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ORIGINAL PAPER
Copyright © 2018 Vincent Pol University in Lublin, Poland
Arch Physiother Glob Res 2018; 22 (3): 23-31
Introduction
People have been interested in care of health
and beauty for ages. An important element of this
care is massage, which is inseparably associated
with hygiene, cosmetic treatments, biological and
mental regeneration. Classical massage, in which
stroking, kneading, rubbing, tapotement and
shaking are used in a denite sequence and rate,
is to aect the locomotor system, skin, connective
tissue, adipose tissue and indirectly internal organs.
It results in therapeutic and relaxing eects [1, 2, 3,
4]. In order to enhance the eects of massaging on
the human body, some additional substances can
be applied, including essential oils [4]. Numerous
recent studies have conrmed therapeutic eects
and possible uses of essential oils in massages [5,
6, 7, 8].
Aromatherapy massage, also called fregrant
massage is a treatment performed using essential
oils to introduce active substances into the
human body. e skin extremely easily absorbs
oils, which during massaging permeate quickly
the cardiovascular system, inducing local and
general reactions [9]. e eects of aromatherapy
massage on the body and skin are multidirectional.
Aromatherapy massages relax, calm, reduce stress,
relieve pain, enhance immunity, restore body-mind
balance, smoothen and tone the tissues [5, 7, 10, 11,
12]. Such massages are most commonly associated
with relaxing massages; however, studies have also
demonstrated their therapeutic effects [10, 11,
12, 13, 14]. e study conducted in a group of 40
individuals undergoing massages with the mixture
of lavender and bergamot oils has conrmed their
positive eects on the mental status and provided
evidence for their use to treat depression or
anxiety [11]. According to Ćwirlej et al. [13], the
aromatherapeutic massage exerts better analgesic
eects, as compared to the classical massage and
is particularly useful for relieving pain when
pharmacological agents are not recommended
[14]. e essential oils of antioxidant properties,
which improve the lymph circulation and detoxify
the body (e.g. ginger, rosemary, clary sage, cypress,
geranium, juniper or sandal oils) can also be used
for enhancing the eects of lymphatic massage [15].
Aromatherapy massages combine the benecial
eects of touch with the properties of essential and
carrier oils. e main techniques used in such
massages are stroking and rubbing. In professional
e use of carrier oils in aromatherapy massage and their eect on skin
Monika Michalak
Department of Dermatology and Cosmetology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Jan Kochanowski
University in Kielce, Poland
Abstract
Aromatherapy massage is a treatment in which essential oils are used. It combines the benecial eects
of manual massage technique, essential and carrier oils. Base oils are the mediators of aromatherapy; they
improve contact between the masseur`s hands and the patient`s body and have nurturing properties. e
present paper focuses on plant oils used for aromatherapy massages, such as olive, sesame, jojoba, almond,
wheat germ, grape seed or peach oils.
Key words: massage, essential oils, plant oils, skin
24 Monika Michalak
Arch Physiother Glob Res 2018; 22 (3): 23-31
massages, 15-30 drops of essential oils are used
together with 50 ml of plant oil. e oil or a mixture
of selected essential oils is applied for massaging
the entire body or for partial massaging, whenever
the former is contraindicated. e selection of an
appropriate oil depends on the eect the treatment
is to induce [9] (Table 1).
e oil or a mixture of oils chosen for the
treatment should be dissolved in an appropriate
carrier, most commonly in natural plant oils.
Carriers for aromatherapy massage have to dissolve
essential oils well, should be fresh and preferably
odourless [20]. Carrier oils of high quality, in other
words base oils, are not only the mediators of
aromatherapy but also facilitate the distribution of
a small amount of the essential oil over the larger
body area, improve contact between the masseur’s
hands and the patient’s body and have nurturing
properties [16,21]. Plant oils rich in essential
fatty acids (EFAs), phytosterols, fat-soluble
vitamins and other bioactive constituents have
moisturising, lipid-replenishing, regenerative,
anti-oxidative, anti-seborrhoeic, anti-wrinkle
and protective eects [22] (Table 2). anks to
EFAs (beside ceramides and cholesterol) are part
of the intercellular cement, the skin can be an
eective barrier limiting transepidermal water loss
(TEWL), providing a suitable level of epidermal
hydration and protecting the skin against external
factors [23, 24].
The most valuable plants oils used for
aromatherapy massages include olive, sesame,
sunflower, jojoba, sweet almond, wheat germ,
grape seed and peach oils [9, 21].
Table 1. Examples of essential oils used for massages and skin care
Kind of treatment/indications Essential oils
harmonising geranium, rose tree, grapefruit, neroli, Roman chamomile, sandalwood
stimulating lemon, ginger, rosemary
relaxing sandalwood, rose tree, geranium, neroli
calming lavender, Roman chamomile, sandalwood
toning colander, pepper, grapefruit, clary sage, ylang-ylang
anti-cellulite juniper, rosemary, patchouli, cedar, grapefruit, cypress, geranium, ginger, cinnamon
slimming rosemary, cypress, geranium, lemon, ginger
dry skin geranium, neroli, rose, Roman chamomile, sandalwood, jasmine
oily skin, acne skin lemon, cypress, tea tree, lavender, Roman Chamomile, bergamot, sandalwood, copaiba, jeju
combination skin geranium, ylang-ylang
sensitive skin rose tree, lemon, lavender, Roman chamomile, sandalwood, geranium
couperose skin neroli, rose, Roman chamomile, cypress, sandalwood
mature skin rose, lemon, rosemary, neroli, geranium, sandalwood
e source: [9, 16, 17, 18, 19]
Table 2. Examples of base oils used for skin massages and care
Indications Plant oils
dry and sensitive skin avocado oil, apricot kernel oil, wheat germ oil, almond (sweet) nut oil, kukui (candle nut) oil,
macadamia nut oil, green coee oil, jojoba oil, marula oil, linseed oil, blackcurrant seed oil, olive
oil
oily, combination, acne skin babassu oil, chaulmoogra oil, baobab oil, sesame oil, evening primrose oil, borage oil, linseed oil,
rosehip seed oil, sesame oil, sunower oil, grape seed oil
mature skin, with the signs
of ageing
rice bran oil, wheat germ oil, corn germ oil, soybean oil, rosehip seed oil, green coee oil, grape
seed oil, avocado oil, olive oil, coconut oil, sweet almond oil, sesame oil, argan oil
skin of children and infants sunower oil, evening primrose oil, borage oil, linseed oil, olive oil
e source: [22]
25
e use of carrier oils in aromatherapy massage and their eect on skin
Arch Physiother Glob Res 2018; 22 (3): 23-31
Olive oil
Olive oil obtained from common olive (Olea
europaea L.) belongs to the Oleaceae family. It
contains palmitic acid (11.5%), oleic acid (72.8%),
linoleic acid (10.8%), and linolenic acid (0.2%)
[25]. e phenolic compounds contained in olive
oil show several biological activities [26]. Olive oil
and its benecial properties were well known to
the ancient world. Olive oil was used for care as its
external application aected the skin elasticity and
protected against UV radiation. In ancient Greece,
massage with olive oil was used for therapeutic
purposes as an analgesic and as a preventive
measure for averting sports injuries. It was believed
that massages based on olive oil used aer physical
activity resulted in faster recovery of athletes [27].
anks to its properties, olive oil can be used
as an active constituent or as a base of various
cosmetic formulations [28]. Recent studies have
conrmed positive eects of olive oil on the skin as
it contains not only fatty acids but also tocopherols,
phytosterols, phospholipids and squalene naturally
occurring in the human skin. Olive oil contains
bioactive compounds and is therefore used for
topical external folk treatments, e.g. as a remedy
for dermatitis, eczema, xerosis, other types of
inammation [26]. Oleum Olivarum supports the
regeneration of the hydrolipid lm, have soothing,
anti-inammatory and skin moisturising eects
[29, 30]. e study conducted in a group of one
hundred and een full-term, healthy neonates
have conrmed that regular external application
of olive oil signicantly improved stratum corneum
hydration [25]. Moreover, olive oil is one of the
plant oils used for striae [31]. As an ingredient of
various preparations, it has nurturing properties,
especially in cases of dry and destroyed skin, and
shows therapeutic eects when used for massages
[29, 32]. e available data have demonstrated
positive eects of massages with olive oil on weight
gain in premature infants; the average weight
gain was 21 g daily while in infants undergoing
massages without olive oil - 7 g [32].
Sesame oil
Sesame oil obtained from Sesamum indicum L.
belongs to the Pedalicaceae family and provides
considerable amounts of protein (22%) and
high amounts of lipids (52%) [33, 34]. Besides
unsaturated fatty acids, , sesame oil contains linoleic
acid (46.9%) and oleic acid (37.4%), saturated fatty
acid, including palmitic (9.1%) and stearic (6.1%)
acids. e total tocopherol content in sesame oil
is 446 mg·kg-1, including 2.2% of α-tocopherol,
90.5% of γ-tocopherol and 7.3% of δ-tocopherol.
Due to the presence of bioactive constituents (
including these with anti-oxidative action), sesame
oil is a valuable component of pharmaceuticals,
nutraceuticals and cosmetics [34]. In Asian
countries, sesame oil has long been used for joint
pain or toothache relief [33]. Recent studies in
animal models have demonstrated analgesic eects
of sesame oil in dierent forms of administration
(topical or oral) [35]. Moreover, the available study
ndings have conrmed the ecacy of sesame
oil applied externally with other herbal extracts
for relieving pain in patients with migraine, knee
osteoarthritis, and burns. Furthermore, its low
cost, lack of adverse side eects and easy usage as
a complementary method of pain relief in patients
with limbs trauma are emphasised [33]. Besides its
therapeutic action, Oleum Sesami has nurturing
properties, such as soothing, moisturising and
smoothing. It is used in preparations for dry,
sensitive and combination skin as well as in
cosmetics for body care and sun protection [22,
34]. anks to its emollient properties, it is also
considered an excellent agent for massages [36].
Sesame oil penetrates into the skin quickly and
enters the blood stream through the capillaries
[34]. It has been demonstrated that sesame oil-
based massages may have benecial impact on
26
Arch Physiother Glob Res 2018; 22 (3): 23-31
Monika Michalak
newborn health, improved sleep patterns and
growth [37].
Sunower oil
Sunflower oil obtained from the seeds of
common sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)
belonging to the Asteraceae family, provides
19.6% of oil being the source of saturated acids
(palmitic (6.3%), stearic (3.5%) and unsaturated
acids (linoleic (60.9%), oleic (46.3%) [38, 39, 40].
e amount of fatty acids in sunower oil depends
on particular climate conditions. Study ndings
have demonstrated that in cooler climates the
production of omega -6 polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA), including linoleic acid, is higher
while under warmer climate conditions, oleic acid
from the group of monounsaturated fatty acids
(MUFA) predominates [41]. Oleum Helianthi
strengthens the skin protective barrier, accelerates
wound healing and has anti-inammatory eects
[39]. Massages based on sunower oil have been
found to improve weight gain and enhance the
functions of the skin lipid barrier, which favours
the reduction of transepidermal water loss and
improves thermoregulation, contributing to
improved nutrition and better somatic growth
[42, 43]. Sunower oil is recommended for dry
and delicate skin as well as oily and acne skin as
it belongs to non-comedogenic oils (which do
not clog up skin pores). Furthermore, sunower
oil for cosmetic purposes is characterised by
a high content of linoleic acid (about 60%) [30,
39]. During massages it functions as a mediator of
aromatherapy but also nurtures the skin and has
healing, antibacterial and moisturising eects [30].
Jojoba oil
Jojoba oil is obtained from the seeds of jojoba
(Simmondsia chinensis (Link) C.K. Schneid.)
belonging to the Buxaceae family. Its seeds
contain up to 65% of high-quality golden-yellow,
odourless oil, which is a valuable raw material
used in industry, especially in the cosmetic and
pharmaceutical ones, and in medicine [44].
Jojoba oil is the only natural source of wax esters
[29, 45]. Moreover, it contains high amounts of
tocopherols, which aects its antioxidative and
radiation-protective properties [46]. e nurturing
eects of jojoba wax are associated with its high
content of squalene, which has anti-inammatory,
antifungal and antiradical properties [30, 46, 47].
Due to its similarity to natural sebum, jojoba oil
is widely used in the cosmetic industry [44]. It is
recommended for dry and sensitive skin as well
as oily and mature skin [29, 48]. Oleum Jojobae
is an important element of skincare preparations
having moisturising, protective, nourishing and
smoothing action [30, 49]. Applied externally
jojoba oil leads to a semiocclusion of the skin
surface, maintains moisture in the skin and reduces
TEWL [50]. Its role in cosmetic formulations is
essential due to excellent penetrating properties,
high stability and resistance to oxidation. Jojoba
wax increases absorption, stabilises and prolongs
the durability of other ingredients of preparations,
including plant oils and butters [44, 49]. anks
to its anti-inammatory eects, it is also used in
therapeutic preparations for acne, dandru, burns,
including sunburns, and hard-to-heal wounds [49,
51, 52].
Sweet almond oil
Sweet almond oil obtained from the seeds of
sweet almond (Amygdalus communis L.) belongs
to the Rosaceae family. Sweet almonds have been
cultivated for years, both for nutritional and
pharmaceutical purpose [53]. Almonds are a
valuable source of dietary lipids (42.57g·100g-1)
and protein (18-20g·100g-1) [54]. anks to the
dietary fiber (10.8-13.5g·100g-1), phytosterols
(141mg·100g-1 ), including campesterol,
stigmasterol and β-sitosterol, minerals (calcium,
27
Arch Physiother Glob Res 2018; 22 (3): 23-31
e use of carrier oils in aromatherapy massage and their eect on skin
copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium, zinc) and vitamins
(tocopherols and tocotrienols, biotin, folate, niacin,
pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, riboavin, thiamine)
they contain, almonds contribute to a healthy
nutrient prole [53, 54, 55, 56]. Moreover, almonds
contain constituents, which have antioxidative
properties, including polyphenolic compounds,
such as phenolic acids (chlorogenic, gallic,
5-hydroxybenzoic, protocatechuic, coumaric,
vanillic), flavan-3-ols (catechin, epicatechin),
avanones (eriodictyol, eriodictyol-7-O-glucoside,
naringenin), avonols (isorhamnetin, kaempferol,
quercetin) [57, 58]. The presence of various
phenolic acids and avonoids can contribute to the
prebiotic properties of almond [59].
Light yellow, transparent and odourless
sweet almond oil contains saturated fatty acids
(SFA) (8.5g·100g- 1), unsaturated fatty acids
(91.6mg·100g-1), including polyunsaturated fatty
acid (PUFA) (21.7mg·100g-1) and monounsaturated
fatty acid (MUFA) (69.9mg·100g-1) [22, 55].
According to the studies using Raman spectroscopy,
which assesses penetration and occlusive properties
of substances applied externally to the skin, sweet
almond oil penetrates only the most external
layers of stratum corneum. Moreover, it is capable
of forming the skin surface lm, which protects
against excessive loss of water comparabely to
paran oil [60]. Oleum Amygdalarum is a valuable
well- absorbed substance in cosmetology, which
does not induce the eect of heaviness and has
moisturising, lipid-replenishing, smoothing and
protective properties. It is indicated for the child`s
skin, in cases of cracked hands and feet and
chapped lips [29]. It is particularly recommended
for aromatherapy massages of dry and normal
skin as well as sensitive and easily irritable skin.
Combined with avocado and jojoba oils, sweet
almond oil is excellent for extremely dry and
damaged skin [9].
Wheat germ oil
Wheat germ oil is obtained from common wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.) belonging to the Poaceae
family. Wheat germs contain proteins, sugar,
bre, minerals, thiamine, riboavin, policosanols,
tocopherols, carotenoids and phytosterols [61].
ey provide about 11% of oil, which is used in food,
pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry [40, 62, 63].
Wheat germ oil is found valuable due to its high
content of unsaturated fatty acids (80%), linoleic
(56.5%) and linolenic (8.0%) acids, in particualr.
Compared to other plant oils, it has the highest
content of tocopherols (α-tocopherol (70.0%),
β-tocopherol (19.0%), γ-tocopherol (7.0%),
known as powerful lipid-soluble antioxidants
[40, 61, 63]. e phytosterols essential for human
physiology, which are present in wheat germ oil
include campesterol (27.2%), 5-stigmasterol
(0.8%), β-sitosterol (63.0%), isofucosterol (4.0%),
7-stigmasterol (2.0%), 7-avenasterol (3.0%) [40].
Moreover, squalene, the main component of
skin surface polyunsaturated lipids, which wheat
germ oil contains, is of great importance for skin
functioning. Squalene is found to have emollient
and antioxidative properties and to ensure proper
skin moisture [47]. Oleum Tritici is recommended
in cosmetology, especially for dry, manure skin
which requires regeneration, as it aects its elasticity
and prevents ageing. It is used in nourishing and
revitalising creams, masks, ampoules and anti-sun
preparations [22]. Its density allows to use it for
aromatherapy massages combined with other oils,
e.g. from sweet almonds [29, 30].
Grape seed oil
Grape seed oil is obtained from grape (Vitis
vinifera L.) belonging to the Vitaceae family. Grape
seeds contain about 12% of oil, which is a source
of saturated (palmitic (8.0%), stearic (3.0%) and
unsaturated (linolenic (0.2%), linoleic (67.8%), oleic
(20.2%) fatty acids [29, 40]. Moreover, grape seed oil
28
Arch Physiother Glob Res 2018; 22 (3): 23-31
Monika Michalak
contains bioactive ingredients, such as tocopherols
and tocotrienols, including α-tocopherol (10.0%)
and γ-tocopherol (2.5%), plant sterols, including
campesterol (11.4%), 5-stigmasterol (10.5%),
β-sitosterol (75.6%), isofucosterol (1.0%),
7-stigmasterol (1.5%), and 7-avenasterol (0.5%).
Grape seed oil can be used for pharmaceutical
and nutritional purposes [40]. It has antibacterial,
antioxidative and anti-inammatory properties,
which is likely to be associated with polyphenolic
compounds contained in it [64]. Moreover, it
enhances the epidermal barrier, accelerates tissue
regeneration, aects wound healing and facilitates
absorption of other care preparations [29, 64].
Grape seed oil is used in cases of psoriasis, diaper
dermatitis in infants, burns, bedsores or dandru
[29]. As a carrier in aromatherapy massage, it is
particularly recommended for normal and oily
skin as it aects the composition and consistency
of sebum, normalises the function of sebaceous
glands and prevents the formation of comedones
[9, 29].
Peach oil
Peach oil is obtained from peach (Prunus
vulgaris Mill.) belonging to the Rosaceae family.
In comparison with other sources of vegetal oil
of high nutritional potential, such as sesame,
sunower, olive, peach oil contains relatively low
amounts of palmitic and palmitoleic acids, high
content of oleic acid and intermediate content of
linoleic acid [65]. e fatty acid prole of peach oil
is similar to that of olive oil, mainly because of its
high oleic acid content (64%), and to that of almond
oil due to its linoleic acid content (26%) [22, 65].
Since it contains high amounts of unsaturated
fatty acid as well as antioxidant compounds, peach
oil has therapeutic and nutritional properties [65].
Moreover, it is well tolerated by the skin, absorbs
easily, soens and smoothens the epidermis [22].
It has been demonstrated that peach oil does not
irritate the skin, and therefore is a recommended
carrier of constituents of active cosmetic and
pharmaceutical preparations [66]. Oleum
Persicarum is used for production of milks, lotions
as well as bath and massage preparations [22]. It
is recommended for all types of skin, for children
and elderly individuals, for massages in beauty
parlours and spas [30]. Scientic studies have
conrmed possible uses of peach oil as base oil.
Moreover, there are studies assessing the eects
of foot and facial massage using peach-kernel
base oil Prunus persica on vital signs and sleep
induction [67].
Conclusion
Plant oils, being the essential source of
unsaturated fatty acids, which cannot be
synthesized in the human body, as well as fat-
soluble vitamins such as vitamins A, D, E, K and
other bioactive compounds, play an important
role in food industry, are essential part of human
nutrition, and have health-promoting properties.
Furthermore, they are important for skin care and
its proper functioning. Due to their biological
properties (stabilisation of cell membranes, anti-
allergic, anti-inammatory eects), plant oils are
widely used in cosmetic recipes as active substances
or substances allowing the addition of other
substances. Many biologically active substances are
soluble in plant oils; therefore, they can be used as
carriers of essential oils in aromatherapy massages.
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Corresponding author address:
Monika Michalak
e-mail: monika.michalak@ujk.edu.pl
Department of Dermatology and Cosmetology,
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences,
Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce,
Poland
Received: 09.07.2018
Accepted: 24.09.2018
Arch Physiother Glob Res 2018; 22 (3): 23-31
e use of carrier oils in aromatherapy massage and their eect on skin