monitor the air
pollution in Tandil
Susceptibility,
SIRM, SEM
Parmotrema
pilosum
Lichen Marié et al.
(2016)
Chile,
Santiago
Magnetic monitoring
air pollution in two
urban communes
with different vehic-
ular exposition to
pollution
Susceptibility,
SIRM, INAA
Platanus
orientalis,
Robinia
pseudoacacia,
Acer negundo
Urban
dust,
leaves
Muñoz et al.
(2017)
SIRM saturation isothermic remanent magnetization, SEM scanning electron microscopy, ICP-MS
inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy, INAA: instrumental neutron activation
178 M. Préndez et al.

8.4.1 Reaction of COVs with OH radicals
The hydroxyl radical (OH) is a fundamental chemical species in the atmosphere.
Basically, its formation results from the photo dissociation of ozone (O
3
) in the
presence of water vapor, with the initial formation of highly energetic atomic oxygen
Fig. 8.6 Sources of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and the percentage of the different
contributions in the Metropolitan Region. (Source: USACH 2014)
Table 8.3 Eight-hour average standard values for ozone in different countries of Latin America
and the recommendation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), the
European Union (EU), and the World Health Organization (WHO)
Country/
institution
Mean ozone concentration,
8 h (ppbv)
Mean ozone concentration,
8h(μg/m
3
) References
WHO 50 100 WHO (2005)
USEPA 70 140 USEPA (2015)
EU 60 120 EU (2008)
55 110 EC Ozone Direc-
tive (2016)
Bolivia 50 100 MMAYA (2015)
Chile 61 120 DS 112/02 (2002)
Colombia 40 80 IDEAM (2016)
Ecuador 50 100 NCAA (2011)
Mexico 70 140 NOM-020-SSA1
(2014)
Peru 60 120 DS 74-2001-PCM
(2001)
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 179

or singlet oxygen (O
1D
), which is deactivated to triplet oxygen (O
3P
), which finally
reacts with molecular oxygen catalyzed by particles also present in the atmosphere.
The existence of the double bond carbon–carbon gives the terpenes a high
reactivity in the atmosphere, being able to react with an extensive series of chemical
species normally present in it, such as hydroxyl radicals (OH), ozone (O
3
), and
nitrate radicals (NO
3
) giving rise to several oxidation products. In the troposphere,
OH radicals are rapidly formed because of the photolysis of O
3
in the presence of
water vapor. The production of ozone in atmospheric systems containing VOCs and
NOx is generally initiated by the radical OH; this radical reacts with hydrocarbon
molecules, RH (AVOCs and BVOCs) to produce hydroxyalkyl radicals,
.
RO
2
, which
interfere with the photolytic cycle NO–NO
2
–NO. The final result of the series of
reactions is an additional net contribution to the production of tropospheric ozone
(Chameides et al. 1992; Bowman and Seinfeld 1994).
RHþ:OH þO2!:RO2þH2OðR1Þ
Follow by O2þNO þO2!R0CHOþ:HO2þNO2ðR2Þ
:HO2þNO !:OH þNO2ðR3Þ
There are many possible reaction pathways for peroxyalkyl radicals RO
2
, formed
by the reaction from RH where NO is oxidized to NO
2
generating a potential variety
of reaction pathways. One possible reaction pathway is the photolysis of NO
2
to
form oxygen atoms in their basal state (O
3P
), which subsequently form ozone, in
addition to a reaction that in the presence of radicals OH leads to the formation of
nitric acid. When there is a sufficient concentration of NO
2
and O
3
, nitrateNO
3
radical and N
2
O
5
nitrogen pentoxide are formed. The chemistry of the NO
3
radical
acquires importance only during the night because during the day it is rapidly
photolyzed. On the other hand, formation and subsequent hydrolysis of N
2
O
5
on
wet surfaces, including aerosol particles, makes an important contribution to the
formation of nitric acid, both locally and globally (Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts 1997).
8.4.2 Volatile Organic Compounds
There is no internationally accepted definition for this type of organic compound;
most of them are based on strictly chemical descriptions. VOCs include alkenes,
aldehydes, ketones, esters, ethers, alcohols, and acids (Atkinson 1990; Bowman and
Seinfeld 1994). The European Economic Commission (1991)defined “volatile
organic compounds other than methane of an anthropogenic nature capable of
producing photochemical oxidants in the presence of sunlight by reaction with
nitrogen oxides.”Swiss legislation in its regulations for the control of VOCs defines
them as those organic compounds of at least 0.1 millibars at 20 C or with a boiling
point of a maximum 240 C at 1,013.25 millibars. In Chile, SINCA (2017)defines
180 M. Préndez et al.

VOCs as chemical compounds mainly produced by the evaporation of liquid fuels,
solvents, and some organic chemicals such as enamels, paints or cleaners, in addition
to the incomplete combustion of gasoline and other organic fuels, and the biological
activity of certain plants and animals. In the atmosphere, the VOCs react with other
compounds, in the presence of sunlight, generating ozone.
Anthropogenic sources of VOCs, AVOCs, include, but are not limited, to petro-
chemical plants, vehicles, industrial and commercial paints, diluents and solvents
(Guéguen et al. 2011). Among the natural sources are the oceans, soils and sedi-
ments, and the microbiological decomposition of organic matter; but, the most
important is emission from vegetation, especially the forests (Guenther et al.
1995). All plant species emit BVOCs, particularly terpenes, the basic molecule of
which is isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene, C
5
H
8
), which represents a source of
atmospheric hydrocarbons that make up almost twice the emissions, as anthropo-
genic sources (Calfapietra et al. 2009). Arneth et al. (2008) estimated that on average
15 or more monoterpenes (C
10
H
16
), are emitted per plant species. Although, the role
of isoprene is still not fully understood, there is evidence for its protective role in
oxidative stress caused by heat shock and/or ozone exposure of the trees (Calfapietra
et al. 2008). BVOCs are emitted by plants to attract herbivorous pollinators and
predators, to communicate with other plants and organisms, or as protection of plant
membranes against high temperatures (Peñuelas and Lluisá 2002); they originate in
the different plant tissues through various physiological processes, accumulating in
leaves and stems and emitting or storing according to the species (Pichersky and
Gershenzon 2002). The rate of BVOC emissions is determined by the rate of
synthesis, physiological and physicochemical characteristics, mainly its solubility,
volatility, and diffusivity (Peñuelas and Staudt 2010). Concentration and reactivity
of BVOCs in the atmosphere are very diverse, affecting the C cycle, and forming
SOAs (Chen and Jang 2012; Liu et al. 2014), which are part of PM
2.5
, including
compounds that are very toxic to humans (peroxyacetyl nitrate, and others) and
possibly contributing to scatter sun radiation depending on the refractive index and
chemical composition (Kim et al. 2012,2014), therefore affecting the thermal
balance and weather on Earth.
Other particles also affect solar radiation and temperature measured at superficial
levels. In turn, weather changes can affect BVOC emissions, producing a positive
feedback on the weather system, and irreversible changes have been predicted due to
thermal stress related to climate change, depending on species. In general, the
atmospheric chemistry perturbation will be higher for higher concentrations of NOx.
Thus, at least in part, the formation of ozone in cities is due to the presence of
urban vegetation. To undertake good management of urban afforestation it is
necessary to determine the differences between the tree species and to choose
those that emit fewer BVOCs or BVOCs that lead to lower concentrations of
tropospheric ozone, without losing other positive qualities.
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 181

8.4.3 Emission Factors of Biogenic Volatile Organic
Compounds
Each type of vegetation responds to characteristic emissions; the variability of the
emission depends on the interactions between the organism and its environment;
thus, there are many factors that influence the emission of a specific plant species and
the uncertainty in their quantification. The main factors and the most frequently
studied are light and temperature (Guenther et al. 1993), but in addition and no less
important are the phenological processes of the species, and the stress caused to the
plant, such as leaf damage or air pollution. If the projections for the twenty-first
century are an increase in temperature between 1.8 and 4.0 C (Peñuelas and Staudt
2010), emissions of BVOCs should also increase; at a global level, Bon et al. (2011)
have estimated emissions of BVOCs of between 1200 and 1600 TgC/year.
It is important to repeat that BVOCs emitted by trees correspond to a large
quantity of terpenes, especially isoprene and monoterpenes, each of them with
very different reactivity in the atmosphere. In Chile, CONAMA (1997) emissions
inventory, estimated 9,379 TgC/year emissions of BVOCs from a total of
80,682 TgC/year of VOCs, which corresponds to 11.6%. In this case, the EFs
were assigned using the values determined in other environments and by taxonomic
proximity with the native trees. The last inventory developed by USACH (2014)
attributes to the VOCs 0.74% (97,028 TgC/year) of total emissions; only 15% of the
total corresponds to BVOCs, calculated with the EFs given by Guenther et al. (2012)
using the MEGAN model, as was mentioned and represented by Fig. 8.6.
In the Metropolitan Region, Préndez et al. (2013a,b,2014) have reported the
experimental EFs corresponding to exotic and native tree species. From the point of
view of atmospheric chemistry, it is important to distinguish the reactivity of
different groups of monoterpenes. This is the idea of developing the potential
ozone creation index (POCI), which evaluates, as a first approximation, the potential
of each tree to generate ozone, based on the Photochemical Ozone Creation Poten-
tials (POCPs), proposed by Derwent et al. (2007) for conditions in the UK.
The formula to calculate POCP is:
POCPi ¼Final O3iFinal O3zero
Final O3ethylene Final O3zero 100
where
O
3i zero
refers to the mixing ratio found at the end of each run of the model.
O
3i
is the mixing ratio of species i.
Ethylene is used as a reference, given its low molecular weight and because it is
one of the most significant in the formation of O
3
in northeastern Europe.
The formula for calculating POCI is (Préndez et al. 2013a):
182 M. Préndez et al.

POCP ¼XEFi∗POCPi
ðÞ
where:
EF
i
¼emission factors obtained experimentally for each BVOC chemical
species.
POCP
i
¼Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential calculated for each BVOC
chemical species based on Derwent (2011) (personal communication).
Figure 8.7 shows the EFs (isoprene and total monoterpenes) and the
corresponding POCI determined for a set of exotic and native species studied in
situ in the city of Santiago, corresponding to around 26% of the urban forest of
Santiago (Hernández 2016). The experimental EFs were obtained using gas chro-
matography coupled with automatic temperature desorber equipment
(GC-FID-ATD) to quantify the different terpenes (BVOCs) emitted by trees
(Préndez et al. 2013a,b,2014). Results clearly show that most of the native species
studied emit lower concentrations of potentially ozone-producing chemical com-
pounds, have much lower EFs, and also have much lower POCI. When EFs of exotic
species in Santiago are compared with the EFs of isoprene and monoterpenes for tree
species in other environmental conditions, differences are also found, as shown in
Table 8.4. It has also been shown that the use, in the models, of EFs by default or the
values obtained in other realities produces incorrect calculation of emissions
(Préndez et al. 2014).
Fig. 8.7 Experimental emission factors (isoprene and total monoterpenes) and the corresponding
Potential Ozone Creation Index (POCI) for a set of exotic and native species present in the urban
forest of Santiago
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 183

Works is in progress to analyze chemical compounds other than VOCs present or
formed in the atmosphere and/or emitted/absorbed by trees or emitted by anthropo-
genic sources using a GC-MSD chromatograph with an Injection System of Solid
Phase Microextraction (SPME).
Information from Latin America regarding BVOCs in urban environments is
scarce. Table 8.5 shows some results.
8.5 Effects of the Pollutants at the City Level
The Chilean government (MMA 2013) reports that all monitoring stations exceed
the annual primary standard of 20 μg/m
3
for PM
2.5
; the daily primary standard of
50 μg/m
3
is only fulfilled in two monitoring stations. The corresponding economic
impact associated with medical expenses and loss of work productivity is US$
670 million per year, which may amount to US$ 1.9 billion, considering the social
welfare loss that represents an increase in the risk of death, due to the deterioration of
the air quality. These values are determined only in relation to PM
2.5
pollution,
underestimating the real environmental impact produced by the pool of
Table 8.4 Emission factors of isoprene and monoterpenes for tree species in different environ-
ments, expressed in μg (g dry leaf weight)
1
h
I
Scientific name Common name
Isoprene Monoterpenes
Reference
μg (g dry leaf weight)
1
h
I
Schinus molle California
Pepper
NED
a
3.7 Corchnoy et al.
(1992)
Schinus molle California
Pepper
NED NED Winer et al. (1983)
Schinus molle Cotinus 3.86 2.7 0.144 0.14 Préndez et al.
(2014)
Liquidambar
styraciflua
Liquidambar 35.3 3.0 Corchnoy et al.
(1992)
Liquidambar
styraciflua
Liquidambar 17.8 2.9 Evans et al. (1982)
Liquidambar
styraciflua
Liquidambar 3.5 51.5 Zimmerman (1979)
Liquidambar
styraciflua
Liquidambar 0.607 0.247 0.11 0.015 Préndez et al.
(2014)
Quercus suber Cork Oak 0.97 0.17 Préndez et al.
(2013b)
Young trees
Quercus suber Cork Oak 0.44 0.14 Préndez et al.
(2013b)
Adult trees
All emissions expressed in μg (g dry leaf weight)-1 h-I normalized at 30 C using the algorithms of
Guenther et al. (1993)
a
NED No emission detected
184 M. Préndez et al.

Table 8.5 Emission information on biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) in different
urban environments from Latin America
Country
(Place/city) Objective Method Tree species Reference
Brazil
(Tapajos)
Emissions of BVOCs
from Amazonian
rainforest
Solid adsorbent
cartridges/GC-
MS and FIS
Amazonian
rainforest
Rinne
et al.
(2002)
Brazil (Sao
Paulo)
Chromatographic profiles
from volatile fractions of
plant clones to determine
specimens susceptible to
rust disease
HS-SPME/
GC GC-
qMS
Eucalyptus
grandis
Wang
et al.
(2013b)
Eucalyptus
urophylla
Brazil (Rio
Grande do Sul)
Chromatographic profiles
of volatiles to determine
disease markers in plants
HS-SPME/
GC GC-
qMS
Eucalyptus
globulus
Wang
et al.
(2013a)
Brazil (Cruz
das Almas and
Conceição do
Almeida,
Bahia)
Volatile organic com-
pounds from leaves
HS-SPME/GC-
MS
Eugenia uniflora Mesquita
et al.
(2017)
Chile
(Santiago)
Emissions factors of
BVOCs from urban
forest
The static
enclosure
method and
Tenax adsorp-
tion/GC-FID
Prunus cerasifera Préndez
et al.
(2013a)
Prunus cerasifera
var. nigra Pissadii
Robinia
pseudoacacia
Acacia dealbata
Betula pendula
Olea europaea
Acacia caven
Cryptocarya alba
Schinus molle
Maytenus boaria
Chile
(Santiago)
Emissions factors of
BVOCs from urban
forests
The static
enclosure
method and
Tenax adsorp-
tion/GC-FID
Liquidambar
styraciflua
Préndez
et al.
(2014)
Brachychiton
populneus
Quercus suber
Quillaja
saponaria
Caesalpinia
spinosa
Costa Rica
(Canton
Sarapiqui,
Heredia)
Emissions of BVOCs
from rainforest
Portable
GC-PID
Euterpe precatoria Geron
et al.
(2002)
Prestoea
decurrens
Socratea
exorrhiza
Welfia regia
Cordia alliodora
(continued)
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 185

Table 8.5 (continued)
Country
(Place/city) Objective Method Tree species Reference
Protium pittieri
Pourouma
bicolor
Alchornea
costaricensis
Miconia
impetiolaris
Cissampelos spp.
Pentaclethra
macroloba
Stryphnodendron
microstachyum
Zygia longifolia
Musa acuminata
Virola sebifera
Dipteryx
panamensis
Pterocarpus
officinalis
Bambusa vulgaris
Warszewiczia
coccinea
Nephelium
ramboutan-ake
Mexico
(Monterrey)
Estimation of emissions
for isoprene and mono-
terpenes compounds in
the different plant
communities
Remote sens-
ing estimation
Acacia rigidula Gastelum
et al.
(2016)
Acacia
berlandieri
Acacia
farnesiana
Acacia
malacophylla
Acacia sp.
Salvia sp.
Bumelia
lanuginosa
Prosopis
glandulosa
Celtis pallida
Cercidium
macrum
Fraxinus greggii
Sophora
secundiflora
Dalea sp.
(continued)
186 M. Préndez et al.

contaminants. On the other hand, applying a value of US$ 9.55 to earnings in an
average work-day in Chile, the World Bank (1994) estimated to generate for
Santiago an annual health benefit of US$ 18,192 per ton captured of PM
10
, and
US$ 1,315 per ton of O
3
reduction, calculated assuming that NOx and VOC
contribute equally to ozone generation, with 12,336 tons of reduction. Average
values vary depending on the pollution conditions and vegetation coverage of the
different communes of the city of Santiago. The vegetation coverage is quite
different throughout the province of Santiago and the entire Metropolitan Region,
but it is always dominated by exotic species (Criollo et al. 2016; Hernández 2016).
8.5.1 Effects of Particulate Matter PM
2.5
on Human Health
The mass concentration (expressed in μg/m
3
) as a function of particle size and time
parameters has been the main criterion for characterizing PM exposure levels in
Chile. The breathable PM has both short-term and long-term effects. Among the
former are increased respiratory morbidity and mortality, decreased lung function,
interference with lung defense mechanisms, obstructive bronchial syndrome
Table 8.5 (continued)
Country
(Place/city) Objective Method Tree species Reference
Diospyros texana
Celtis laevigata
Hibiscus sp.
Quercus
polymorpha
Quercus
rysophylla
Quercus canbyi
Quercus
tuberculata
Quercus
virginiana
Platanus
occidentalis
Juglans mollis
Sapindus
saponaria
Juglans sp.
Ulmus crassifolia
GC gas chromatography, MS mass spectrometry, FIS fast isoprene sensor, HS-SPME headspace
solid phase microextraction, qMS quadruple mass spectrometry, FID flame ionization detector, PID
photo-ionization detector
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 187

(Astudillo et al. 2012; Liu et al. 2014; Ostro et al. 1996; Román et al. 2009; Romieu
et al. 2012; Samet et al. 2015). In the long term, the damage is more complex, owing
to the lower development of the structure and function of the respiratory system
(Oyarzún 2010).
PM
2.5
produced mainly from combustion processes and gas–particle reactions in
the atmosphere, associated with a complex mixture of inorganic and organic com-
pounds, has a direct impact on human health because of its 100% respirability,
depositing in the nonciliated epithelium of the respiratory tract and generating
various acute and chronic diseases of the respiratory and cerebrovascular systems,
among others (Kampa and Castanas 2008; Pope et al. 2008; Mauderly and Samet
2009; Diaz-Robles et al. 2014; Kim et al. 2015). In Chile, a potentially significant
effect of PM
2.5
concentrations on respiratory disease mortality has been found,
increasing by 1.75% for each 10μgm
3
increase in PM
2.5
on an average day
(Leiva et al. 2013; Valdés et al. 2012).
The recent publication by Criollo et al. (2016) shows an interesting correlation
between urban woodland and asthma and pneumonia with air pollution by PM
2.5
and
ozone, with differences in six communes of the province of Santiago, in relation to
vegetation.
8.5.2 Effects of Tropospheric Ozone on Human Health
Tropospheric ozone is also recognized to be a threat to human health (WHO 2003,
2005). The problems of major concern due to ozone pollution are: increased hospital
admissions, exacerbation of asthma and lung inflammation. Several investigations
have shown the relationship between high concentrations of ozone and asthma in
children performing physical activity (McConnell et al. 2002), as well as the increase
in the short-term mortality rate due to increases in ozone concentrations in the
atmosphere (Bell et al. 2004). Burnett et al. (2001) reported an increase in hospital
admissions for respiratory conditions in children younger than 2 years, associated
with ozone pollution. Sigman et al. (2012) states in the 2050 that increased ozone
pollution could increase premature deaths from respiratory failure and premature
children deaths.
In Chile, Matus and Lucero (2002) showed an increase in infant urgency consul-
tations of up to 23% with ozone levels of 106 μg/m
3
, presenting a statistically
significant relationship between daily mortality and ozone for the period 1988–1996
in the warm months. In turn, Cakmak et al. (2007) showed a direct positive relation-
ship between ozone and daily mortality for maximum concentrationsof ozone close to
200 μg/m
3
associated with a 4.9% mortality compared with 2.1% for the cold months.
Epidemiological studies of time series demonstrated small positive associations
between daily mortality and an ozone level of 120 μg/m
3
, a mobile average of 8 h
(Chilean standard), and independent of the effects of the PM; therefore, the current
value recommended by the WHO is 100 μg/m
3
, an average of 8 h.
188 M. Préndez et al.

Other recent researches have focused on the health effect of PM on the general
population (Román et al. 2009; Barrios et al. 2004; Oyarzún 2010; Leiva et al. 2013).
Regarding the multi-effects of contamination, Franck et al. (2015) published a study
on the negative effects of CO, NO
2
,PM
10
, and PM
2.5
in relation to hospital
admissions, but found no relationship with tropospheric ozone.
Figure 8.8 shows the number of days above the regulation during the austral
spring–summer period from 2007 to March 2016 for Las Condes (north-east of the
city), one of the richest and highly vegetated communes. In general, the number of
days has diminished between January and April over the years; this result is much
more difficult to establish and is probably contrary between October to December,
especially during December.
Criollo et al. (2016) reported results that correlate asthma and pneumonia,
inflammatory diseases, and infectious characteristics of the respiratory system with
environmental ozone, PM
2.5
, and vegetation contribution in six communes in the
province of Santiago, The results showed that PM
2.5
has no statistically significant
correlation with hospital discharge for asthma, but it does with ozone, except in the
commune of Las Condes, which has more vegetation, but the smallest PM
2.5
concentrations and the highest ozone concentrations of Santiago. In the case of
pneumonia, PM
2.5
has a statistically significant positive correlation in all communes
except Las Condes and has a statistically significant negative correlation with ozone
in all the communes studied. It is important to note that in all communes, vegetation
consists principally of exotic trees, which in turn have higher emissions of BVOCs,
POCI index, and lost the leaves during the autumn–winter period.
Fig. 8.8 Number of days above the national regulation during the austral spring–summer period
from 2007 to March 2016 from Las Condes commune. (Source: SINCA 2016)
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 189

8.5.3 Effect of Pollutants on Plant Health
Trees are also affected by pollution in both structure and performance, i.e., it
interferes with the uptake of carbon into the biosphere (Sitch et al. 2007). There is
information at an international level, but in Chile this is a new line of research. Some
pollutants adhere to the surface of leaves or enter through the cuticle and stomata,
causing an anatomical, structural, and physiological response in leaves and stems
(Gostin 2009; Lukjanova and Mandre 2010), modifying the resistance to contami-
nation (Saadabi 2011). CO
2
affects plant growth, leaf anatomy, and pollen pro-
ductions and their impacts on human health (Albertine et al. 2014). The growth of
xylem causes a decrease in accumulated biomass rate (Speer 2010). Thus, when
choosing urban trees the species with better structural and functional responses to
specific pollution levels for each location and other attributes locally studied should
be considered (Avolio et al. 2015; Das and Prasad 2010; Dineva 2006; Koeser et al.
2014), minimizing maintenance and replacement costs, and maximizing the lifetime
of the trees.
Ozone produces effects on vegetation as it enters the plant through the stomata,
generating several reactive oxygen species. If plant detoxification systems are
insufficient, such species may react with membranes and other cellular components
such as proteins, causing changes in membrane permeability and fluidity, enzyme
damage, and a metabolic and ionic imbalance (Heath and Taylor 1997). The most
obvious effect of O
3
on plants is visible leaf surface symptoms (chlorosis, specks,
spots and necrosis), which usually appear first in older leaves and occupy the spaces
between the ribs (Machler et al. 1995) or present physiological effects that manifest
without visible damage in the short term, such as the reduction of photosynthesis
(Soja and Soja 1995), or affect productivity in the long term (WHO 2000).
Figures 8.9 and 8.10 show scanning electronic micrographs of the adaxial/abaxial
epidermis of leaves of different tree species in three different environments:
(1) A clean place in the Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Conservación de la
Naturaleza, Universidad de Chile, located in the suburban south of the city,
called a clean site
(2) A site in the Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de
Chile, located at the urban north of the city, called a semi-polluted site
(3) A typical urban site located north of the city, called a polluted site
Figure 8.9 shows the differences between the quantities of PM deposited on the
adaxial epidermis of the leaves of four native tree species, exposed to the semi-
polluted site. Results show that Cryptocaria alba shows a higher amount of PM of
smaller particle size than the PM deposited on the other trees, meaning that this is the
best native tree to capture fine PM, PM
2.5
.
In a similar way, Fig. 8.10 shows the differences between the quantities of PM
deposited on the adaxial epidermis of the leaves of five exotic tree species, exposed
to the polluted site. Micrographies show that every tree captures a different quantity
and size of particles. Clearly, Robinia pseudoacacia capture only a few and small
190 M. Préndez et al.

particles, more or less the same as Brachychiton populneus; in contrast, Olea
europaea captures many and large particles; Melia azedarach and Acer negundo
capture rather large particles, but not many. If it is necessary to capture large
particles, the choice should be Olea europaea; however, as PM
2.5
is more dangerous
than PM
10
, the choice could be Brachychiton populneus or Robinia pseudoacacia,
Fig. 8.9 Electronic scanning electron microscopy of the adaxial epidermis of the native species
Quillaja saponaria (Na), Schinus molle (Nb), Maytenus boaria (Nc), and Cryptocaria alba
(Nd) exposed to the semi-polluted site. (Source: The authors of the chapter)
Fig. 8.10 Electronic scanning electron microscopy of the adaxial epidermis of the exotic species
Robinia pseudoacacia (Ea), Olea europaea (Eb), Melia azedarach (Ec), Brachychiton populneus
(Ed), and Acer negundo (Ee) exposed to the polluted site. (Source: The authors of the chapter)
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 191

but only Brachychiton populneus is evergreen and could really contribute to
improving air quality.
The effect of the air quality over Quillaja saponaria was studied by Egas (2017)
analyzing some of the morphological and anatomical variables of ten individuals
growing around 100 m from each of the official monitoring stations of Santiago
(nine stations, Las Condes and Talagante were not included). Figure 8.11a shows a
significant positive correlation (>99%) between leaf area and the number of days
above the PM
10
standard. Figure 8.11b shows the negative correlation (>95%)
between the stomata width from the adaxial epidermis and the mean concentration
of PM
2.5
during the autumn–winter period. These results indicate that the leaves of
Quillaja saponaria tend to react to the pollution of the air, increasing the area and
decreasing the stomatal width of the leaves.
Figure 8.12 shows the negative correlation (>95%) between the thickness of the
leaf and the thickness of the parenchyma palisade of Quillaja saponaria and the
number of days of PM
10
above the standard. The results demonstrate another
negative effect of pollution on the leaves.
Fig. 8.11 Correlations between particulate matter concentration and the morphological and ana-
tomical effect on the leaves of Quillaja saponaria during the autumn–winter period. (a) Positive
correlation (>99%) between the leaf area and the number of days above the PM
10
standard. (b)
Negative correlation (>95%) between the stomata width from the adaxial epidermis and the mean
concentration of PM
2.5
. (Source: Egas 2017)
Fig. 8.12 Negative correlation (>95%) between the thickness of the leaf and the thickness of the
parenchyma palisade of Quillaja saponaria and the number of days of PM
10
above the 24-h
standard. (Source: Egas 2017)
192 M. Préndez et al.

The other results of the study by Egas (2017) related to other characteristics of the
stomata and the spongy parenchyma of the individuals of Quillaja saponaria are in
progress. All results agree in the sense that long-term exposure to high concentra-
tions of MP
2.5
and MP
10
would affect the integrity of the epidermis and the
mesophyll of leaves, reducing the number of photosynthetic cells and then the
performance of the trees, and, as Sitch reports, it could impede the uptake of carbon
from the biosphere (Sitch et al. 2007).
8.6 Discussion
The role of the urban forests in providing ecosystem services has been reported by
many researchers in many papers and used in different cities, considering both basic
ecosystem functions, such as primary productivity (Costanza et al. 2007), and
services, such as the improvement of urban air quality (Escobedo et al. 2006)
generating, for example, local and regional ventilation during calm conditions;
fresh-air transportation circuits to built-up areas, and air purification and fresh-air
production (Hebbert and Webb 2012). Also, the economic benefit of the capture/
interception of air pollutants by leaf-like PM and ozone has been modeled, all
depending on the many characteristics of each species, e.g., leaf structure, pubes-
cence, presence of wax on the leaf surface, petiole size, and canopy structure
(Prajapati and Tripathi 2008), that need to be assessed under the local conditions.
Paoletti (2009) discusses the advantage/disadvantage of BVOC emissions and ozone
capture for the selection of trees.
In Chile, some information exists on Santiago about the environmental benefits of
vegetation. For instance, Escobedo et al. (2006,2008) have reported a modeled
removal of PM
10
,O
3
, CO, NO
2
, and SO
2
. Préndez et al. (2013a,b,2014) showed the
necessity of determining the experimental EFs of BVOC (in only approximately
26% of the urban forest has this been undertaken), in addition to quantifying the real
amount of PM captured by trees. Escobedo et al. (2011) said that all the C emissions
and the strategies for reducing CO
2
by urban forests are comparable with other
policies to reduce CO
2
emissions, meaning that urban forests are in the edge cost/
benefit ratio with other technologies to reduce the PM, if trees and places are well
chosen. Paoletti (2009) maintained that the benefit of ozone capture is greater than
the BVOC emissions if the trees are correctly selected.
Green space, or more properly green open space (IFPRA 2010), has been defined
in different ways in different countries/institutions, but, in general, its benefits have
been categorized into environmental, social, economic, and health benefits. Green
capital cities are increasingly promoting the concept of “clean and green”through
the idea of having a defined percentage of the total geographical area of the city
under green cover, or having a number of m
2
per capita that could range from a few
m
2
up to 60 m
2
per capita or even more, in an effort to retain the environmental
sustainability of the cities. However, accessibility and distance to the green areas are
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 193

also important (Thaiutsa et al. 2008; IFPRA 2010; Morar et al. 2014; Kabisch et al.
2015; Khalil 2014; Badiu et al. 2016;Pafiet al. 2016).
In 2003, CONAMA (at present MMA) reported an average of 3.2 m
2
/inhabitant,
with values between 2.9 and 0.4 m
2
/inhabitant for the poorest communes and
between 6.7 and 18.8 m
2
/inhabitant for the communes of higher incomes (Nilo
2003). In 2009, Reyes-Päcke and Figueroa (2010) reported an average of 3.9 m
2
/
inhabitant, with extreme values of 1.1 m
2
/inhabitant in Quinta Normal (west part of
the city) and 12.6 m
2
/inhabitant in Santiago (downtown).
Considering the information reported in this chapter, Santiago undoubtedly needs
urgent forestation; the positive physical and chemical benefits would be enormous.
In addition, it could generate social interaction in the green areas, strengthening the
attachment of the community and the positive effects on human health. But it is
necessary not to ignore the interactions of the vegetation with atmospheric chemis-
try. It is necessary to complete, or at least strongly advance, in the experimental
determination of EFs and other characteristics of tree species before their use in
urban tree-planting.
From the point of view of air pollution, tactics and strategies are strongly based on
emission inventories. An emission inventory is an effective management tool if
providing reliable information on which to base effective control actions; in the case
of ozone, a secondary pollutant, actions should be focused on emission inventories
of nitrogen compounds (NO + NO
2
) and VOCs, including BVOCs, which are clearly
poor in Santiago. The emission inventories in Santiago are using the EFs of tree
species by taxonomic approximations, which do not agree with the experimental
ones; thus, the bias in their results leads to actions not necessarily effective for the
decontamination of the city, a situation that should be corrected as soon as possible.
A new and real inventory is necessary.
Particulate matter capture is another crucial factor to be considered. The uses of
magnetic measurements are rapid and effective techniques for evaluating the reten-
tion capacity of PM on leaves of different types of tree species. Muñoz et al. (2017)
have shown that the abundant exotic species Platanus orientalis and Acer negundo
have a better ability to capture PM than the species Robinia pseudoacacia, the most
abundant tree in Santiago; however, all those species are deciduous and lose their
leaves during the autumn–winter period, when the levels of PM pollution are highest
and consequently contribute little or nothing to the process of decontamination and
improvement of air quality in the city of Santiago. Guerrero-Leiva et al. (2016)
studied the capture of three exotic ornamental species, Nerium oleander, Pittospo-
rum tobira, and Ligustrum lucidum, reporting a better performance for Nerium
oleander. Ligustrum lucidum is scarcely represented (3.7%) in the urban forest
(Hernández 2016). Note that 85.1% of the vascular flora of Santiago is exotic
(Figueroa et al. 2016).
Other important considerations when choosing trees to reforest, referring to their
anatomical, structural, and physiological response and adaptation to the climate and
pollution. Results presented in this chapter show the response of the native species
Quillaja saponaria to air pollution. More species must be studied.
194 M. Préndez et al.

The necessity of obtaining an ordered list of species according to their ability to
have a positive impact on atmospheric chemistry is evident. The results can be easily
applied to evaluating the potential of air pollution removal by the existing urban
forests and for planning tree replacement or new plantings by local governments, the
Housing Ministry, and the Environment Ministry. This will contribute to the
improvement of public policies and planning aimed at reconciling urban growth,
quality of life, and protection of the air, contributing to the sustainable development
of the cities. Table 8.6 shows a selected group of characteristics to be considered in
Table 8.6 Different characteristics of 18 urban tree species, exotic and native, studied to facilitate
the selection of the better tree species to forest Santiago
Exotic species
LS BrP QS MA AN RP BP PCn PCv AD PO OE
PM capture autumn–
winter
+++
PM capture spring–
summer
++++++++++++
Low emissions
BVOCs
+ + nd nd nd 
Low POCI + + nd nd nd 
Evergreen ++    ++
High density foliage + + + + + + + + + + + +
Low water
requirements
/
+
/
+
+
Large size + + + + +++ + +
High growth rate + ++ + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ nd ++ 
Rough or resinous
leaves
++ + nd + ++ ++ nd nd nd nd ++ +
Epidermal modifica-
tions (trichrome)
+nd+ + +ndndndnd++++
Hypostomatic leaf + + + + + + nd nd nd nd + +
Amphistomatic leaf     nd nd nd nd 
Allergenicity  +++ /
+
+++++
Resistance pruning /
+
nd /
+
/+ +/+ /+ nd + nd
Good sanitary
conditions
+/
+
+/
+
/+ nd + nd
Climate adaptation /
+
/
+
++ + /
+
++nd/
+
nd
Pollution adaptation + + + /+ + + /
+
/+ /+ + + nd
LS Liquidambar styraciflua, BrP Brachychiton populneus,QSQuercus suber,MAMelia
azedarach,ANAcer negundo,RPRobinia pseudoacacia,BPBetula pendula, PCn Prunus
cerasifera var. nigra pisardii, PCv Prunus cerasifera,ADAcacia dealbata,POPlatanus orientalis,
OE Olea europaea
+:positive characteristic, negative characteristic, nd not determined
8 Urban Trees and Their Relationship with Air Pollution by Particulate... 195

this direction. Also, it is interesting to repeat that native trees, in general with the
smallest EFs and the generation of ozone, and mostly evergreens, have better
qualities for the retention of PM, such as roughness, villi or a resinous surface. In
addition, they have complex structures, a high density of foliage, and they are
adapted to the natural environment, all factors that aid in the capture of PM.
8.7 Conclusion
Well-planned urban forests are essential for cities offering a high quality of life. In
Chile, the urban forest is considered within air quality improvement policies and urban
afforestation programs, both mainly focused on the increase in the green area cover,
and somehow the maintenance and landscaping. Nevertheless, the international and
the local scientific knowledge has shown that trees simultaneously capture PM and
gases and emit BVOCs; therefore, not only the increment in the area becomes
important,but also the selection of appropriate species that can maximize PM removal
Table 8.6 (continued)
Native species
MB AC SM QS CA CS
PM capture autumn–winter + ++++
PM capture spring–summer + + + + + +
Low emissions BVOCs + + + + ++ +
Low POCI + + + + ++ +
Evergreen + ++++
High density foliage + +++
Low water requirements ++/+ +
Large size + +++
High growth rate ++ ++ ++ + ++ 
Rough or resinous leaves + nd ++ + + +
Epidermal modifications (trichrome) nd nd /+ /+ nd nd
Hypostomatic leaf nd nd nd nd
Amphistomatic leaf nd nd + + nd nd
Allergenicity +
Resistance pruning /++++++
Good sanitary conditions /+ /+ /+ /+ /+ +
Climate adaptation /++++++
Pollution adaptation +++nd
Sources: Alvarado et al. (2013), Donoso (2005), Gutiérrez (2005), Hoffmann (1998a,b),
Riedemann and Aldunate (2004)
MB Maytenus boaria,ACAcacia caven,SMSchinus molle, QS:Quillaja saponaria,CA
Cryptocaria alba, CS:Caesalpinia spinosa
+: positive characteristic, : negative characteristic, nd not determined
196 M. Préndez et al.

while minimizing the VOC emissions that can eventually contribute to generating
urban ozone. Not only that aspect is relevant, but also other factors such as its age,
resistance to pollution, weather, and soil. Therefore, a strategic selection needs to be
made by carefully analyzing the benefits and potential negative aspects of the tree
species planted in the city. To fulfill this purpose, many gaps remaining in Chile must
be filled. It is necessary to collect much more solid scientific data related to:
(1) The local conditions affecting/controlling vegetation (e.g., local and micro-scale
local climate, geography, physiological and genetic characteristics, adaptability
to the environment)
(2) The survival and growth of trees
(3) The quantification captures of PM and gases by tree species in addition to its
emissions (BVOC-O
3
, SOA)
(4) The use of new, rapid, and efficient techniques of analyses approved
internationally
(5) The study of health problems related to primary and secondary pollutants and
pollen characteristics
(6) The social acceptability of the people affecting the resulting proposals
Acknowledgments Projects REDES-Conicyt 140176 and 170074, and the undergraduate student
of Chemistry Nathaly Godoy.
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